Contents
8 PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT....................................................................................................... 2
8.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................................... 8
8.1.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: INPUTS ................................................................................ 9
8.1.2 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES ................................................. 11
8.1.3 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS........................................................................... 17
8.2 MANAGE QUALITY ...................................................................................................................... 21
8.2.1 MANAGE QUALITY: INPUTS.................................................................................................. 23
8.2.2 MANAGE QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES..................................................................... 25
8.2.3 MANAGE QUALITY: OUTPUTS .............................................................................................. 33
8.3 CONTROL QUALITY ...................................................................................................................... 34
8.3.1 CONTROL QUALITY: INPUTS ................................................................................................. 38
8.3.2 CONTROL QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES .................................................................... 41
8.3.3 CONTROL QUALITY: OUTPUTS ............................................................................................. 50
8 PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Project work is incomplete without implementing quality, and an incomplete project is obviously a
failed project. Quality refers to the degree to which a set of characteristics of project deliverables
and objectives fulfil the project and product requirements. In other words, the core objective of
quality management is to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken.
Quality management consists of three core elements: planning for quality, testing (or assuring) that
the quality is implemented as planned, and monitoring and controlling the quality implementation
by examining the results of the project. Quality management includes managing the quality of both
the project and its product. Whereas the techniques of product quality management, such as
measuring the quality, may depend on the type of product, the techniques for project quality
management are independent of the type of product.
The core question in this chapter is: How do you manage quality? In search of an answer, we will
explore three avenues: planning quality, performing quality assurance, and performing quality
control.
Managing Quality: Big Picture
Quality refers to the degree to which a set of characteristics of project deliverables and objectives
fulfils the project requirements. In other words, it is the sum of project and product characteristics
that help fulfil the requirements. The broader goal of quality management is to ensure that a given
project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. Quality management has two
components: project quality management and product quality management. Whereas product
quality management techniques depend upon the specific product that the project is going to
produce, project quality management applies to all projects independent of the nature of the
products
While dealing with quality, you should be able to distinguish between the terms in the following
pairs:
 Grade and quality. Grade is a category assigned to products with the same overall functional
use but that differ in their technical characteristics and features, whereas quality is the
degree to which the inherent characteristics of a product meet the requirements. Defects
are an example of poor quality, whereas lack of features (or a limited number of features) is
an example of low grade. For example: It may not be a problem if a suitable low-grade
product (one with a limited number of features) is of high quality (no obvious defects). In
this example, the product would be appropriate for its general purpose of use. It may be a
problem if a high-grade product (one with numerous features) is of low quality (many
defects). In essence, a high-grade feature set would prove ineffective and/or inefficient due
to low quality.
 Precision and accuracy. Precision is a spread of different measurements of the same
quantity, constant, or variable, such as gravity or cost. The smaller the spread of measured
values, the better the precision is. Accuracy is a measure of how close the measured values
are to the true value of the quantity. The closer the measured value is to the actual (or true)
value, the better the accuracy of the measurements is.
 Prevention and inspection. Prevention is a direction to perform an activity that will keep an
error from entering the product and the process. Inspection is a technique to examine
whether an activity, component, product, result, or service complies with planned
requirements. So, the goal of inspection is to ensure that errors do not reach the customer.
The cost of quality (COQ) includes all costs incurred over the life of the product by
investment in preventing nonconformance to requirements, appraising the product or
service for conformance to requirements, and failing to meet requirements (rework). Failure
costs are often categorized into internal (found by the project team) and external (found by
the customer). Failure costs are also called the cost of poor quality. Organizations choose to
invest in defect prevention because of the benefits over the life of the product. Because
projects are temporary, decisions about the COQ over a product’s life cycle are often the
concern of program management, portfolio management, the PMO, or operations. There
are five levels of increasingly effective quality management as follows:
NOTE
PMI’s approach to quality management is intended to be compatible with that of the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and is compatible with proprietary approaches to quality,
such as those proposed by Crosby, Deming, Juan, and others. It is also compatible with nonproprietary approaches to quality management, such as continuous improvement, cost of quality
(COQ), design reviews, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), Six Sigma, Total Quality
Management (TQM), and voice of the customer.
Project management and quality management have come a long way as separate disciplines of
knowledge and practice. It should not come as a surprise that quality management is one of nine
knowledge areas in standard project management. In a complementary way, both modern quality
management and project management recognize the importance of the following critical issues:
 Continuous improvement. Continuous improvement means to keep improving the quality
through a process of planning for quality, implementing quality, auditing quality, and replanning based on lessons learned or auditing. So, really, quality improvement is an endless
cycle, called a plan-do-check-act cycle as defined by Shewhart and modified by Deming.
Performing organizations can also use techniques such as Six Sigma and TQM to improve
quality.
 Customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction can be a very vague notion that could mean
different things to different parties. However, in project management and quality
management, customer satisfaction means planned customer requirements are met. In
order to achieve customer satisfaction in the real world, you need to understand, define,
and evaluate customer expectations and also manage those expectations, in addition to
meeting the planned requirements. Otherwise, you might meet the planned requirements,
and the customer may still be dissatisfied.
 Management responsibility. This refers to the responsibility of management to provide
resources needed for the project team to succeed. Although all team members should be
responsible for the success of their parts of the project, they cannot succeed without
management responsibility.
 Prevention over inspection. One of the fundamental tenets of modern quality management
is to plan, design, and build in quality as opposed to inspect it in. The cost of preventing
mistakes is much less than that of finding them through inspections and then fixing them.
Therefore, cost of quality (COQ) turns out to be less in prevention than through inspection.
The COQ is defined as the total cost of quality-related efforts throughout the product
lifecycle.
 Mutually beneficial partnership with suppliers. An organization and its suppliers are
interdependent. Relationships based on partnership and cooperation with the supplier are
more beneficial to the organization and to the suppliers than traditional supplier
management. The organization should prefer long-term relationships over short-term gains.
A mutually beneficial relationship enhances the ability for both the organization and the
suppliers to create value for each other, enhances the joint responses to customer needs
and expectations, and optimizes costs and resources
STUDY CHECKPOINT
You are trying out a Monte Carlo simulation program that estimates the value of a parameter by
using some random variables. You know through the data that the exact value should be 40. You ran
the program three times, and it gave you three values: 50, 51, and 52. Based on these values, answer
the following questions:
A. How precise is the program in making the estimates?
Ans. Average value: 51
% Of uncertainty: 52 – 50 /51* 100 = 3.9%
B. How accurate are the estimates?
Ans. Considering 51 as the average
So accuracy rate would be: 51-40/40*100= 27.5 %
C. Are the values generated by the program more accurate or more precise?
Ans: the value generated by the simulation is less accurate and more precise.
Project Quality Management includes the processes for incorporating the organization’s quality
policy regarding planning, managing, and controlling project and product quality requirements in
order to meet stakeholders’ objectives. Project Quality Management also supports continuous
process improvement activities as undertaken on behalf of the performing organization. The Project
Quality Management processes are:
8.1 Plan Quality Management—The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards
for the project and its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance
with quality requirements and/ or standards.
8.2 Manage Quality—The process of translating the quality management plan into executable
quality activities that incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project.
8.3 Control Quality—The process of monitoring and recording the results of executing the quality
management activities to assess performance and ensure the project outputs are complete, correct,
and meet customer expectations. Figure 8-1 provides an overview of the Project Quality
Management processes. In addition, these quality processes may differ within industries and
companies.
Figure 8-2 provides an overview of the major inputs and outputs of the Project Quality Management
processes and the interrelations of these processes in the Project Quality Management Knowledge
Area.
The Plan Quality Management process is concerned with the quality that the work needs to have.
Manage Quality is concerned with managing the quality processes throughout the project. During
the Manage Quality process, quality requirements identified during the Plan Quality Management
process are turned into test and evaluation instruments, which are then applied during the Control
Quality process to verify these quality requirements are met by the project. Control Quality is
concerned with comparing the work results with the quality requirements to ensure the result is
acceptable. There are two outputs specific to the Project Quality Management Knowledge Area that
are used by other Knowledge Areas: verified deliverables and quality reports.
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Project Quality Management addresses the management of the project and the deliverables of the
project. It applies to all projects, regardless of the nature of their deliverables. Quality measures and
techniques are specific to the type of deliverables being produced by the project. For example, the
project quality management of software deliverables may use different approaches and measures
from those used when building a nuclear power plant. In either case, failure to meet the quality
requirements can have serious negative consequences for any or all of the project’s stakeholders.
For example:
 Meeting customer requirements by overworking the project team may result in decreased
profits and increased levels of overall project risks, employee attrition, errors, or rework.
 Meeting project schedule objectives by rushing planned quality inspections may result in
undetected errors, decreased profits, and increased post-implementation risks
Quality and grade are not the same concepts. Quality as a delivered performance or result is “the
degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements” (ISO 9000 [18].). Grade as a
design intent is a category assigned to deliverables having the same functional use but different
technical characteristics. The project manager and the project management team are responsible for
managing the trade-offs associated with delivering the required levels of both quality and grade.
While a quality level that fails to meet quality, requirements is always a problem, a low-grade
product may not be a problem. For example:
 Prevention is preferred over inspection. It is better to design quality into deliverables, rather
than to find quality issues during inspection. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally
much less than the cost of correcting mistakes when they are found by inspection or during
usage. Depending on the project and the industry area, the project team may need a
working knowledge of statistical control processes to evaluate data contained in the Control
Quality outputs. The team should know the differences between the following pairs of
terms: uu Prevention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection (keeping errors out
of the hands of the customer); uu Attribute sampling (the result either conforms or does not
conform) and variable sampling (the result is rated on a continuous scale that measures the
degree of conformity); and uu Tolerances (specified range of acceptable results) and control
limits (that identify the boundaries of common variation in a statistically stable process or
process performance). Usually, the most expensive approach is to let the customer find the
defects. This approach can lead to warranty issues, recalls, loss of reputation, and rework
costs.
1. Detect and correct the defects before the deliverables are sent to the customer as
part of the quality control process. The control quality process has related costs,
which are mainly the appraisal costs and internal failure costs.
2. Use quality assurance to examine and correct the process itself and not just
special defects.
3. Incorporate quality into the planning and designing of the project and product.
4. Create a culture throughout the organization that is aware and committed to
quality in processes and products.
TAILORING CONSIDERATIONS
Each project is unique; therefore, the project manager will need to tailor the way Project Quality
Management processes are applied. Considerations for tailoring include but are not limited to:
 Policy compliance and auditing. What quality policies and procedures exist in the
organization? What quality tools, techniques, and templates are used in the organization?
 Standards and regulatory compliance. Are there any specific quality standards in the
industry that need to be applied? Are there any specific governmental, legal, or regulatory
constraints that need to be taken into consideration?
 Continuous improvement. How will quality improvement be managed in the project? Is it
managed at the organizational level or at the level of each project?
 Stakeholder engagement. Is there a collaborative environment for stakeholders and
suppliers?
CONSIDERATIONS FOR AGILE/ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
In order to navigate changes, agile methods call for frequent quality and review steps built in
throughout the project rather than toward the end of the project. Recurring retrospectives regularly
check on the effectiveness of the quality processes. They look for the root cause of issues then
suggest trials of new approaches to improve quality. Subsequent retrospectives evaluate any trial
processes to determine if they are working and should be continued or new adjusting or should be
dropped from use. In order to facilitate frequent, incremental delivery, agile methods focus on
small batches of work, incorporating as many elements of project deliverables as possible. Small
batch systems aim to uncover inconsistencies and quality issues earlier in the project life cycle
when the overall costs of change are lower
8.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT
According to PMBOK, quality is defined as the degree to which a set of characteristics of project
deliverables and objectives fulfil the project requirements. Therefore, any characteristic that
influences the satisfaction of the stakeholders is included in determining the quality. The project
quality management processes include performing quality planning, quality assurance, and quality
control. Quality planning is the quality process that is performed during the planning phase to
accomplish the following goals.
 Identify which quality standards are relevant to the project at hand
 Determine how to satisfy these standards
Plan Quality Management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the
project and its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with
quality requirements and/or standards. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance
and direction on how quality will be managed and verified throughout the project. This process is
performed once or at predefined points in the project planning should be performed in parallel with
the other planning processes. For example, changes proposed in the deliverables in order to meet
identified quality standards may require cost or schedule adjustments and a detailed risk analysis of
the impact to plans. The quality planning techniques discussed here are those used most frequently
on projects. There are many others that may be useful on certain projects or in specific application
areas.
8.1.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
8.1.1.1 PROJECT CHARTER
The project charter provides the high-level project description and product characteristics. It also
contains the project approval requirements, measurable project objectives, and related success
criteria that will influence the quality management of the project.
8.1.1.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Project management plan components include but are not limited to:
 Requirements management plan. The requirements management plan provides the
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approach for identifying, analysing, and managing the requirements that the quality
management plan and quality metrics will reference.
Risk management plan. The risk management plan provides the approach for identifying,
analysing, and monitoring risks. The information in the risk management plan and quality
management plan work together to successfully deliver product and project success.
Stakeholder engagement plan. The stakeholder engagement plan provides the method for
documenting the stakeholders’ needs and expectations that provide the foundation for
quality management.
Scope baseline. The WBS along with the deliverables documented in the project scope
statement are considered while determining which quality standards and objectives are
suitable for the project, and which project deliverables and processes will be subjected to
quality review. The scope statement includes the acceptance criteria for the deliverables.
The definition of acceptance criteria may significantly increase or decrease quality costs and,
therefore, project costs. Satisfying all acceptance criteria implies the needs of the
stakeholders to be met.
Project performance baseline. The project performance baseline constituted by the scope
baseline, schedule baseline, and cost baseline contains the list of all the deliverables and
objectives to which the quality needs to be applied. For example, the following components
of the project scope statement are especially relevant to quality planning:
 Project deliverables.
 Project objectives.
 Project requirements.
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A product scope description that may contain the details of technical issues and
other quality-related concerns.
Product acceptance criteria. The definition of acceptance criteria has an impact on
the quality cost. You find out the accepted schedule performance from the
schedule baseline and the accepted cost performance from the cost baseline.
8.1.1.3 PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
 Assumption log. The assumption log has all the assumptions and constraints regarding
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quality requirements and standard compliance.
Requirements documentation. Requirements documentation captures the requirements
that the project and product should attain to meet stakeholder expectations. The
components of the requirements documentation include but are not limited to project and
product quality requirements. Requirements are used by the project team to help plan how
quality control will be implemented on the project.
Requirements traceability matrix. The requirements traceability matrix links product
requirements to deliverables and helps to ensure each requirement in the requirements
documentation is tested. The matrix provides an overview of the tests required to verify the
requirements.
Risk register. The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities that may
impact quality requirements.
Stakeholder register. The stakeholder register may help in identifying the stakeholders that
will have interests in quality. The risk register will help identify positive risks (opportunities)
and negative risks (threats) that may have an impact on quality.
8.1.1.4 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Guidelines, regulations from a government agency, rules, and standards relevant to the project at
hand are examples of enterprise environmental factors that must be considered during quality
planning. For example, procedures relevant to the application area of this project should be
followed. Working or operating conditions and environment can also affect the project quality. The
enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Quality Management process include
but are not limited to:
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Governmental agency regulations;
Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area;
Geographic distribution;
Organizational structure;
Marketplace conditions;
Working or operating conditions of the project or its deliverables; and
Cultural perceptions.
If the performing organization lacks a quality policy, the project team will need to develop a quality
policy for the project. Once a quality policy is in place, it is your responsibility to ensure that the
project stakeholders are aware of it and are on the same page.
8.1.1.5 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Quality Management process include
but are not limited to:
 Organizational quality management system including policies, procedures, and guidelines;
 Quality templates such as check sheets, traceability matrix, and others; and
 Historical databases and lessons learned repository.
8.1.2 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
8.1.2.1 EXPERT JUDGMENT
Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with specialized knowledge or training in
the following topics:
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Quality assurance,
Quality control,
Quality measurements,
Quality improvements, and
Quality systems.
8.1.2.2 DATA GATHERING
Data-gathering techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Benchmarking. Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project practices or the
project’s quality standards to those of comparable projects to identify best practices,
generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance.
Benchmarked projects may exist within the performing organization or outside of it, or can
be within the same application area or other application area. Benchmarking allows for
analogies from projects in a different application area or different industries to be made.
 Brainstorming. Brainstorming can be used to gather data creatively from a group of team
members or subject matter experts to develop the quality management plan that best fits
the upcoming project.
 Interviews. Project and product quality needs and expectations, implicit and explicit, formal
and informal, can be identified by interviewing experienced project participants,
stakeholders, and subject matter experts. Interviews should be conducted in an
environment of trust and confidentiality to encourage honest and unbiased contributions.
8.1.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Cost-benefit analysis. A cost-benefit analysis is the process used to measure the benefits of
a decision or taking action minus the costs associated with taking that action.
 A cost-benefit analysis involves measurable financial metrics such as revenue
earned or costs saved as a result of the decision to pursue a project.
 A cost-benefit analysis can also include intangible benefits and costs or effects from
a decision such as employees morale and customer satisfaction.
 an analysis that results in more benefits than costs will generally be a favourable
project for the company to undertake.
NOTE:
In cost benefit analysis, we see how much our benefit outweighs the cost in terms of business.
For example: if u make any 3 minutes informative video, then whether you get benefitted or not
from watching that 3-minute video?
 Cost of quality. It is the total expense incurred by the organization in achieving and
maintaining good quality as well as managing the poor quality with the aim of achieving
customer satisfaction. The cost of quality (COQ) associated with a project consists of one or
more of the following costs
Cost of good quality: it is also called cost of conformance or the cost of conformance consists of
prevention costs and appraisal costs.
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Prevention costs. Costs related to the prevention of poor quality in the products,
deliverables, or services of the specific project. Preventive costs are any expenditures
incurred that are intended to minimize the number of defects in products and services.
Prevention costs include the costs of appropriate equipment, documenting and performing
processes, time and effort to perform the project work the right way, and needed training of
team members. For example, a company could invest in training programs for the operators
of its production machinery, to ensure that they understand how to manufacture parts
correctly. They include:
1. Quality assurance costs: establishing the product specifications
2. Quality planning
3. New product development + testing
4. Employee training
Appraisal costs. Costs related to evaluating, measuring, auditing, and testing the products,
deliverables, or services of the specific project. They include:
1. Quality control: incoming material inspection + process control
2. Check fixtures
3. Quality audits
4. Check supplier assessment
5. Appraisal costs include the cost of inspecting, testing, and loss due to
destructive testing.
Cost of poor quality - Failure costs (internal/external). Money wasted when work fails to
meet the customer requirements.
Measured using: correcting, reworking, volunteering.
1. Internal failure: defects or errors discovered before being delivered to the
end customer. This can cause: rework, fixing internal work, re-testing,
machine breakdown.
2. External failure: cost incurred having product being shipped to the end
customer (means it fails to satisfy the design or the quality standards). Or
it is detected when it is transferred to the customer. So, this will cause:
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services, claims, product or material returns, customer complaints or
shipping damage.
Prevention Costs (Build a quality product) • Training • Document processes • Equipment •
Time to do it right
Appraisal Costs (Assess the quality) • Testing • Destructive testing loss • Inspections
Money spent during the project to avoid failures: Internal Failure Costs (Failures found by
the project) • Rework • Scrap
External Failure Costs (Failures found by the customer) • Liabilities • Warranty work • Lost
business Money spent during and after the project because of failures. Cost of Quality
NOTE:
The cost of non-conformance (POOR QUALITY) includes rework and waste if the product is rejected
internally because it did not meet quality standards. If the problems with the product were found by
the customer, however, the results could be more serious, including liabilities and loss of business.
Implementing quality has its costs, including quality management and fulfilling quality requirements.
The benefits of meeting quality requirements include less rework, resulting in overall higher
productivity; lower costs of maintaining the product or service; and higher customer satisfaction.
8.1.2.4 DECISION MAKING
Prioritization matrices. This is the method of prioritizing entities, such as problems, ideas, and
issues, by using some ranking criteria. A decision-making technique that can be used for this process
includes but is not limited to multicriteria decision analysis. Criteria are prioritized and weighted
before being applied to all available alternatives to obtain a mathematical score for each alternative.
The alternatives are then ranked by score. As used in this process, it can help prioritize quality
metrics.
8.1.2.5 DATA REPRESENTATION
Other quality planning tools. Other tools that you can use in quality planning, depending upon the
project, include brainstorming, flowcharting, control charts, statistical sampling. Statistical sampling
involves randomly selecting a part of the population for study. Control charts, flowcharting, and
statistical sampling are discussed further on in this book when we discuss quality control. Some
other tools of quality planning are listed in the following bullet points:
 Flowcharts. Flowcharts are also referred to as process maps because they display the
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sequence of steps and the branching possibilities that exist for a process that transforms one
or more inputs into one or more outputs. Flowcharts show the activities, decision points,
branching loops, parallel paths, and the overall order of processing by mapping the
operational details of procedures that exist within a horizontal value chain. One version of a
value chain, known as a SIPOC (suppliers, inputs, process, outputs, and customers) model.
Flowcharts may prove useful in understanding and estimating the cost of quality for a
process. Information is obtained by using the workflow branching logic and associated
relative frequencies to estimate the expected monetary value for the conformance and
nonconformance work required to deliver the expected conforming output. When
flowcharts are used to represent the steps in a process, they are sometimes called process
flows or process flow diagrams and they can be used for process improvement as well as
identifying where quality defects can occur or where to incorporate quality checks.
Logical data model. Logical data models are a visual representation of an organization’s
data, described in business language and independent of any specific technology. The logical
data model can be used to identify where data integrity or other quality issues can arise.
Matrix diagrams. Matrix diagrams help find the strength of relationships among different
factors, causes, and objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form the
matrix. Depending on how many factors may be compared, the project manager can use
different shapes of matrix diagrams; for example, L, T, Y, X, C, and roof–shaped. In this
process they facilitate identifying the key quality metrics that are important for the success
of the project.
Mind mapping. Mind mapping is a diagrammatic method used to visually organizing
information. A mind map in quality is often created around a single quality concept, drawn
as an image in the centre of a blank landscape page, to which associated representations of
ideas such as images, words, and parts of words are added. The mind-mapping technique
may help in the rapid gathering of project quality requirements, constraints, dependencies,
and relationships.
Affinity diagrams. it is a business tool used to organize ideas and data. It is one of the Seven
Management and Planning Tools. An affinity diagram is the organization of ideas into a
natural or common relationship. For example, bananas, apples, and oranges would be
grouped as fruits, while green beans, broccoli, and carrots would be grouped as
vegetables.
NOTE:
These seven management tools are collectively used by organization to make better decision and
implement new solutions effectively. When used individually these tools provide systematic and an
organised way of assessing ideas and making decisions. However, when used in combination they
provide and effective way to solve complex issues of an organization
 Force field analysis. This is a technique to understand the forces (factors) influencing a
situation. It can be used to separate the forces that drive movement toward a goal from
those that either block that movement or drive it away from the goal.
Force for changes
Force resisting changes
NOTE:
Part of the cost of quality is the failure cost, which is the cost of rework due to the failure to meet
the requirements during the product development. Failure cost, also called cost of poor quality, is
grouped into two categories: external failure cost, which is the cost of fixing problems found by the
customer, and internal failure cost, which is the cost of fixing problems found within the project.
You can use one or more of these techniques to generate the output of quality planning.
8.1.2.6 TEST AND INSPECTION PLANNING
During the planning phase, the project manager and the project team determine how to test or
inspect the product, deliverable, or service to meet the stakeholders’ needs and expectations, as
well as how to meet the goal for the product’s performance and reliability. The tests and inspections
are industry dependent and can include, for example, alpha and beta tests in software projects,
strength tests in construction projects, inspection in manufacturing, and field tests and nondestructive tests in engineering.
8.1.2.7 MEETINGS
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the quality management plan. Attendees can
include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected
stakeholders, anyone with responsibility for project quality management activities, and others as
needed.
8.1.3 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
A major output of the quality planning process is the quality management plan. This section
discusses the quality management plan and other output items.
8.1.3.1 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
The quality management plan describes how the quality policy for this project will be implemented
by the project management team. It includes approaches toward quality assurance, quality control,
and continuous process improvement. The quality management plan also contains the quality
baseline that sets the criteria that specify the quality objectives for the project and thereby make the
basis for measuring and reporting quality performance. For example, a project that is finished on
time, with everything delivered in scope, and that stayed within its cost is a project with high quality
performance. This plan becomes a component of the overall project management plan. The quality
management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how applicable
policies, procedures, and guidelines will be implemented to achieve the quality objectives. It
describes the activities and resources necessary for the project management team to achieve the
quality objectives set for the project. The quality management plan may be formal or informal,
detailed, or broadly framed. The style and detail of the quality management plan are determined by
the requirements of the project. The quality management plan should be reviewed early in the
project to ensure that decisions are based on accurate information. The benefits of this review can
include a sharper focus on the project’s value proposition, reductions in costs, and less frequent
schedule overruns that are caused by rework.
The quality management plan may include but is not limited to the following components:
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Quality standards that will be used by the project;
Quality objectives of the project;
Quality roles and responsibilities;
Project deliverables and processes subject to quality review;
Quality control and quality management activities planned for the project;
Quality tools that will be used for the project; and
Major procedures relevant for the project, such as dealing with nonconformance, corrective
actions procedures, and continuous improvement procedures.
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Whether the quality management plan is informal and high-level or formal and detailed depends
upon the size, complexity, and needs of the project.
8.1.3.2 QUALITY METRICS
A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute and how the Control Quality
process will verify compliance to it. Some examples of quality metrics include percentage of tasks
completed on time, cost performance measured by CPI, failure rate, number of defects identified
per day, total downtime per month, errors found per line of code, customer satisfaction scores,
and percentage of requirements covered by the test plan as a measure of test coverage.
For example: if the project is on board, then its bug density has got reduced than before
Secondly, the customer used to call once in a week earlier now he calls five time a week, means now
his issues have got increased.
Thirdly, the client earlier gives 10 feedbacks but now he gave only 8 feedbacks.
So, his satisfaction has also got affected.
CHECKLIST: the things which are to check are called the checklist.
In general, IT metrics can be divided into three categories, which include:
 Product metrics, which describe the product’s characteristics, like size complexity,
performance, design, and quality level.
 Process metrics, which can be applied for the improvement of the development activities
and software maintenance.
 Project metrics, which describe the project’s features and performance, like the number of
developers, costs, schedule, and productivity.
8.1.3.3 QUALITY CHECKLIST.
A checklist is a structured tool used to verify that a predetermined set of required steps has been
performed. The checklists can come in imperative form (“to do” lists) or in interrogative form (“have
you done this” lists). Checklists are prepared (or identified if they already exist in the organization) in
quality planning and used in quality control.
CHECK THE LINK FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT CHECKLIST: TASK 1: CHECKLIST FOR MANAGING
PROJECT QUALITY Project (studylib.net)
8.1.3.4 PROCESS IMPROVEMENT PLAN.
This plan describes how to improve some of the processes that will be used in the project. For
example, one purpose of improvement is to prevent activities in the processes that are not needed
for this project. This is accomplished by describing the purpose, start, and end of a given process; the
input to the process; and the output of the process. This is equivalent to drawing the boundaries
around the process. The process management plan may also include some metrics used to measure
the efficiency of the process.
8.1.3.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN UPDATES
Any change to the project management plan goes through the organization’s change control
process via a change request. Components that may require a change request for the project
management plan include but are not limited to:
 Risk management plan. Decisions on the quality management approach may require
changes to the agreed-upon approach to managing risk on the project, and these will be
recorded in the risk management plan.
 Scope baseline. The scope baseline may change as a result of this process if specific quality
management activities need to be added. The WBS dictionary also records quality
requirements, which may need updating.
8.1.3.6 PROJECT DOCUMENTS UPDATES
Project documents that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process include but are not
limited to:
 Lessons learned register. The lessons learned register is updated with information on
challenges encountered in the quality planning process.
 Requirements traceability matrix. Where quality requirements are specified by this process,
they are recorded in the requirements traceability matrix.
 Risk register. New risks identified during this process are recorded in the risk register and
managed using the risk management processes.
 Stakeholder register. Where additional information on existing or new stakeholders is
gathered as a result of this process, it is recorded in the stakeholder register.
8.2 MANAGE QUALITY
Manage Quality is the process of translating the quality management plan into executable quality
activities that incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project. The key benefits of this
process are that it increases the probability of meeting the quality objectives as well as identifying
ineffective processes and causes of poor quality. Manage Quality uses the data and results from the
control quality process to reflect the overall quality status of the project to the stakeholders. This
process is performed throughout the project.
Quality planning is used to identify which quality standards are relevant to the project at hand and
to determine how to meet these standards. Implementing quality management consists of the
following two components:
 Quality assurance (QA). Quality assurance is the process of auditing the results from quality
control measurements to ensure that the quality requirements are being met. This process is
used during the execution of the project.
 Quality control. This refers to monitoring and controlling the project results to ensure that
they meet the agreed-upon quality standards.
Performing organizations typically have a department called quality assurance (QA) that oversees
quality assurance activities and fosters continuous process improvement, which is an iterative
method for improving the quality of all processes.
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Continuous process improvement enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of the processes by
minimizing waste (unnecessary activities) and duplication of efforts. It includes identifying and
reviewing the business processes inside the organization, such as coding of modules within software
programs and the process of project approval.
Manage Quality is sometimes called quality assurance, although Manage Quality has a broader
definition than quality assurance as it is used in non-project work. In project management, the focus
of quality assurance is on the processes used in the project. Quality assurance is about using project
processes effectively. It involves following and meeting standards to assure stakeholders that the
final product will meet their needs, expectations, and requirements. Manage Quality includes all
the quality assurance activities, and is also concerned with the product design aspects and process
improvements. Manage Quality work will fall under the conformance work category in the cost of
quality framework. The Manage Quality process implements a set of planned and systematic acts
and processes defined within the project’s quality management plan that helps to:
 Design an optimal and mature product by implementing specific design guidelines that
address specific aspects of the product,
 Build confidence that a future output will be completed in a manner that meets the
specified requirements and expectations through quality assurance tools and techniques
such as quality audits and failure analysis,
 Confirm that the quality processes are used and that their use meets the quality objectives
of the project, and
 Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of processes and activities to achieve better results
and performance and enhance stakeholders’ satisfaction. The project manager and project
team may use the organization’s quality assurance department, or other organizational
functions, to execute some of the Manage Quality activities such as failure analysis, design
of experiments, and quality improvement. Quality assurance departments usually have
cross-organizational experience in using quality tools and techniques and are a good
resource for the project. Manage Quality is considered the work of everybody—the project
manager, the project team, the project sponsor, the management of the performing
organization, and even the customer. All of these have roles in managing quality in the
project, though the roles differ in size and effort. The level of participation in the quality
management effort may differ between industries and project management styles. In agile
projects, quality management is performed by all team members throughout the project,
but in traditional projects, quality management is often the responsibility of specific team
members.
8.2.1 MANAGE QUALITY: INPUTS
The input to the quality assurance process comes largely from three sources: quality planning,
directing and managing project execution, and quality control. The quality-related output items of
these three processes become the input to the quality assurance process. These input items are
discussed here. Output from quality planning.
The following output items from the quality planning process become the input to the quality
assurance process:
 Quality management plan. This plan is the output of the quality planning process already
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discussed in this chapter, and it describes how QA will be performed for this project.
Quality metrics. A quality metric is an operational criterion that defines in specific terms
what something (such as a characteristic or a feature) is and how the quality control process
measures it. The quality metrics developed during quality planning, such as defect density,
failure rates, reliability, and test coverage, must be employed during QA.
Process improvement plan. The process improvement plan, already discussed in this
chapter, helps improve the quality of the project and must be implemented during QA.
Output from directing and managing project execution: work performance information.
When you are directing and managing project execution, information about work
performance and the implementation of a few items related to both product and project will
help you determine how the quality is being implemented. Therefore, during QA, you must
consider work performance information. Work performance information includes project
status information that is regularly collected and distributed among the stakeholders. It
includes the following items:
Schedule progress information:
Schedule activities that have been finished and those that have started
Estimates for the completion of schedule activities that have started and hence are in
progress
Percentages to show the portion of each in-progress activity—for example, Activity A is 30%
complete
Deliverables that have been completed and those that have not yet been completed
 Incurred cost as compared to authorized cost
 Resource utilization details
 How well the quality standards are being met
Lessons learned added to the knowledge base
When you are directing and managing project execution, obviously the items are being
implemented. The following quality-related implemented items must be considered during QA:
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Implemented change requests
Implemented corrective actions
Implemented defect repair
Implemented preventive actions
Output from quality control: quality control measurements.
Quality control involves monitoring specific project results of executing quality activities to assess
performance. The goal is again the same: to ensure quality standards are met; if not, necessary
change requests and recommendations are made to correct the situation. The quality control
process sends its results back to QA as feedback. Approved change requests. Approved change
requests, such as modification of work methods, product requirements, quality requirements, scope,
and schedule, must be analysed for their effect on the quality management plan and quality metrics.
Approved change requests. Approved change requests, such as modification of work methods,
product requirements, quality requirements, scope, and schedule, must be analysed for their effect
on the quality management plan and quality metrics.
8.2.1.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Project management plan components include but are not limited to the quality management plan.
the quality management plan defines the acceptable level of project and product quality and
describes how to ensure this level of quality in its deliverables and processes. The quality
management plan also describes what to do with nonconforming products and what corrective
action to implement.
8.2.1.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
 Lessons learned register. Lessons learned earlier in the project with regard to managing
quality can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of managing quality.
 Quality control measurements. Quality control measurements are used to analyse and
evaluate the quality of the processes and deliverables of the project against the standards
of the performing organization or the requirements specified. Quality control
measurements can also compare the processes used to create the measurements and
validate actual measurements to determine their level of correctness.
 Quality metrics. Quality metrics are verified as part of the Control Quality process. The
Manage Quality process uses these quality metrics as a basis for the development of test
scenarios for the project and its deliverables and as a basis for improvement initiatives.
 Risk report. Risk report is used in the Manage Quality process to identify sources of overall
project risk and the most important drivers of overall risk exposure that can impact the
quality objectives of the project.
8.2.1.3 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS
The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Quality process include but are not
limited to:
 Organizational quality management system that includes policies, procedures, and
guidelines;
 Quality templates such as check sheets, traceability matrix, test plans, test documents, and
others;
 Results from previous audits; and
 Lessons learned repository with information from similar projects.
8.2.2 MANAGE QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
8.2.2.1 DATA GATHERING
A data-gathering technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to checklists.
A checklist is a structured tool, usually component-specific, used to verify that a set of required steps
has been performed or to check if a list of requirements has been satisfied. Based on the project’s
requirements and practices, checklists may be simple or complex. Many organizations have
standardized checklists available to ensure consistency in frequently performed tasks. In some
application areas, checklists are also available from professional associations or commercial
service providers. Quality checklists should incorporate the acceptance criteria included in the
scope baseline.
8.2.2.2 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Alternatives analysis. This technique is used to evaluate identified options in order to select
which different quality options or approaches are most appropriate to use.
 Document analysis. The analysis of different documents produced as part of the output of
project control processes, such as quality reports, test reports, performance reports, and
variance analysis, can point to and focus on processes that may be out of control and may
jeopardize meeting the specified requirements or stakeholders’ expectations.
 Process analysis. Process analysis identifies opportunities for process improvements. This
analysis also examines problems, constraints, and non-value-added activities that occur
during a process.
 Root cause analysis (RCA). Root cause analysis is an analytical technique used to determine
the basic underlying reason that causes a variance, defect, or risk. A root cause may underlie
more than one variance, defect, or risk. It may also be used as a technique for identifying
root causes of a problem and solving them. When all root causes for a problem are removed,
the problem does not recur.
8.2.2.3 DECISION MAKING
A decision-making technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to
multicriteria decision analysis. Multicriteria decision making is used to evaluate several criteria when
discussing alternatives that impact project or product quality. Project decisions can include choosing
among different implementation scenarios or suppliers. Product decisions can include evaluating the
life cycle cost, schedule, stakeholder satisfaction, and risks associated with resolving product
defects.
8.2.2.4 DATA REPRESENTATION
Data representation techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Affinity diagrams. Affinity diagrams can organize potential causes of defects into groups
showing areas that should be focused on the most. An affinity diagram is the organization of
ideas into a natural or common relationship. For example, bananas, apples, and oranges
would be grouped as fruits, while green beans, broccoli, and carrots would be grouped as
vegetables. Affinity diagrams aid teams in tapping into their creativity and gut instincts
 Cause-and-effect diagrams. Cause-and-effect diagrams are also known as fishbone
diagrams, why-why diagrams, or Ishikawa diagrams. This type of diagram breaks down the
causes of the problem statement identified into discrete branches, helping to identify the
main or root cause of the problem.
 Flowcharts. Flowcharts show a series of steps that lead to a defect.
 Histograms. Histograms show a graphical representation of numerical data. Histograms can
show the number of defects per deliverable, a ranking of the cause of defects, the number
of times each process is noncompliant, or other representations of project or product
defects.
 Matrix diagrams. A matrix chart or diagram is a project management and planning
tool used to analyse and understand the relationships between data sets. Matrix
charts compare two or more groups of elements or elements within a single group.
They help project managers identify how information is related as well as the
strength of those relationships. The types of information you can analyse in a matrix
includes:
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Data
Functions
Concepts
People
Materials
Equipment
Actions
The relationships between items are indicated by a number or symbol in the cell where each pair of
elements intersect.
 Scatter diagrams. A scatter diagram is a graph that shows the relationship between two
variables. Scatter diagrams can demonstrate a relationship between any element of a
process, environment, or activity on one axis and a quality defect on the other axis.
NOTE:
So, it shows the relation of the items which are in pair. For example: you have a dataset for 50
students in the class, including the number of hours studied and marks obtained in the exam. Using
this dataset, you can evaluate the relationship between these two variables (number of hours
studied and marks obtained). In addition, you can find the direction (positive, negative, or no
relationship).
8.2.2.5 AUDITS
An audit is a structured, independent process used to determine if project activities comply with
organizational and project policies, processes, and procedures. It verifies the implementation of
approved change requests, corrective actions, defect repairs, and preventive actions. Audits can
occur as scheduled or at random and can be conducted by a third party or by properly trained inhouse auditors of the performing organization. A quality audit is usually conducted by a team
external to the project, such as the organization’s internal audit department, PMO, or by an auditor
external to the organization.
Quality audit objectives may include but are not limited to:
 Identifying all good and best practices being implemented;
 Identifying all nonconformity, gaps, and shortcomings;
 Sharing good practices introduced or implemented in similar projects in the organization
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and/or industry;
Proactively offering assistance in a positive manner to improve the implementation of
processes to help raise team productivity; and
Highlighting contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organization
Product quality not matching the requirements
Material Environment Management People Process Equipment Worker’s fatigue Lack of
training Low quality of raw material Bad working conditions Low commitment to quality
Delay in arrival Low maintenance old technology Improper handling Not enough R&D
Nonoptional manufacturing method.
The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies should result in a reduced cost of quality and an
increase in sponsor or customer acceptance of the project’s product. Quality audits may be
scheduled or random, and may be conducted by internal or external auditors. Quality audits can
confirm the implementation of approved change requests including updates, corrective actions,
defect repairs, and preventive actions.
These audits accomplish the following:
 Because one of the objectives of a quality audit is to identify inefficient and ineffective
policies, processes, and procedures being used for the project, audits reduce the cost of
quality on subsequent projects.
 Audits increase customer satisfaction and acceptance of the product or service delivered by
the project
8.2.2.6 DESIGN FOR X (Design for Excellence)
Design for X (DfX) is a set of technical guidelines that may be applied during the design of a product
for the optimization of a specific aspect of the design. DfX can control or even improve the product’s
final characteristics. The X in DfX can be different aspects of product development, such as
reliability, deployment, assembly, manufacturing, cost, service, usability, safety, and quality. Using
the DfX may result in cost reduction, quality improvement, better performance, and customer
satisfaction.
NOTE
This idea is largely used in Product Development and engineering. In product development, the
design of the product is driven by several different aspects. However, with focus on one single
aspect we can have better control and also simplify the overall product development process.
Hence, this DFX provides cost reduction, improvement in quality, better performance and great
customer satisfaction which can ensure our project overall success.
8.2.2.7 PROBLEM SOLVING (PROCESS ANALYSIS)
This is a technique used to identify the needed improvements in a process by following the steps
outlined in the process improvement plan. It examines the problems, constraints, and unnecessary
(non-value-added) activities identified during the implementation of the process. Process analysis
typically includes the following steps:
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1. Identify a technique to analyse the problem
2. Identify the underlying causes that led to the problem.
3. Examine the root cause of the problem.
4. Create preventive actions for this and similar problems.
Choose the best possible solutions
Implement the solution
Verify the effectiveness of the solution
Problem solving entails finding solutions for issues or challenges. It can include gathering additional
information, critical thinking, creative, quantitative and/or logical approaches. Effective and
systematic problem solving is a fundamental element in quality assurance and quality improvement.
Problems can arise as a result of the Control Quality process or from quality audits and can be
associated with a process or deliverable. Using a structured problem-solving method will help
eliminate the problem and develop a long-lasting solution. Problem-solving methods generally
include the following elements:
 Defining the problem,
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Identifying the root-cause,
Generating possible solutions,
Choosing the best solution,
Implementing the solution, and
Verifying solution effectiveness.
8.2.2.8 QUALITY IMPROVEMENT METHODS
Quality improvements can occur based on findings and recommendations from quality control
processes, the findings of the quality audits, or problem solving in the Manage Quality process. Plando-check-act and Six Sigma are two of the most common quality improvement tools used to
analyze and evaluate opportunities for improvement.
The quality assurance process recommends corrective actions as an output item.
8.2.3 MANAGE QUALITY: OUTPUTS
The main output of performing quality assurance includes recommended corrective actions and
change requests. These and other output items are discussed in the following list.
8.2.3.1 QUALITY REPORTS
The quality reports can be graphical, numerical, or qualitative. The information provided can be used
by other processes and departments to take corrective actions in order to achieve the project quality
expectations. The information presented in the quality reports may include all quality management
issues escalated by the team; recommendations for process, project, and product improvements;
corrective actions recommendations (including rework, defect/bugs repair, 100% inspection, and
more); and the summary of findings from the Control Quality process.
8.2.3.2 TEST AND EVALUATION DOCUMENTS
Test and evaluation documents can be created based on industry needs and the organization’s
templates. They are inputs to the Control Quality process and are used to evaluate the achievement
of quality objectives. These documents may include dedicated checklists and detailed requirements
traceability matrices as part of the document.
8.2.3.3 CHANGE REQUESTS
The goal of quality assurance is improving quality, which involves taking actions to increase the
effectiveness and efficiency of the policies, procedures, and processes of the performing
organization. One way of accomplishing this is to implement the approved quality-related changes,
including:
 Modifications to policies and procedures.
 Modifications to project scope, cost, and schedule.
 Recommended corrective actions. Implementation of recommended corrective actions will
increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the policies, processes, and procedures of the
performing organization and will also improve the quality of the product or service delivered
by the project. Following are examples of the types of recommended actions:
 Audits
 Process analysis that itself might produce a list of preventive actions
 Defect repairs, such as bug fixes in a software program
NOTE
If changes occur during the Manage Quality process that impact any of the components of the
project management plan, project documents, or project or product management processes, the
project manager should submit a change request and follow the Perform Integrated Change Control
process.
8.2.3.4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN UPDATES
Any change to the project management plan goes through the organization’s change control process
via a change request. Components that may require a change request for the project management
plan include but are not limited to:
 Quality management plan. The agreed-upon approach to managing quality may need to be
modified due to the actual results.
 Scope baseline. The scope baseline may change as a result of specific quality management
activities.
 Schedule baseline. The schedule baseline may change as a result of specific quality
management activities like Quality audits, which may cause changes in these schedule plan
as well as cost management plan
 Cost baseline. The cost baseline may change as a result of specific quality management
activities.
8.2.3.5 PROJECT DOCUMENTS UPDATES
Project documents that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process include but are not
limited to:
 Issue log. New issues raised as a result of this process are recorded in the issue log.
 Lessons learned register. The lessons learned register is updated with information on
challenges encountered and how they could have been avoided as well as approaches that
worked well for the managing quality.
 Risk register. New risks identified during this process are recorded in the risk register and
managed using the risk management processes.
STUDY CHECKPOINT 8
Q. True or False: Quality assurance also uses the tools and techniques of quality planning and quality
control.
Ans. True
8.3 CONTROL QUALITY
Quality is controlled by using the Perform Quality Control process, a process of monitoring and
recording results from the execution of projects, including quality activities. The goal is to evaluate
quality performance and recommend necessary changes. The quality control process in the context
of a big picture is shown in below figure, which relates the quality management processes to one
another and also to integrated change control and project execution
The key benefit of this process is verifying that project deliverables and work meet the requirements
specified by key stakeholders for final acceptance. The Control Quality process determines if the
project outputs do what they were intended to do. Those outputs need to comply with all applicable
standards, requirements, regulations, and specifications. This process is performed throughout the
project.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 8-10.
4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control 4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work Figure 8-11.
 Controlling quality involves monitoring specific results to determine whether they comply
with the planned quality standards, which include project processes and product goals, and
controlling the results by taking actions to eliminate unsatisfactory performance. In other
words, the Perform Quality Control process is used to monitor and control quality by
accomplishing the following goals: Monitor specific project results, such as cost performance
and schedule performance, to determine whether they comply with the planned quality
standards, which include project processes and product goals.
 Identify ways to eliminate the causes of unsatisfactory performance. The results under
scrutiny include both deliverables and performance measurements by the project
management team. Quality control is performed throughout the project. While dealing with
quality control, you must be able to distinguish between the two terms in each of the
following pairs:
 Prevention and inspection
 Prevention is a direction to perform an activity that will keep an error from
entering the product and the process.
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Inspection is a technique to examine whether an activity, component, product,
result, or service complies with planned requirements. The goal of inspection is
to ensure that errors do not reach the customer.
Attribute sampling and variable sampling
Attribute sampling is a technique to determine whether a result conforms to
the specified standard.
Variable sampling is a technique to rate a result on a continuous scale that
measures the degree of conformity.
Common cause and special cause
Common cause is a source of variation that is inherent to the system and is
predictable. Such variations are also called normal variations, and the common
causes for them are also called random causes.
Special cause is a source of variation that is not inherent to the system and is
removable. It can be assigned to a defect in the system.
Control limits and tolerances
Control limits are the area occupied by three standard deviations on either side
of the central line or the mean of a normal distribution of data plotted on a
control chart that reflects the expected variation of the data. If the results fall
within the control limits, they are within the quality control, and hence the
process is considered to be stable.
Tolerance is the range within which a result is acceptable if it falls within the
limits of the range.
TIP
QC can be performed by the QA department or by the QC department if the performing organization
has one. Nevertheless, the project management team should have a working knowledge of statistical
aspects of quality control, such as sampling and probability. This will help evaluate the QC output.
Control Quality: Data Flow Diagram
The Control Quality process is performed to measure the completeness, compliance, and fitness for
use of a product or service prior to user acceptance and final delivery. This is done by measuring all
steps, attributes, and variables used to verify conformance or compliance to the specifications
stated during the planning stage. Quality control should be performed throughout the project to
formally demonstrate, with reliable data, that the sponsor’s and/or customer’s acceptance criteria
have been met. The level of effort to control quality and the degree of implementation may differ
between industries and project management styles; in pharmaceutical, health, transportation, and
nuclear industries, for example, there may be stricter quality control procedures compared to other
industries, and the effort needed to meet the standards may be extensive. For example, in agile
projects, the Control Quality activities may be performed by all team members throughout the
project life cycle. In waterfall model-based projects, the quality control activities are performed at
specific times, toward the end of the project or phase, by specified team members.
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8.3.1 CONTROL QUALITY: INPUTS
8.3.1.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Project management plan components include but are not limited to the quality management plan.
the quality management plan defines how quality control will be performed within the project.
8.3.1.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
 Lessons learned register. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied to later
phases in the project to improve quality control.
 Quality metrics. A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute and
how the Control Quality process will verify compliance to it. There are three kinds of
software quality metrics:
 Product metrics: describes the characteristics of the product: size, complexity,
design, features, performance and quality level.
 Process metrics: used for improving software development/maintenance process. It
includes the effectiveness of the defect removal, pattern of testing defect arrival,
response time of fixes.
 Project matrices: describes the project characteristics execution. For instance:
number of developers, cost, schedule, productivity etc. fairly straight forward.
 Test and evaluation documents. Test and evaluation documents are used to evaluate
achievement of the quality objectives.
8.3.1.3 APPROVED CHANGE REQUESTS
You need this list to ensure that all the approved changes are implemented in a timely fashion. The
list of approved change requests also includes modifications, such as revised work methods and a
revised schedule. As part of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, a change log update
indicates that some changes are approved and some are not. Approved change requests may include
modifications such as defect repairs, revised work methods, and revised schedules. Partial change
completion may result in inconsistencies and later delays due to incomplete steps or corrections.
The implementation of approved changes should be verified, confirmed for completeness, retested,
and certified as correct.
8.3.1.4 DELIVERABLES
A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is
required to be produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables that are outputs
from the Direct and Manage Project Work process are inspected and compared to the acceptance
criteria defined in the project scope statement.
8.3.1.5 WORK PERFORMANCE DATA
Work performance data contains data on product status such as observations, quality metrics, and
measurements for technical performance, as well as project quality information on schedule
performance and cost performance.
8.3.1.6 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Control Quality process include but are
not limited to:
 Project management information system; quality management software can be used to
track errors and variations in processes or deliverables;
 Governmental agency regulations; and
 Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area.
8.3.1.7 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS
The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Quality process include but are not
limited to:
 Quality standards and policies;
 Quality templates, for example, check sheets, checklists, etc. and;
 Issue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.
STUDY CHECKPOINT 8.3
A. Which quality process generates quality control measurements?
Ans. Quality control
B. Which quality process uses quality control measurements?
Ans. Perform quality assurance
8.3.2 CONTROL QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
The tools and techniques used for quality control include inspection, defect repair reviews, and the
so-called seven basic tools of quality.
8.3.2.1 DATA GATHERING (Other Controlling Tools)
Data-gathering techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Checklists. Checklists help in managing the control quality activities in a structured manner.
 Check sheets. Check sheets are also known as tally sheets and are used to organize facts in a
manner that will facilitate the effective collection of useful data about a potential quality
problem. They are especially useful for gathering attributes data while performing
inspections to identify defects; for example, data about the frequencies or consequences of
defects collected.
 Statistical sampling. Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest
for inspection (for example, selecting 10 engineering drawings at random from a list of 75).
The sample is taken to measure controls and verify quality. Sample frequency and sizes
should be determined during the Plan Quality Management process. Statistical sampling
involves randomly selecting a part of the population for study. In quality control, you can
select a subset of features for inspection. This can save a substantial amount of resources
 Questionnaires and Surveys. Surveys may be used to gather data about customer
satisfaction after the deployment of the product or service. The cost regarding defects
identified in the surveys may be considered external failure costs in the COQ model and can
have extensive cost implications for the organization.
8.3.2.2 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Performance reviews. Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyse the quality
metrics defined by the Plan Quality Management process against the actual results.
 Root cause analysis (RCA). Root cause analysis is used to identify the source of defects.
8.3.2.3 INSPECTION
An inspection is the examination of a work product to determine if it conforms to documented
standards. The results of inspections generally include measurements and may be conducted at any
level. The results of a single activity can be inspected, or the final product of the project can be
inspected. Inspections may be called reviews, peer reviews, audits, or walkthroughs. In some
application areas, these terms have narrow and specific meanings. Inspections also are used to verify
defect repairs.
8.3.2.4 TESTING/PRODUCT EVALUATIONS
Testing is an organized and constructed investigation conducted to provide objective information
about the quality of the product or service under test in accordance with the project requirements.
The intent of testing is to find errors, defects, bugs, or other nonconformance problems in the
product or service. The type, amount, and extent of tests needed to evaluate each requirement are
part of the project quality plan and depend on the nature of the project, time, budget, and other
constraints. Tests can be performed throughout the project, as different components of the project
become available, and at the end of the project on the final deliverables. Early testing helps identify
nonconformance problems and helps reduce the cost of fixing the nonconforming components.
Different application areas require different tests. For example, software testing may include unit
testing, integration testing, black-box, white-box, interface testing, regression testing, Alpha testing,
etc. In construction projects, testing may include cement strength, concrete workability test, nondestructive tests at construction sites for testing the quality of hardened concrete structures, and
soil tests. In hardware development, testing may include environmental stress screening, burn-in
tests, system testing, and more.
Seven Basic Tools of Quality
Figure shows the seven kinds of charts and diagrams used in quality control, also known as the seven
basic tools of quality. These tools are further described in the following list.
Table 8.2 Seven Basic Tools of Quality
Chart
 Flowchart
Purpose
To anticipate what quality problems might be and where they might
occur
 Run chart
To perform trend analysis—that is, to predict future results based on
past performance
 Scatter diagram
to find the relationship between two variables, such as cause and
effect, or two causes
 Histogram
 Pareto diagram
To display the relative importance of different variables
To identify and rank errors based on the frequency of defects caused
by them
 Control chart
to monitor whether the variance of a specified variable is within the
acceptable limits dictated by quality control
 Cause and effect diagram
to explore all the potential causes of a problem, not just the
obvious ones
8.3.2.5 DATA REPRESENTATION
Data representation techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
 Flowcharts. A flowchart is a diagram that depicts inputs, actions, and outputs of one or
more processes in a system. Flowcharts, commonly used in many disciplines of knowledge,
show the activities, decision points, and order of processing. They help to understand how a
problem occurs. You can also use flowcharts to anticipate what quality problems might be,
where they might occur, and how you might deal with them
 Run Chart. A run chart is a chart that shows the history and pattern of variations. Therefore,
run charts are used to perform trend analysis, which is the science of predicting future
performance based on past results. In quality control, trend analysis can be used to predict
such things as the number of defects and the cost to repair them. You can use the results of
trend analysis to recommend preventive actions if needed. Run charts or trend analysis can
be used to monitor cost performance, schedule performance, and technical performance.
An example of technical performance is how many defects have been identified and how
many of them remain unrepaired
 Histograms. Histograms can demonstrate the number of defects by source or by
component.
 Scatter diagrams. Scatter diagrams can show the planned performance on one axis and the
actual performance on the second axis. A scatter diagram is used to show the pattern of the
relationship between two variables—an independent variable and another variable that
depends on the independent variable. The dependent variable is plotted corresponding to
the independent variable. For example, a variable representing a cause can be the
independent variable, and a variable representing the effect can be a dependent variable.
The closer the data points are to a diagonal line, the stronger the relationship (called the
correlation) is between the two variables.
 Histograms. A histogram is a bar chart that shows a distribution of variables. Each bar can
represent an attribute, such as defects due to a specific cause, and its height can represent
the frequency of the attribute, such as number of defects. This tool helps to identify and rate
the causes of defects. You also use a histogram to identify and illustrate the most common
cause of a problem, such as a cause behind defects. You might wonder how defects can be
repaired efficiently. Pareto diagrams, which are examples of histograms, have the answer for
you
 A Pareto diagram. is used to rank the importance of each error (problem) based on the
frequency of its occurrence over time in the form of defects. A defect is an imperfection or
deficiency that keeps a component from meeting its requirements or specifications. A defect
is caused by an error (problem) and can be repaired by fixing the error. An error in a product
can give rise to multiple defects, and by fixing the error you repair all the defects caused by
that error. However, all errors are not equal. Some errors cause more defects than others.
According to Pareto’s law, which is also known as the 80/20 rule, 80% of project defects are
caused by 20% of errors (or types of errors). Qualitatively, it means that most defects are
caused by a small set of errors. The Pareto diagram lets you rank errors based on the
frequency of defects they cause. You begin by having the error that causes most of the
defects fixed and make your way to other errors that cause lesser numbers of defects. This
way, the efforts of the project team are optimized: You get the maximum number of defects
repaired with minimal effort.
The advantages of a Pareto diagram are twofold:
 It ranks errors according to the frequency of defects they cause
 It optimizes efforts to repair the defects by working on the errors that cause
most of the defects.
As an example, figure 8.3 presents data on the frequency of defects caused by certain errors. The
data is displayed in Figure 8.5 in the form of a Pareto diagram. In this example, 200 defects are
caused by 7 errors, and Error A alone causes 75 defects, which is 37.5% of all the defects. Similarly,
you can understand the impact of other errors by looking at Table 8.3 and Figure 8.5. The Pareto
diagram tells you that you should address Error A first, Error B second, and so on.
NOTE
Pareto’s law, in its original form, was presented as an economic theory by Vilfredo Pareto, a 19thcentury Italian economist, and it states that 80% of income is earned by 20% of the population. Since
then, it has been applied to other fields, such as project management.
You might ask: How many defects are acceptable? To find an answer to this question, you need to
understand another tool, called the control chart
 Control charts. Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or
has predictable performance. Upper and lower specification limits are based on the
requirements and reflect the maximum and minimum values allowed. Upper and lower
control limits are different from specification limits. The control limits are determined using
standard statistical calculations and principles to ultimately establish the natural capability
for a stable process. The project manager and appropriate stakeholders may use the
statistically calculated control limits to identify the points at which corrective action will be
taken to prevent performance that remains outside the control limits. Control charts can be
used to monitor various types of output variables. Although used most frequently to track
repetitive activities required for producing manufactured lots, control charts may also be
used to monitor cost and schedule variances, volume, frequency of scope changes, or other
management results to help determine if the project management processes are in control.
Control charts can be used to monitor the values of any type of output variables. To illustrate their
main features, consider the example of a control chart shown in Figure 8.6. In this example, assume
that a manufacturer produces 100 units of a product each day, and it is expected that 95 out of 100
units should have no defect—that is, the expected number of defective units is equal to 5. The
control limits are set to ±3. In other words, 95 units out of 100 must be correct, give or take 3. That
puts the lower limit at 92 and the upper limit at 98. Crossing the lower limit is not acceptable to the
customer, and crossing the upper limit might require an unjustifiable cost. Controlling quality
includes dealing with defects and problems that cause them. So, studying causes of a problem is
critical to quality control.
 Cause-and-effect diagrams. Cause-and-effect diagrams are used to identify the possible
effects of quality defects and errors. A cause-and-effect diagram is used to explore all the
potential causes (inputs) that result in a single effect (output), such as a problem or a defect.
This type of diagram is the brainchild of Kaoru Ishikawa, who pioneered quality management
processes in the Kawasaki shipyards, and therefore these diagrams are also called Ishikawa
diagrams. Due to the shape of these diagrams, they are also known as fishbone diagrams. To
construct and use cause and effect diagrams effectively, perform the following simple steps:
1. Identify the problem. Write down the problem in a box drawn on the right side
of a large sheet of paper. This represents the head of the fish. Starting from the
box, draw a horizontal line across the paper. This represents the spine of the fish.
2. Identify the possible areas of causes. Identify the areas or factors from where
the potential causes of the problem might come. Environment, people, materials,
measurements, and methods are some examples of areas (factors) of causes. For
each factor relevant to the problem under study, draw a line off the spine and
label it with the name of the factor. These lines represent the fish bones.
3. Identify the possible causes. For each factor, identify possible causes. Represent
each possible cause with a line coming off the bone that represents the
corresponding factor.
4. Analyse the diagram. Analysing the diagram includes narrowing down the most
likely causes and investigating them further
Figure 8.7 shows an example of a cause-and-effect diagram. The problem in this example is the delay
in the release of a website. The factors considered are environment, methods, people, and time. Of
course, the diagram is incomplete in the sense that more factors and related causes can be explored,
and causes for each factor can be explored further. But you get the point.
TIP
While constructing the cause-and-effect diagram, you can use the brainstorming method for
identifying the potential factors (areas) of problems and the potential causes for each factor
A cause-and-effect diagram offers a structured way to think through all possible causes of a
problem. You can use these diagrams to carry out a thorough analysis of a problematic situation.
This kind of analysis is useful in complex situations when, to discover the real causes, you need to
explore all the potential causes and not just the obvious ones
8.3.2.6 MEETINGS
The following meetings may be used as part of the Control Quality process:
 Approved change requests review. All approved change requests should be reviewed to
verify that they were implemented as approved. This review should also check that partial
changes are completed and all parts have been properly implemented, tested, completed,
and certified.
 Retrospectives/lesson learned. A meeting held by a project team to discuss:
 Successful elements in the project/phase,
 What could be improved,
 What to incorporate in the ongoing project and what in future projects, and
 What to add to the organization process assets.



QUALITY ANALYST
It focuses on on-going work not on
deliverables
Verifying the activities, steps the team
is taking to produce that deliverable.
Can raise a change request. This change
request is not about deliverable but
about changing process.



QUALITY CONTROL
I am checking the deliverables.
Checking if it meets the customer
requirements.
If I find something bad, I will generate a
change request.



Suppose if a particular section is
producing lots of defects, then we may
need to set underlying procedures
before moving to quality control.
They would be taking the measurement
data and observations which are done
in quality control process. Because then
only we can control something.
Output: change requests, changing
process, changing checklists, changing
threshold.

Output: verified deliverables, produce
change request, work performance
information


8.3.3 CONTROL QUALITY: OUTPUTS
8.3.3.1 QUALITY CONTROL MEASUREMENTS
Quality control measurements are the documented results of Control Quality activities. They should
be captured in the format that was specified in the quality management plan.
8.3.3.2 VERIFIED DELIVERABLES
A goal of the Control Quality process is to determine the correctness of deliverables. The results of
performing the Control Quality process are verified deliverables that become an input to the
Validate Scope process for formalized acceptance. If there were any change requests or
improvements related to the deliverables, they may be changed, inspected, and reverified.
8.3.3.3 WORK PERFORMANCE INFORMATION
Work performance information includes information on project requirements fulfilment, causes for
rejections, rework required, recommendations for corrective actions, lists of verified deliverables,
status of the quality metrics, and the need for process adjustments.
8.3.3.4 CHANGE REQUESTS
If changes occur during the Control Quality process that may impact any of the components of the
project management plan or project documents, the project manager should submit a change
request. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated
Change Control process
8.3.3.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN UPDATES
Any change to the project management plan goes through the organization’s change control
process via a change request. Components that may require a change request for the project
management plan include but are not limited to the quality management plan.
8.3.3.6 PROJECT DOCUMENTS UPDATES
Project documents that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process include but are not
limited to:
 Issue log. Many times, a deliverable that does not meet the quality requirements is
documented as an issue.
 Lessons learned register. The lessons learned register is updated with information on the
source of quality defects and how they could have been avoided as well as approaches that
worked well.
 Risk register. New risks identified during this process are recorded in the risk register and
managed using the risk management processes.
 Test and evaluation documents. Test and evaluation documents may be modified as a result
of this process in order to make future tests more effective.
STUDY CHECKPOINT 8.6
In the following table, write the name of a quality management process in the second column
corresponding to each activity listed in the first column.
Activity
1. You managed a quality audit of your project and
found an enormous number of defects.
2. You are looking at a diagram to pinpoint the root
cause of a number of defects appearing in the
project product. You write down your observations
and recommend a corrective action.
3. You are determining the cost of quality to present
a case for quality assurance and quality control
to your supervisor
4. You are examining the product to ensure that a
defect has actually been repaired.
5. You are looking at a diagram to pinpoint the root
cause of a number of defects appearing in the
project product. This leads you to analyse some
processes and procedures for their effectiveness
Quality Management Process
Perform quality assurance
Quality Control
Quality Planning
Quality Control
Perform Quality Assurance
The three most important takeaways from this chapter are as follows:
 The goal for quality planning is two-fold: Identify which quality standards are relevant to the
project at hand and determine how to satisfy these standards.
 Use the Perform Quality Assurance process to ensure that the project employs all the
planned processes and standards needed to meet all the project quality requirements. The
key word here is auditing.
 Quality control is the process of monitoring and controlling specific project results to ensure
the implementation of the quality plan and recommending changes or actions in case of
poor implementation. The key term here is quality control measurements.
Summary
Quality management includes quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control. The quality
management plan, quality metrics, quality checklist, and process improvement plan are the major
output items of the quality planning process called Plan Quality. Quality assurance involves auditing
the quality control measurements to ensure that the planned quality has been implemented. The
quality control measurements are generated by the Perform Quality Control process, which uses
work performance measurements as an input. The work performance measurements are collected
from monitoring and controlling various project aspects, such as scope, schedule, and cost. Quality
management uses a wide spectrum of tools, including cost/benefit analysis, control charts,
flowcharts, statistical sampling, and cause and effect diagrams. An aspect of projects related to
quality is called risk and is discussed in the next chapter.
Exam’s Eye View
Comprehend
1. Quality management has two components: project quality management and product quality
management. While product quality management techniques depend upon the specific product that
the project is going to produce, project quality management applies to all projects independent of
the nature of the products
2. Quality assurance, an important task during project execution, is the process of auditing the
results from quality control measurements to ensure that quality requirements are being met.
3. Work performance measurements generated by controlling scope, schedule, and cost are used as
input to prepare performance reports and to control quality.
4. Like most of the monitoring and controlling processes, the Perform Quality Control, Monitor and
Control Risks, and Report Performance processes generate change requests.
5. Deliverables are an important input to the Perform Quality Control process.
6. Approved change requests, and not all change requests, are an input to the Perform Quality
Control process.
7. Both change requests and validation of changes are outputs of the Perform Quality Control
process.
Look Out
1. A fundamental tenet of quality: Quality is planned, designed, and built in, not inspected in.
2. Quality audits are tools used in quality assurance.
3. Tools and techniques used in quality planning and quality control are also used in quality
assurance
4. The input to the quality assurance (QA) process comes from the output of three processes: quality
planning, quality control, and directing and managing project execution.
Memorize
1. The quality management plan, quality checklists, process improvement plan, and quality metrics
are the major output items of the quality planning process.
2. Validation of deliverables is an output of the Perform Quality Control process
3. Quality control measurements generated by the Perform Quality Control process become an input
to the Perform Quality Assurance process.
Review Questions
1. What is the name of a quality planning technique that involves comparing the results of
similar activities?
a. Brainstorming
b. Benchmarking
c. Cost/benefit analysis
d. Quality metrics
2. The plan-do-check-act cycle of quality management was:
a. Defined by Shewhart and modified by Deming
b. Originally defined by Deming and then modified by Shewhart
c. Defined by Crosby and modified by Deming
d. Defined by Crosby and modified by Juan
3. One of the fundamental tenets of modern quality management is:
a. Inspect the quality and then build it in.
b. There is no need to design and build in the quality until you do the inspection, if it’s
needed.
c. Break all the rules: Deliver the product in a timely fashion and then work on the
quality.
d. Quality is planned, designed, and built-in—not inspected in.
4. Which of the following is not an input to the QA process?
a. Quality metrics
b. Quality control measurements
c. Work performance information
d. Recommended corrective actions
5. You are the project manager for the Mind the Gap project. You are going to meet with your
project team to discuss how to ensure that the project will be completed without any
deviations from the project requirements. Which of the following processes are you
performing?
a. Quality control
b. Quality planning
c. Quality assurance
d. Conducting procurements
6. Quality audits are part of which of the following quality management processes?
a. Quality assurance
b. Quality control
c. Quality planning
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
d. Quality inspection
You are the project manager of the Green Schools project. Your supervisor has asked you to
make some self-checks and inspections before the stakeholders ask for a formal inspection.
It is time to perform which process?
a. Plan Quality
b. Perform Quality Control
c. Inspect Quality
d. Perform Quality Assurance
You are using an Ishikawa diagram to find the real causes of a problem by exploring all the
possible causes. Which quality process are you performing?
a. Assure Quality
b. Plan Quality
c. Perform Quality Control and Perform Quality Assurance
d. Auditing and inspection
You want to examine the results of a process to determine whether the process is in or out
of control. Which of the following is the most suitable tool to use?
a. Control chart
b. Cause and effect diagram
c. Pareto diagram
d. Scatter diagram
You are managing a software project with limited development resources. The QA
department has discovered a large number of defects in the product, and the project
sponsor is very concerned about this. You want to get the maximum number of defects
repaired with minimal effort. Which quality-control tool are you going to use before you
direct the efforts of the project team to fix specific problems? A.
a. Control chart
b. Cause and effect diagram
c. Pareto diagram
d. Scatter diagram
You are the project manager for a software development project that has limited resources.
The customer is concerned about the quality of the code developed and wants you to
conduct a code review. The product contains a large body of code with millions of lines.
Which approach will you take?
a. Tell the customer it’s not possible.
b. Use statistical sampling.
c. Use automated testing tools.
d. Arrange to review each line of the code.
Which of the following is not an input to controlling quality?
a. Project deliverables
b. Work performance measurements
c. Quality control measurements
d. Quality checklist
Which of the following is not a tool or technique used in the Perform Quality Control
process?
a. Statistical sampling
b. Inspection
c. Histograms
d. Technical performance measurements