Final Notes
Language Policies and language planning
1. Describe the situation in the Arab world after world war I and II.
a. British, French and Ottoman occupation
After the colonization that occurred in the Arab world, their was a significant
print of the colonizer on the countries in several aspects such as educations and
politics
2. What is the link between the rule of these foreign powers and Arabic?
Because of their power Arabic has developed and styles to these forging powers
where words are borrowed and new genres are introduced
3. What is meant by Arabicization or Arabization?
Arabicization is the use of Arabic
Arabization is the process of making something more Arab
a. What are the goals of this policy?
Main goal is to use and promote the Arabic language
b. Why was the first Arabization campaign unsuccessful?
Because people needed time to process the transition from English and French to
standard Arabic “ Not vernacular Arabic which most people were use to”
c. What challenges did Arabization face?
develop the Arabic language according to time { Need teachers, text books ,
publishing industry, Arabic language Academy }
4. How has globalization, 9/11 and ICT revolution impact the Arab world?
•
Foreign languages were introduced
•
Arabic is retreated
Note Diglossia : a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same
language) are used under different conditions within a community
The language situation in the Arab World
1. Diglossia, Fusha and the vernaculars (brief review as already discussed
this)
Diglossia existence of two main varieties of the Arabic language High →
Classical Arabic
Low → spoken varieties of Arabic
Arab World exhibits have a great language diversity – Arabic &Foreign
Language
English / French → Serves as major language
Indignons langages → Serves as minor langage
Variety of other languages → Serves as Special Purpose Language
Fusha & main foreign language → High Variety
Vernacular, indigenous languages and special purpose languages → Low Varity
2. Which are the dominant foreign languages in the Arab world?
a. what is their role?
English / French : widely used in various domains used in business, education,
and government, and is often a second language for the educated elite. Seeking
employment opportunities in the global economy.
Arabization
1. What is the difference between Arabization and Arabicization?
a. What do they refer to?
Policy of Arabic Speaking countries , Arabic is the official language of these
countries
2. Why was the Arabization policy implemented?
To restore to Arabic all its natural rights and communicative functions as the
native languages of the population
3. Describe the Arabization process in the Maghreb countries:
a. What is the goal of this policy?
To replace French with Arabic in various public sectors,
administration, mass media, physical environment and education.
b. How is Arabic perceived in this context?
As the symbol of identity and the rich cultural heritage that they share
with Arab countries
3. Describe the Arabization process in the Middle East
The major force in their drive for a pan-Arab political and economic entity
extending from the Atlantic ocean to Arabian gulf
4. Describe the Arabization process in Algeria:
a. What did it aim to do?
Implementing classical Arabic and strengthening its position in all public domain
b. What challenges did it face?
•
Shortage of teachers of Arabic in the country , high cost of importing
teachers from middle east
•
Lack of linguistically and culturally appropriate instructional material
c. Describe the Arabization of education.
Arabic remains the primary language of instruction in Algeria's
education system, with French still used as a secondary language in
some subjects.
5. Discuss the Arabization process in Morocco:
a. How was it implemented, why?
It was a gradual approach in order to avoid the problems of scarcity of
instructional materials, shortage of teachers, and unneeded disruption in the
educational system . The fear it could lead to rise in Islamic fundamentalism,
similar to Algeria
b. What are the five major phases of this process?
1st in 1958 without affecting the role of French
2nd 1968-1972 the completion of Arabization of the elementary cycle
3rd 1973-1977 Arabization of social studies in secondary school
4th 1978-1980 intensive efforts to Arabize all secondary school subjects
5th 1980-beyond relaunched a campaign for Arabizing scientific subjects in
secondary school to achieve total Arabization of pre-university education and
civil service
c. Was Arabization successful, why?
Arabization in universities was not more successful that Algeria, French
remain the main medium of instruction in all technical and scientific fields &
English is entering
d. What other changes were made in the 1990s, why?
The Arabization policy was ignoring the reality of long established multilingual
structure of country, vital role of French in Moroccan society and language rights
of Berbers 1/3 population “ The reinforcement and improvement of Arabic
teaching, diversity fiction of languages for teaching science and technology and
openness to Tamazight”
6. Discuss the Arabization process in Tunisia:
a. How was the process introduced?
A gradual methodical approach in order to ensure a smooth transition from
French to Arabic as language of teaching in schools
b. Evaluate the Tunisian Arabization policy.
Arabizing computer software and databases in all public institutions, it was more
successful than other Maghreb countries in area preparing teachers and
instructional materials in Arabic
7. Discuss the Arabization process in the Middle East (Egypt, Syria,
Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, The Gulf States):
a. What did the Turks do?
Turkish was introduced as the language of instruction in schools and
government
b. Discuss the literary/cultural renaissance in the 2nd half of the 19th
century?
The literary and educational awakening started with Napoleon’s campaign
in Egypt and Syria
c.
How did the competition between missionary schools strengthen
Arabic?
The language they stressed in order to attracts students to their schools , Arabic
was used for a short while as a medium of instruction in all fields, even medicine.
d. How did Sykes-Picot agreement impact the Arabic language and
the education system?
It emerged a more serious challenge for Arabic in the form of French and
English placed Lebanon and Syria under French mandate education and
administration system- Egypt, Sudan, Iraq and Palestine under British
Mandate official languages alongside Arabic
8. Describe the Arabization process after independence?
a. In Syria, Egypt and Iraq
The Arabization process took place smoothly
i. Why was Syria most successful?
It has covered all levels of education, including university education and
scientific and technical fields such as medicine and engineering
b. In Sudan
Arabic is the official language and the main language of education , after the
Addis Ababa a bilingual system has been installed with Arabic and English
c. In the Gulf States
Arabic is the symbol of identity and Islamic faith , assign more Arabic teaching
than other Arab countries. Arabic is the language of instruction of all school
subjects, international schools are forced to tech Arabic .
Issues Associated with Arabization
1. What is the motivation (goal) behind Arabization?
To provide a modern standard languages that enhances the transfer and growth
of knowledge among speakers whose mother tongue is colloquial Arabic,
Enhancing efficiency of education , strengthening the cultural consciousness in
Arab societies
2. In practice, what hindered the achievement of this goal?
The need of modernizing and standardizing the language ; relation between
Arabic languages and Islam ; limitation in the job market for those who are fluent
only in Arabic
Ignore section (4.1): Standardization and modernization.
Language of instruction
1. Why should the medium of the mother tongue be used in education?
It is advocated by the united Nations as vital for the preservation of cultural as
well as for facilitating the process of learning
2. Summarize the debate about native language vs. colonizer’s language.
Education authorities claim that because of the need for modernization and
technology they cannot afford to wait for academies to coin new term so they
argue to retain major role for foreign language in education.
3. Why are educational authorities in the Arab world allowing foreign
languages a greater role in education?
Because most professional, scientific, and technological fields are taught in
English or French
4. Summarize the position of parents re-Arabic/foreign languages?
Parents believe that English medium have more opportunities in job market and
world globalization than an Arabic median education system
5.
Describe the language of instruction in tertiary education (university).
American style, English medium universities tech all specialization in
English are being established in many Arab countries. Many British, American,
Australian universities are opening regular or distance education branches
6. Outline the issues and concerns researchers have identified in recent
times?
•
Very few Arabist are fighting for Arabization , very few French educated
elitists are insisting on French.
•
Fear that school graduates educated in Arabic medium schools would not
have a solid base in foreign languages and wont be able to compete in the
job market
Language Contact, Bilingualism and Code-switching
Language can influence each other
They are not isolated
A language need to be in contact with those of a neighboring or culturally
dominant language, directly or indirectly.
Language speakers interact with another (exchange of vocabulary within or
outside a language community):
1. To gain language
2. Invitation
3. Intertribal Trade
4. Intermarriage
Tribe marry from each other → Lead to barrowing
When two languages co-exist, there is a possibility of mutual borrowing.
•
some languages are more dominant and have greater prestige than others
they become a source of borrowing for the latter; English
•
Haugen define borrowing as the attempted reproduction in one language
of patterns previously found in another
•
Nancy Armstrong considers borrowing to be one of the ways in which a
language renews its lexicon
Five languages have played a significant role in the development of human
cultures:
classical Chinese
Sanskrit,
Arabic
Greek and Latin.
•
The process of borrowing does not take place among speakers of the same
dialect or language; it occurs among speakers of different languages and
dialects.
The Muslim rule over Spain influenced medieval European scholars who began
to take an interest in learning Arabic→ barrowing words
•
Thomas and Kaufman define borrowing as: the incorporation of features into
a groups native language by speakers of that language; the native language is
maintained but is changed by the addition of the incorporated features
The more superior a language is, the larger is the number of words borrowed by
a speaker of the recipient language.
According to J.A. Gomez bilingualism is the main factor of language contact
Six factors contributing to bilingualism
1. Military Invasion and colonisation
2. Living in a border
3. Migration for social and economic reasons
4. Formal Education
5. Spread of international languages
6. Emergence of ethnic awareness
•
Process of linguistic borrowing influences both languages: the loaner and the
recipient.
•
Words are borrowed to fill specific lexical gaps in a language
Bi directional
Occurred Between two language barrow and give from one an another → Equal
putting
Uni Directional
One direction → One language barrow from another while the other don’t .
Depends on how dominant the language is ( The more powerful, Up to date ,
Wide vocabulary )
Landing language → Gives words
Recipients Language → Takes words
Barrowing Hogan → A feature barrowed because of communication need to
express certain needs
Example
Islamicization
In Arabic is known as ‫اإلسالميويه‬
Direct barrow: Loaning a word but changing an unavailable letter
Example : Computer - ‫كومبيوتر‬
Indirect barrowing : Arabic barrows a word in English that is barrowed from the
French
Example
Middle ages → Arabic the language of science
Europeans came across to learn ( In Arabic ) and they were barrowed to English /
French
Process of Language Barrowing
•
Language barrow from each other if there is a case of lacking
•
We modify words that we barrow to adapt the linguistic system
•
The tolerance of a language determine the acceptance of language
borrowing
The study of borrowing split into :
Diachronic
The study of change throughout history
Synchronic
The study of change in specific period
Types of code switching
“ the use of two or more languages in the same conversation”
1. Tag switching
Only the tag is different
Example ; ya3ni , I mean
2. Intercontinental Switching
The switch happens while speaking
Example; I want to go and buy 7leeb
Types of Bilingualism:
1. Coordinate Bilingualism
Keep two languages in isolation or apart
Example; a single object with diff symbols
He will say book when specking to the teacher , he will say ketab to his Arab
parents
2. Compound Bilingualism
The Acknowledgement of two languages that are integrated semantic
Example; Moroccan child with a Moroccan father and French mother in
Morocco.
3. Subordinate Bilingualism
one language is dominant and the other is subordinate.
Language Decline and Death in Africa
Endangered Language : is a language that is threatened by extinction
-
Definitions (author and Bobaljik)
who regard it as one that will have no speakers left within a few generations
-
Sources of threat: the sociolinguistic (3) and structural ones (1)
The sociolinguistic
•
pool of speakers is declining rapidly to small numbers
•
younger generations are not learning to speak it
•
domains in which the language is used have shrunk so much that
it is not used regularly in the language community
The structural linguistics is that linguistic structures of a language are so eroded
and simplified that the language is progressively becoming non-functional
-
Explain what is meant by ‘language endangerment dichotomy’ and
‘endangerment continuum’?
language endangerment dichotomy is unrealistic to justify it between
endangered and non-endangered languages
Language endangerments is a continuum defined as relatively safe on one end
and highly endangered on other end
-
What did Krauss predict? Evaluate his prediction.
By the beginning of the next century the world will se the death of 90% of
mankind languages , By the emergence of globalization its possible for most
languages to be endangered
Factors contributing to language endangerment
-
Why do people not support the death of their language? (3)
1. It’s a tool of communication
2. A vehicle of cultural accumulation and transmission
3. Symbol of one’s identity and self-expression
-
How do people react when a stronger language competes with their
language?
Resist the pressure from the strong language
-
What determine the degree of success in resisting the stronger
language? (3 factors)
1. The degree of pressure from stronger language is greater that the
resistance – Weaker is Highly endanger
2. Resistance is greater than the pressure from stronger language – Weak
language not endangered
3. Weaker language see many advantages in joining the community oof
stronger language speaker – Abandoned their language
-
When does language shift occur?
The loss of native language to a new language for being exposed to a new
language
-
What relationship arises when two languages of unequal socio-political
or economic strength come in contact with one another?
A pressure -resistance relationship arise
-
When does language endangerment become apparent?
When there is a net loss of resistance on the part of the weaker language
-
What are the first indications of endangerment?
Highly bilingual situation, where weaker language community speak mother
tongue and the stronger language
-
What are the three main categories of endangered languages? (table 11)
1. Attitude related; the speakers of a language develop a negative attitude
towards the language
2. Language use is related ; Reduction in domain of use , Inactive
transmission of language
3. Language structure related ;Limited stylistic variation , Lexical Reduction,
Structural erosion and simplification
-
Do all indicators appear simultaneously or the with the same degree of
intensity? Explain
They don’t appear at the same time, nor same intensity . Usually attitude related
indicators appear and very visibly before those related to language use. The
structure related indicators tend to appear as the terminal stage of language
extinction
-
What does the work of Batibo and Krauss demonstrate?
Batibo; Language communities with more than 200,000 ethnic member are highly
threated in view of their location
Krauss; with a membership over 1 million people, but fast giving way to French
despite many modern approaches to its preservation
Language shift and Death
Definitions of language shift and death
-
What are the definitions of language shift and language death?
Language shift results when speakers abandon their language willingly or under
pressure for another languages
Language death refers to the state of extinction, the language is no longer used as
mean of communication or socialization
-
When does language death occur? (4)
Through the abandonment of language by its speakers the non-use of a language
in many domains, the disappearance of its speakers , the non-functioning of its
structure
-
When does a language become extinct? (2)
When all speakers are eliminated for example genocide
Theoretical perspectives
-
What is the aim of these approaches?
To capture the process whereby an endangered language is progressively
reduced to extinction or how its speakers shift to another language
-
How many are there? What do we call them?
Two major typed of approach
One considers the set of factors and circumstances that cause or attend the
abandonment by a language group of its language in favor of another Causality based model
Second type is about the processes involved in language shift and death / the
stages that a language goes through on its way to extinction or death – Process
based model
1. Language shift
The loss of native language to a new language for being exposed to a new
language
2. Language maintenance
Speaker acquire new language and loss the native language by constantly using
and improving it
3. Language creation
A language developed by mixing 3 or more languages in which the boundaries
between three languages is dropped and people develop this new language
“ Found in small lands such as islands “
Unmarked Bilingualism
Both languages exist in harmony and parallel with each other
Marked Bilingualism
Two languages exist with the favored spread of the powerful or privileges
language by putting them in contact with less powerful or privileges ones
These models show how language shift occurs -Identifying the phases of shifting
Common causes od language shit and death in Africa;
1. Demographic Pressure (language with large number of speakers come in
contact with a few speakers of a language )
2. Socio-economic pressure ( A language with higher socio economic
opportunities come in contact with languages with little or no economic
opportunities ) Example ; access to trade and
3. Political Pressure ( A language associated with higher power or political
influence come in contact with a language that has no such power )
4. Cultural Pressure ( A language with certain culture forces ; Religion,
traditions comes in contact with another language )
1. Geo-demographic
High concentration of language in certain area and low concentration of
language in other areas , the imbalance in sizes of languages causing a language
to dominate others
2. Socio-economic
Comprise economic and social factors
Example when an immigrant travels to another country for opportunities they
adapt new languages
3. Political
Promotion of certain language to a new status such as national or official
language this conferring power and privilege on such language
4. Sociolinguistic
How many people use the language
LANGUAGE ATTITUDES IN THE ARAB WORLD
The study of language attitude
•
Critical to understanding language ideologies in a particular
society
•
Shields light on identity as perceived by the self and others
•
The chapter starts with
•
Several research methods in studying language attitudes generally
•
Survey of selected research on language attitudes in the Arab world
•
However, the survey is not exhaustive due to limitations
Definition of attitudes Involves three aspects
•
Cognition: The beliefs people have in issues/language
•
Affect: The feelings of people toward it
•
Behavior: The people's actual language practices
Psychological constructs - measurable
Research Methodology of studying language attitude ;
Investigates :
What do people believe, Their feeling towards, and their actual linguistic behavior about
a certain language or variety?
The extent of people's language practices reflecting their feelings on a language/variety
Linguists follow three main approaches :
1. The Indirect Measure
•
The matched guise technique
•
Attitudes are an intangible psychological construct; they cannot be measured
directly;
•
Best way: indirectly - without alerting the subject
•
Participants listen to recordings made by a native-like bilingual speaker of two
languages/varieties of a language
•
Likert Scale participants rate speakers on certain features based on personality or
status
•
Rating the language/variety they hear
•
Example; Lambert, Anisfeld, Yeni-komshian (1965) - Arabic & Hebrew
2. The Direct Method
1. Participants are informed, and they are asked about their attitudes towards
language/variety
They respond to a questionnaire by :
1. Rating language/variety questions on Likert
2. Semantic differential Scale
3. Open ended Written answer
Gauge participants: Beliefs, feelings, actual behavior on language/dialect
2. Questionnaire followed by interviews
Subjects provide answers they believe are socially acceptable or appealing to the
researcher
Participant self- reporters' behavior may differ from actual behavior
The interview is conducted with some participants - individual/groups
Interviewers ask to elaborate / on other relevant questionnaires
Observe actual linguistic behavior rather than self-reported behavior
Researcher adopted this method; Saidat (2010) to investigate language attitudes in
Jordan
3. Ethnographic Approach
Depends on interviews to collect data
Long interviewers that are less structured allow conversation flow
Case studies - focusing on linguistic behavior & attitudes of limited people
Researcher focuses on languages exposed & factors influencing attitudes
Observing the actual linguistic behavior of participants
Relay on deep analyses between interviews and history interviewees to have a
conclusion
Abou Ras(2012) approaches to her study attitudes of Egyptian Nubian university
students toward Arabic and Nubian language
4. The Societal Treatment of language varieties
Content Analysis , Analyzing the content of media discourse / popular literature
How people in general regard the varieties of language in their society
For example;
Suleiman (2004, 2011, 2013) analyzed books and articles (both historical and modern)
and media discourse on the Arabic language to examine the history of attitudes toward
SA and the vernacular.
Bassiouney (2014) analyzed media discourse, film & songs to investigate language
attitudes in Egypt, and the association of varieties of Arabic: Standard Arabic (SA), and
Egyptian Colloquial Arabic (ECA), with identity
•
Language attitudes and practices are linked to users' perceived identities and
ideologies.
•
A change in attitude towards codeswitching and Arabic vernaculars has taken place
in the last 10-15 years.
•
Proliferation of language schools, international schools, and private universities that
use English as a medium of instruction may have contributed to this change in
attitude
•
The growing importance of English in a globalized market has also led to the
increased general importance of English
•
New modes of computer-mediated communication and other forms of electronic
writing have made the vernacular more convenient and appropriate for writing
•
Social media has encouraged users to draw on various linguistic resources,
including local vernaculars, SA, English, French, and code-mixing, to negotiate and
project their identities to others.
Hip-Hop in the Arab World and Kuwait
•
An interview made on bilingualism
Hip-Hop
•
Personal and Political
•
Artistic Expression & Resistance
•
Multidimensional and varies from one culture to another ( Localization in each)
•
is a dominant music and Culture in US
•
People express their opinion ; Form to express and a way to send a massage
•
Easy to use
•
In Arab world : Artists participate in a hemogenic
Grand Narrative w Hip Hop
Advocated : Made popular by social groups
Social political Issues are discussed in rapes ;
Example :
Drugs , Discrimination ,
Hanen; Hip Hop in Arab world concentrates on issues in each country ;Palestinians use
to express the oppression
Rappers:
Preserve History
Send a massage on their experiences
Verities of Hip Hop in Arab World
1. Imitating North American and European Hip Hop Style
Colloquial Local Arabic language
Most Used
2. Mixed with Traditional local Arab music, rhythms, Arab instrument an d
melodies
Inspired from Jamaican reggae ska and Arabic
Less Used
3. Free Local Hip Hop Music
The similarity between the rap signing and the Arab signing technique “ Mawwal”
A new style that Builds on Traditional Arabic technique
Case Study
Hip Hop in the Arab Gulf and Kuwait
Most traditional song follow rhythms , descriptive language
Music in the Arab world raises questions about identity, language, and politics, and it is
worth noting that the popular culture in the Gulf has many artistic expressions
Social and political 60s , 70s after the gulf war the country became more conservative
society
Language and Popular Culture
Sons Of Yusuf
•
They are a duo that
•
Grew in California
•
Blossomed into an international Phenomenon
•
Unique blending of language and cultures
•
Mix Kuwaiti Culture with American Hip-Hop
Example : One Time “ 2yam el 6yben “
•
Songs are Nostalgic ( Restore) towards the sea ; on titles
Mixing cultures and languages
Speak their dialect – with some SA and English
Code switching
Laham ; The man entertaining the sears by music on long sea trips
Arab Culture isn’t just about terrorism, there’s a long history
Reflect luxurious life by music videos
Moving from riding camels to luxury cars
The focus on Western media to neglect Islamic phobia and show similarities between
westerns and Muslims
In Maghreb, human rights and poverty are the main topics
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language serves and is shaped by the social nature of
human beings.
Sons Of Yousef and Sociolinguistics
1. Codeswitching between ENG-SA-KCA
2. Bilingualism
3. Language and identity they make through their expression
Linguistic Identities in the Arab Gulf States
Languages used in several places
How did communication during the Pandemic differ
UAE → Multilingual population
90% of the population being transnational workers who collectively speak over
100 language
Languages used in the UAE is
1. Arabic
2. English
Some locations { Strategic settings }add a 3rd languages for its predominance such
as
3. Philippines “ Money Exchange “ or Indians “ Patrol locations “
During the pandemic The local language is dominated in communication
Effectiveness of
Many Indians who had mobile phone
Linguistic Landscape :
A language used in a place ( Signal, Symbol)
Linguistic Identity :
person's identification as a speaker of one or more languages
Correlation between Linguistic Landscape and Linguistic Identity
An individual will feel Respected
Acknowledge the rules and restrictions
The study
investigates linguistic inclusion and exclusion on coronavirus signage in the
Emirate of Abu Dhabi and the resultant effects on Gulf linguistic identities
1.
Which languages appear on coronavirus signage in transactional
spaces in the public domain of Abu Dhabi?
2. In what ways do the languages and semiotic resources on signage
support residents’ identities and sense of belonging?
3. What evidence is there to support linguistic inclusion among speakers
of peripheral languages?
Transaction zones
5 specific zones
The study reveals that there is a use of two main languages and a third languages
is limited to the locations such as Urdu in patrol stations
Solutions :
1. Raising public awareness of learning
2. Using pictures / symbols to inform
Translating the languages
Languages used in the UAE:
English
Lingo Franko “ Arabic “
Patrol stations ( More than three languages )
UAE was trying to develop its economy however during the pandemic there is
fluctuation mainly in Hotel and leisure spaces
So they worked in Promoting those places
The chapter discuss a problem; that is Communication used during the
Pandemic in the UAE as it was difficult to inform all citizens the rules and
restrictions
• Linguistic ethnography recognizes that ‘language and the social world
are mutually shaping, and that close analysis of situated language use can
provide both fundamental and distinctive insights into the mechanisms
and dynamics of social and cultural production in everyday activity’
•
Social and political issues such as power and identity are a primary
concern for linguistic ethnographers