Complete series of questions that demonstrate your understanding of the human
muscular and skeletal system?
Contents:
Page 1: Title Page
Page 2: Introduction
page 2 – 6: Section One – The Muscular System
Pages 6– 7: Section Two – The Skeletal System
Pages 7- 11: Section Three – Macrophages and the
Mononuclear Phagocyte Framework
Page 11: Conclusion
Page11-12. References Bibliography
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Introduction:
This report has been arranged to show phenomenal comprehension of the capabilities and life
structures of the human solid and skeletal frameworks. In segment one, a synopsis is given
about the design of muscle tissue types, muscle cells and connective tissues, as well as their
purposes and areas inside the body. Detail is likewise given about muscle constriction with a
specific spotlight on striated muscle types. In area two, the skeletal framework is described
with regards to the kinds of bone, joints, and defensive designs. In segment three, the data is
assembled to show how the human body uses velocity and fixes and safeguards bones and
muscles when harm happens.
Section 1: The muscular system
MUSCLE TISSUES & CELL TYPE:
There are three principal kinds of solid tissue answerable for development inside the human
body:
Skeletal Muscle:
Skeletal muscle is viewed as joined to the skeleton and is liable for the willful development of
bones. Skeletal muscle filaments run in equal plots and are multinucleated and energetically
striated.
Smooth Muscle:
Smooth muscle is tracked down in the covering of inward organs (GI plot, uterus, veins, eyes,
and so on)
It controls the compulsory choking of these areas (for example peristalsis, vasoconstriction,
understudy widening).
Smooth muscle strands are not striated, have a shaft shape and every fiber contains a solitary
focal core.
Cardiovascular Muscle:
Cardiovascular muscle is tracked down in the heart and is liable for the cadenced withdrawal of
the heart (for example heartbeat)
Cardiovascular muscle strands are fanning, intercalated, delicately striated and have a solitary
core for each fiber.
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fig No 1: Muscle tissue and cell type.
MUSCLE CONNECTIVE TISSUES:
Connective tissues are formed by the mesoderm of the embryo and are found throughout the
entire body. Their purpose is to connect other tissues and organs, store and transport
materials, and to provide support to the body’s vital systems. The three components of
connective tissue are extra-cellular matrix, living cells, and fibers, which are either collagen
(white fibers), elastin (yellow fibers) or reticular. Collagen fibers are the thickest elastin is
thinner and stretchy and reticular are the most delicate, found in organs.
Table 1 Distribution and main functions of the cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system.
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Muscles contract utilizing actin and myosin:
As examined later, the engine action of myosin moves its head bunches along the actin fiber
toward the in addition to end. This development slides the actin fibers from the two sides of
the sarcomere toward the M line, shortening the sarcomere and bringing about muscle
withdrawal.
Sliding filament theory of muscle contraction:
1. Sarcoplasmic reticulum discharges calcium particles.
2. Calcium particles tie to troponin.
3. Tropomyosin moves to uncover dynamic destinations of actin.
4. ATP is parted into ADP and P.
5. Myosin head ties to actin.
6. ADP and P set free from myosin.
7. Myosin cross-spans twist, pulling actin toward focus of sarcomere.
The sliding fiber hypothesis of muscle happens during the time spent muscle withdrawal
(development). This likewise happens for the most part in skeletal muscles. The interaction
starts with the arrival of calcium particles which ties to troponin and this limiting considers the
openness of the myosin restricting site which is obstructed by tromyosin.
Stretched muscle contraction:
fig no 2: Stretched Muscle Contraction
Image source: https://www.teachpe.com/anatomy-physiology/sliding-filament-theory
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The diagram above shows a muscle stretched. The I – bands and the H – zone is wider. The
myosin and actin filaments overlap, but not by much. As a result, fewer cross bridges between
Actin and Myosin form, so muscle strength is lower.
Partial muscle contraction:
fig no 3: Partial Muscle Contraction
Image source: https://www.teachpe.com/anatomy-physiology/sliding-filament-theory
With a partial muscle contraction myosin and actin overlap more. Therefore, more potential for
cross bridges to form. The I – bands and H – zone shortens.
Fully muscle contraction:
fig no 3: fully Muscle Contraction
Image source: https://www.teachpe.com/anatomy-physiology/sliding-filament-theory
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The diagram above shows a fully contracted muscle with lots of overlap between the actin and
myosin. Because the thin actin filaments have overlapped there is a reduced potential for cross
bridges to form again. Therefore, there will be low force production from the muscle .
Section 2:Skeletal muscle:
Skeletal muscle is a type of muscle tissue that is attached to bones and is responsible for
voluntary movement and maintaining posture. It is made up of elongated, multinucleated cells
called muscle fibers, which contract and relax to generate force. Skeletal muscles work in pairs,
with one muscle contracting while its antagonist relaxes, allowing for smooth and coordinated
movement.
Types Of Bones:
There are two main types of bones in the human body are:
Long bones and short bones. Long bones, such as the femur (thigh bone) and tibia (shin bone),
provide support and aid in movement.
Short bones, such as the bones of the wrist, are usually cube-shaped and provide stability.
Additionally, there are flat bones, such as the scapula (shoulder blade) and the pelvis, which
provide protection for internal organs and serve as attachment points for muscles. There are
also sesamoid bones, which are small bones embedded within tendons, and irregular bones,
which don't fit into the other categories and have unique shapes.
Function, types, Components, Characteristics of Connective Tissue:
fig no 5: major functions &components of connective tissue.
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Bone Connective tissues:
Connective tissues, delegated ligaments, tendons, and ligament, are utilized to interface
muscles to bones and to link joints together. Ligaments are made areas of strength for of,
collagen strands which join to a muscle and at the periosteum, which covers the bone. They
should be hard to shield the muscle from tearing under pressure of customary development.
Ligaments, for example, those found in the lower leg joints which are more inclined to
cadenced pressure, are encircled by a ligament sheath which contains a film of synovial liquid
to diminish grinding and safeguard the ligament from becoming damaged. Ligands are likewise
produced using extreme strands of collagen organized in equal packs to expand their solidarity.
The two closures of the tendons connect to the periosteum on bones and work to balance out
joints and forestall separation. Tendons can be extracapsular (tracked down outwardly of the
joint) or intracapsular (saw as inside the joint).
Types Of Connective Tissue:
The types of connective tissue include are:
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Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Dense fibrous connective tissue
Elastic connective tissue
Cartilage
Osseous tissue (bone)
Blood.
Section:3 Macrophages and the Mononuclear Phagocyte
Framework:
Macrophages are portrayed by their advanced phagocytic capacity and have practical
experience in turnover of protein strands and evacuation of dead cells, tissue flotsam and
jetsam, or other particulate material. They have a wide range of morphologic elements relating
to their condition of useful action and to the tissue they possess. A commonplace macrophage
estimates somewhere in the range of 10 and 30 μm in measurement and has an erratically
found, oval or kidney-formed core. Macrophages are available in the connective tissue of most
organs and are frequently alluded to by pathologists as "histiocytes.
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Plasma cell:
Plasma cells are immune response delivering cells that are separated B lymphocytes. that
intercede humoral insusceptibility by constant emission of antibodies. These cells are significant
for humoral resistance and are tracked down in the bone marrow.
Structure and Functions of Plasma cells:
The plasma cells are large lymphocytes with dense basophilic cytoplasm, an eccentric nucleus,
and a well-organized network of Golgi apparatus and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).
These cells bear specific surface markers cluster of differentiation (CD)78, CD138, and ILR-6.
Plasma cells are CD27++ in contrast to naive B-cells that are CD27-.
Plasma cells secrete antibodies into the circulating blood; however, unlike their precursors,
they do not exhibit immunoglobulin (Ig) class switching. Also, B-cells do not act as antigenpresenting cells once differentiated into plasma cells.
The short-lived plasma cells usually secrete IgM, whereas the long-lived plasma cells (LLPC)
release IgG and IgA. Therefore, LLPC is the primary source of IgG in the circulating blood.
These antibodies show high affinity toward their antigen as B-cell maturation, and their
secretion relies on somatic hypermutation.
Recent studies suggest the role of plasma cells in inhibiting follicular T-helper cell development
and thus, regulating the immune response.
Mast Cells:
Mast cells are oval or irregularly shaped connective tissue cells, between 7 and 20 μm in
diameter, whose cytoplasm is filled with basophilic secretory granules. The nucleus is centrally
situated and often obscured by abundant secretory granules (Figure 5–5). These granules are
electron-dense and heterogeneous (ranging from 0.3 to 2.0 μm in diameter.) Because of their
high content of acidic radicals in their sulfated GAGs, mast cell granules display metachromasia,
which means that they can change the color of some basic dyes (e.g., toluidine blue) from blue
to purple or red. The granules are poorly preserved by common fixatives, so that mast cells are
frequently difficult to identify.
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Fig no 6: Mast cell
Mast cells function in the localized release of many bioactive substances with roles in the local
inflammatory response, innate immunity, and tissue repair. A partial list of important molecules
released from these cells’ secretory granules includes the following:
Heparin, a sulfated GAG that acts locally as an anticoagulant.
Histamine, which promotes increased vascular permeability and smooth muscle contraction.
Serine proteases, which activate various mediators of inflammation.
Eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic factors, which attract those leukocytes.
Cytokines, polypeptides directing activities of leukocytes and other cells of the immune system.
Phospholipid precursors for conversion to prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and other important
lipid mediators of the inflammatory response.
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fig no 6: Mast cell creation.
Leukocytes:
Other than macrophages and plasma cells, connective tissue typically contains different
leukocytes got from cells circling in the blood. Leukocytes, or white platelets, make up a
populace of meandering cells in connective tissue. They leave blood by moving between the
endothelial cells lining venules to enter connective tissue by a cycle called diapedesis. This
interaction increments significantly during aggravation, which is a vascular and cell cautious
reaction to injury or unfamiliar substances, including pathogenic microbes or disturbing
synthetic substances.
Traditionally, the significant indications of aroused tissues incorporate "redness and enlarging
with intensity and torment” Irritation starts with the nearby arrival of synthetic go between
from different cells, the ECM, and blood plasma proteins. These substances follow up on the
neighborhood microvasculature, pole cells, macrophages, and different cells to instigate
occasions normal for irritation, for instance expanded blood stream and vascular penetrability,
diapedesis and relocation of leukocytes, and initiation of macrophages for phagocytosis.
Fiber:
The fibrous components of connective tissue are elongated structures formed from proteins
that polymerize after secretion from fibroblasts. The three main types of fibers include
collagen, reticular, and elastic fibers. Collagen and reticular fibers are both formed by proteins
of the collagen family, and elastic fibers are composed mainly of the protein elastin. These
fibers are distributed unequally among the different types of connective tissue, with the
predominant fiber type usually responsible for conferring specific tissue properties.
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Collagen:
The collagens comprise a group of proteins chose during development for their capacity to
frame various extracellular designs. The different filaments, sheets, and organizations made of
collagens are areas of strength for very impervious to ordinary shearing and tearing powers.
Collagen is a critical component of every single connective tissue, as well as epithelial storm
cellar layers and the outside laminae of muscle and nerve cells.
Collagen is the most plentiful protein in the human body, addressing 30% of its dry weight. A
significant result of fibroblasts, collagens are emitted by a few other cell types and are
recognizable by their sub-atomic creations, morphologic qualities, dispersion, capabilities, and
pathologies. A group of 28 collagens exists in vertebrates, the most significant of which are
recorded in Table 5-3. They can be gathered into the accompanying classifications as indicated
by the designs shaped by their communicating subunits.
Conclusion:
This report takes care of how strong and skeletal frameworks capability together impeccably to
empower headway and when injury or sickness happens, how our bodies can fix themselves
partially. Bones are organized to take into consideration organs to be safeguarded while giving
people their level and strength. Muscles contract through sliding fiber hypothesis which
requires pairings of agonist and bad guy muscles and makes energy as ATP. Ligaments, tendons,
ligament, and connective tissue join muscles to bones and bones to joints which is crucially
significant for mellowing the effect of locomotion.
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