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Plastics and their role in economic development of India
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EIndiqn J Econ Dev
Volurne 9 No. 2 (2013): 184-Ig3
PLASTTCS AND THEIRROLE
II...{
ECO]\OMIC
DBVELOPMENT OFINDIA
K.K. chahal, Ramandeep Kaur and s. KaushalABSTRACT
The first man made plastic wos created by Alexander paikes
collecl
Parkesine from cellulose. Plastics ore tnuatiy synthetic,
most commonly
derived from petrochemicals but many are partially naturAl.
A plastic i,y
primarily made up of binder, plasticizer, Jillers, pisrnents and additiv,esi.
Plastics are of tu'o types namely thermoplastics and thermosets. ,n;';;;
critical factor that plagues the Indian^ plastic industry ls the
common
perception that plastics
not
environmentally
This
rr
mcinly
friendly.
?re
due to poor ctwareness about the energ saving'pioprrties
of plastics ancl
the benefits to in&stries that utilize plastics. iriio-is the htgirrt
recycler
of plastics. The Indian plastic ndrntry rr promising indwtry -iii'-i,
creating new employment opportuniti,es
for pgople of lrrdia. The iq capita
consumption'of plastic prodrcts in India is growiig. The Goviltment
of
India is trying to set up the economic reforms to elevate ond boosi
the
plastic indwtry by ioint ventures, foreigi investments and entreprenetrs
are trying to provide high quality plastic products,so that it bicomes
a
b*Nlg!1dry!ry,
Key words: Plastic, development, biodegradable and employmcnt.
JEL Classification: F63 , J2l
INTRODUCTION
The first man-made plastic'was created by Alexander Parkes
who publicly
demonstrated it at the 1862 Great International Bxhibition in
London. The rnateriat
called Parkesine was an organic draterial derived from cellulose
thar once heated
could be
nd retained its shape when coored. John pesrey Hy4tt invented
rte for the ivory in uitt*a bails in lg6g. However, the r*r"riui
\ to be used as a billiard ball, until the addition of camphor, a
'l tree. The new .celluloid could be molded
with heat and
molr
.celhrl-
shapg later celluloid became famous as the flrst flexible
rr still photography and motion pictures. By
1900, movie
Ro1'A,
cholar and Teaching Assistant, Department of Clemishy,
udhian a-l4l 004, E-MAll: drkkchahal@yahoo.corn
r84
nitrate, formaldehyde
film was an erploriing market for celluloid. After.cellulose
of plastics. Around 1897, efforts to
was the next product to advance the technology
plastics. In 1899, Arthur Smith
manufacture white .nuU,,toura, led to .ur"in
patent l6275,for phenol-formaldehyde resins for use as an ebonite
received Ilritish
in 1907, Leo Hendrik Baekeland
substitute in eleclrical insllation. However,
fu1ly
phe'ol-formaldehyde reaction techniques and invented the first
trade named Bakelite (Du Bois'
,yn h.,i, resin to become commercially successful,
times line precursors of plastics discoveref frol time to time are
i1lZl.tt
"various
quality plastics'
presente{ in Table 1 reveals the development of superior
;;;;
Table l:- Timetine
Y*rtffimaterial
discove
l 839
rented
Natural Rubber- method of processing tnr
Polystyene (PS) discovered
843
1856
1856
Gutta-Percha
t862
Parkesine
r
1
Scientist
Francois Charles LePag
Bois Durci
Alexander Parkes
John Wesley HYatt
first created by Eugen Baumann
Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John
Cellulose Nirate or Celluloid
Polyrnnyl Ctrloride ( PVC)
Viscose RaYon
863
Bevan
I 909
Cellophanc @
First iot plastic Rhenol-Formaldehyde Eade name
Bakelite
1926
Vinyl (PvC)
I 908
==T927=cEl
:.
Low-density PolYethYlene ( LDPE)
Polyurethanes trade name lgamid for plastics
matcrials and Perlon for fibers
193 8
r939
PolyieEafluoroethylene (PTFE) tade name teflon
Nyion and Neoprene considered a replacement for silk
t94l
and a qynthetic rubber respectively
Polyethyl ane Terephthalate (PET)
1942
195
Highdensity polyethylene (HDPE) trade name Marlex
l 953
I 954
r
970
1
978
I 985
Walter Semon invented a plasticized
Accidbntally discovered bY RalPh
Wiley, a Dow Chemical lab worker
Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett
Otto Bayer and co-workers dispovered
and patented the chemistry
polyurethanes
Roy Plunkett
Wallace Hume Carothers
of
Whinfield and Dickson
Patented by John Rex WhinfiPld and
James Tennant Dickson
Unsaturated PolYester ( PET)
1
Leo Hendrik Baekeland
PVC
t937
935
Jacques E. Brandenbergu
=--
lg33PolyvinyliclenechlorideorSaran(PVDC)
1
William Montgomerie
Alfred Critchlow, Samuel Peck
.
Shellac
1872
l 894
Charles Goodyear
Eduard Simon
Saran Wrap
Styrofoam a type of foamed polystyrene foam
Paul Hogan and Robert Banks
Dow Chemicals
invented by RaY Mclntire for Dow
Chemicals
Thermopla stic Polyester thi s includ es tra demarked
Dacron, Melinex and Tetorbn
Linear lnw DensitY PolYethYlene
Liquid Crystal PolYmers
i l,rlormatiort rtot av ailable
solids that are
A plastic material can be synthetic or semi-synthetic organic
high molecular mass' but they
moldable. Plastics are typically organic polyrners of
from petrochemicals' but
often contain other substanc.s. They are mostly derived
185
many are partially natural..The term was derived from the Greek plastikos,
which
means fit for molding. Plastics are a'wide variety of combinations of properties
when viewed as a whole (Angell 1991). They are used for shellac, cellulose,
asphalt and' synthetically manufacture items such
as clothing,
-Ub.",
packaging,
automobiles, electronics, aircrafts, medical supplies, and recreational items.
One
way plastics changed the world was in cost. It was so much cheaper to manufacture
than other noatprials and the various ways it could be used was staggering. For
instancg the use of polymers, which are substances with a higher molecule
tnass
and which have a large number of repeating uirits, is common today. There are
naturally occurring polymers, which include starches, ce.llulosg proteins, and latex.
Polymer5 are molecules that join together like a chain with one or more monomers.
The polymers are changed depending on the incorporation of these monomers.
If
the atoms in the monomers are combined to form the polymer, it is call-ed
an
addition polymer. When some of the atoms of the monomers are released into
small
molecules, as in liquid then the polymer is caled a condensation polymm.
A
double bond between carbon atoms is most common in addition polyrners
irf-*ota,
1e68).
Composition
Almost invariably, organic polymere 4ainly comprise plastics. The l.ast
majorrty of these polymers are based on chains of'carbon atoms alonb or with
oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen as well. The backbone is that part of the chain on
the
main "path" linking a large number of repeating units together. This fine tuning
of
the properties of the polyner by repeating units molecular skuchre has allowed
principally made up of binder, plasticizers, fillers and pigments and other additives.
The binder gives a plastic its main characteristics ana usually its name. Thus,
polyvinyl chloride is the name of a binder as well as the plastic into which it is
Binders may be natural materials, for example cellulose derivatives, casein,
or milk protein, but are more cornmonly synthetic'resins. In either case, the binder
:'
materials consist of very long chainlike molecules called polymers.
Classification
Thermoplastic polymers and thermosetting plastics are. two types of
plastics. Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their corrrposition
when
heated and can be moulded again and again. Examples include p'lyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyterafluoroethylene.
The
common thermoplastic ranges from 20,000 to 500,000 amu (Ungar, lgg3).They
are
usually rigid glasses at low temperature and flexible elastomers above Tg
fthe glass
transition temperature); and they may actually melt at a still higher temperahrre.u
Their properties like tensile strength, elongation at break and flexural rnodulus and
uses (Miller and Dekker, 1996\ are determined partially by whether Tg
is above or
*d:.
186
(Table 2). Thermosets are assumed to have
oelwr the terrrperature during ur:
repeating
are made up of several thousand
infrnite nrcrle,cdal weight. These chains
they have solidified'
cax melt and take shape once after
molecu[ar units. Thennosets
Jnltlg.fier.nrosettingprocess,aninJversiblechemicalreactionoccursforinstance
,;i.'*@;on
is a tacky'
oi*uuo. Before heating with sulfi', the polyisoprene
vulcanization the product is rigid and non-tacky'
slightly..nrnny material, but after
in natural aerobic
plastics are plastics that will decompose
i|ffi";A;ouur"
(""*;ffi
*a
unooouic (landfi ll) environments (Anonymous,
20 1 3).
and applications of some
Tt?es of Plastics, properties, produgts
inlrnercially im rtant plastics
products and
:,
;
Table
2:
fofffi.r
farnilY and tYPe'
Tensile
strength
Elongation
''Flexural
at break
modulus
Typical
applic ations
%
Pa
TFE&\'!oPLAsrIcs
r-r'5
itill.ffilil"toivethv{or:e 20-30 10-r'000
8-30 10o650 0'25-0'35
Ill;lBl^r',, Polverhvlene
':
------1-'*.e-;ti-
(LDPE)
"
lf:$*T$l;wireandcabre
Packaging
film' grocery bagq
agnculturalmulch
Bo$les' food containers' toys
'7
30-40 10H00
'-i-2 l2-l
2'ts.3'4
il;
potvstrcne(ps),
3$i"*:"-':'':1":u
.
PollArq.'4ene
(!P)
l)-))
' 15-55
ecrytodtrilefutirdiene-
40_50 2_80
iffiJffilr;,,a
(I}VC)
' Uoolasticizel
fiP##;wh'^"yt""
;
---{pidMatluo,roahylarc:=:.:-_:.-.----::::?olyteinf
(PrFE)
Heterochain
PolYethYl ene T erePhthalate
(PEr)
Polycarbonate (PC)
dhet ketone
(r'EEK)
iolyphenYlene
Strl fi de
(PPS)
Cellulose I)iacetate
PolycaPtolactarn (NYlon 6)
22-32
Impact-resistanlwindows,
skvlights' canopies
Transparent bottles, recording tape
10-120
2.31.4
Compact discs, safety glasses,
sPorting goods
25:15
2.6-i3.4
Bearings' gears, showe'r heads,
50-300
65,'5
1
50-90
window fiames
2.4-3,1
sFl5
70-105
,
0'9-3'0 Appliance housingg helmetg' pipe
fittings
.2.r_3.4 pip-e'-con<ruig home siding,
-,;
70
':
a'|
^2-to
-- -50-7s
Polyacetal
Poly ether
30=100
Jwr\
-
zippers
30-150
3.9
Machine, automotive, and
aerosPace Parts
l-10
3.8-4.5
1.5
1.0-2.8
. Machine parts, appliances,
elestrical equiPment
Photognphic film
l5-65
6-70
40-170
30-300
2Y',70
<3
7-14
5-140
<4
14_30Laminatedcircuitboards,flooring,
50-125
<l
8-23
35-7 s
<1
Bearings, PulleYs; gears
TIIERMOSETS
Heterochain
Polyester (tln
saru rat
al)
Epoxies
Phenol Formald'ehYde
Urea and lr{elartrine
FormaldehYde
Pollurethane
3
'10
7
3-..6
Boat hulls, automobile Panels
aircraft Parts
Electrical connectors, appliance
.5
handles
CountertoPs, dinnerware
4
Flexible and rigid foams for
uoholstery. insulation
187
Biodegradation of plastics occurs when microorganisms
metabolize the
plastics to either assimilable compounds or to humus-like
materials tlrat are less
less
harmful to the environment (Birley et al.,l9gg). They may be cogpo$ed
o_f,pither
bioplastics (Watimo et a1.,2001), whose components are derivea
aom rer_rewable
raw materials, or petrolzum-based plastics which contain additives.
Biodegi.adable
plastics degrade upon exposure to suniight, water, bacteria, pnzymes,
*inJ u=rr*ion,
and in some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also i*n
aaa as forns of
biode grahtion or epvironmental degradation.
Table
3:
Different finres of ol mers and their
Name and Description
Polyglycolic acid (PGA) -Hydrolysatile
_
______
F__
_
uses
vvy--r9-v{
ContSgleddrugrcl.*
ffi
'"
;,;;;";,
from
includi rirtuiniai"r..s" ,yit".s or,p;rti;ia* *a
fermen{ne.cronsanddairyproducts; fertilizers,rnurcnn-rrnr,-ecompo;i[il"--
polyhydroxy acid; polymers derived
compostable
Polycaprolactone(PCL)-Hydrol5aable;lowLongtermitems;mulc!andoiheragdculfuralfilms;
softening andmeltingpoints; compostable; fiuers containinglte;iaa"s
t"'*d-iqrJirweeds;
long time to.degrade
polyhydroxybutyrates
(pllB)-Hydrolysable;
;eedlins
containers; slow release
*st;ms for r:nrss
'
;
'
produced as storage material by
miooorganisms; possibly degrades in aerobic
and anaJrobic *oaitionr; rtirt Utitttr;p*i-solvent resistance
P;vhvdt;;y";tteeHB9-Hydrolpable
copolymer; processed similar to PHB;
a substance to increase
degadability,
contains
melting
:-.
vW
porv
uinl
alcohol
soluble; dissolvcs during
composting.
soluble;
include uior*aicut uppli*tio*, therapeutic de[ivery
worm medicine r"..itUq ana
"'
(PVOH)-water
Polyvinyl acetate(PVAC)-Water
markets
of
s*ninJal;;i"i;
Films andpapercoatinp;.otherpossibie
Packaging and bagging applica.tions,vrhiclioirsoiu,
*.lr.rig 6rr*e
ffiirT".r,
pesticides, and hospihl
*
,s rn*,ery J"Gig.,rt;
-
washab.les.
:
i'
,
predecessor to PVOH; has shown no
sigrificant property loss during composting
tests
derived *
Polyenlketone (PEK)-Water solubte;
from PVOH; possibly degrades in aerobic and
anaerobic conditions
:.
.
i
xlnfornrution nnt wailabte
some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed
at the
surface, whereas other modes will only be effective if iertain
;;";fi;; ;r.,n
landfill or composting systems. Starch pcwder is mixed.with plastic
as a filler. to
allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complet"'iri.ni.,'*.*.
Some researchers revealed that genetically engineered bacteria
sl.nthesize a
completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biop6!,
ii ixp."lrsile,at
present @ret et a1.,2071 and Brandl and Puclure4 1992) The
Germpn cireinii-al
188
,,
,
.i:
i
corq)aqy.BASFmakeslofl;x'.nr[ybiodegadabtepolyesterforfoodpackaging
applications.Bioclegradableplastics6rpically.areproducedintwoforms:injection
dfno;able food service items'
in tftt to1*
gn
iypicallv
Jtp"l,
(solid'
:l
moliled
grass
and collectionbags for leaves and
packaging
ftuit
antl ftlnts, t.ypicaliy'organic
plastics are
*orc1 r.ifferent types of biodegradable
ffiffi;:,tffi;#*ur
polyesters.poty"nl,l'd,ides,polyvinylalcohol,mostofthestarchderivativeslike
cgllui,o.g.g,xtu1un.t,"*ablerasource(Polylactic.alrOwhichfindusein.
pharmaceriticals,"*u*.andpackaging(ratte3).Polylacticacid(PLA)is
ean fully degrade above 60"c in
compostablebiopolymeiwhich
plastics are more expensive'
composting facility. Fullybiodegladable
anothe,r compietely
an industrial
parttybecausetlreyarenotwidelyenoughp,odu,.dtoachievelargeeconomiesof
scale (AkiYaffra et aL,2012}
Plastic Statistics
the Indian Plastic industry is the
The one critical factor that plagues
This primarily.is'
,roienviionmentallV
i,
plastic
that
perception
con,mon
fiendly'
and the
the energy saving property of plastics
about
oru**o^'
loy'
the
to
due
while India
plastics' ti is a littlc kno'wn fact that'
utilize
that
to
irrdustries
benefits
it is the highest recycler of
capita consumptitin in the world'
has the lowesi,per
plastics.
Tabte
tion of lastics
4: tatte:n q!islobal consum-
ita
North Anrelica
6s
West EuroPe
10
East EruoPe
18
Latin Arneriia
10
South East Asia
T2
China
5.0
lndia
wwiecycle 60 percent from loth industry:::,.t:Y:--:::t:::of
llr'rldr we
In
rrl InrJia,
rercent (Anonymous ;,201l)'The Perusal
of 20-251
compared to the rvorld average
;:TilIH;. ;;; ;rd
r'u",u
g.
..
p
-.,------rr^tio' ^r^racrin
.' cap ita c onsump
"^r +"::i:
ks. It
11. 5t;11
bv
roilowed
.,,aq
*"1i, ?0
consumption or plastics,
c ----^- are
Q onrl
^-^ A<
and
65, 118
figures
and china. rhe corresponding
E^.+
Aoio
and
-ro^--lL
consump'i:"
rhe
lp"tiu'rv'
lz ^B Pvr w*vrle
rf was found that Indi:a has lowest per captta
-t per
^^^i+o It
-^- capita'
was 10 kg each
;::;J;;;; ;;;;,
{l:ffi;J;il*erica
tu, nier,",t
t,tl:
;?"# iliit
eur,"n*on.
/
consumPtion of Plastic (5 kg)'
Indian
:i:?t::'i::::::::l:
Statistics
r , - :^ L:^Lr., r-^^mpnred and c.omnrises
Tlrelndianplasticpfocessmgrndustryishigtrlyfragmentedandcompris
classified as medium
percent or,n"frms, which canbe
25,000 firms.
u.*t*-lo-l-i
189
scale operations, all the units operate on a small.scale basis. MorE than 95 percent
of the firms in the industry are
partne.rship, proprietorship or private limited
companies. Further, these small cornpanies get significant advantad.$ in t'i'X#;;;; f': -': ''.'
Table 5: Statistics of plastics industries in India: Current status
Particulars
Unit
Major raw material producers
Processing units
Turnover (Processing industry)
Capital asset (Polymer industly)
Raw material Produ.ced
Raw material Coruumed
Emp loyed D irect/indirect
Export Value approx
Revenue to Government
S o u rc e : http ://wwtv, dnb. i o.in
No.
No.
{ Crores
{ Crores
Million metric tonnes
Million metric tonnes
Million (No.)
$ Crores
Crores
t
Arnount/
Quanti
l5
25,000
85,000
55,000
5.3
.
5.1
3.3 '
190
73000
material
The perusal of Table 5 revealed that there are only 15 major raw
producers which produce 5.3 million metric tonnes of raw materiat meeting the
25,A00
procesSing units in India which create employment for 3.3million peoplg e.xporting
demand for raw materials which is 5.1 million metric tonnes. There are
I
f
-----r-
,
:
i
------t^---^^^--
worth $190 crores plastic material thereby generating {73000 ctores of revenue for
the government. The processing industry turnoVer is t85000 crore$ aird
capital
-._-:-:p,-assets-jn-polynecjndustqr-up
',
-!o,the-tune-o[-t5i000-crons-{heselinw-thus-
combined together are making los3es. The organized sector companies Lhus need to
build up significant brand image to survive against the competition from the
unorganized sector. The key'organized sector players include Nilkamal Plastics
,
Limited.
industry
Limited and Supreme Industries
Growth rate of Indian plastic
,.. -,,,. , - ..
:
agd is
Ihe plastic industry in India symbolizes a promising industly
ueating new employment opportunities for the people of India. Thc per capita
consumption of plastic products in India is growing and is moving
a.S
'times GDP growth. This potentiality of the market will stuely 4ctnate
entrepreneurs to invest in this industry. The Government of India is irying to s-et W
the economic refornis to elevate ancl boost the plastic industry h1' joini i,r.xturing,
foreign investments and entrryreneurs are firing to provide high quality plastic
.
r
t#itrl
.
the
products, so that itbecomes a booming industly.
at*,,,oif
'.#'l,H;illf ;ffi T;:;ffi?i?i*';ff:il:';Til::iil:
basis of- the erpected growth
of the clernand potential to 12.50 MI\,IT firxn tire
190
:
number of processing urrits from'the current 30,000 is
expectecl 1,1:-i11g1sa-ted to 40,000, a 33 percent gowth rvhich will in-tum also
ir.crease fhc enplonnent potentiai cf the sebtor. Independent studies show that the
industry that iurrently hires more ihan 3 million people, directly and indirectly, is
expectbd to critploy 7 million peopie by tlre year 2015.
The grnwth of the plastics industry has seen the increase in the number of
processirrglunits. The exponential grou'th anticipated over the next three years rvill
see tlris nurirber go up to 40,000 units in 2015. As of today, just about l0 to 15
:these
units:can be classified as medium scale operations and the rest all
pei'cent of
operate on ii small scale basis. Over' 70 percart of the industry is in the unorganized
current
9 lvfMl. The
sgctoi'.
flie plastic industry
chain can be classified into two primary' segments, viz.,
tire Upstr'eam which is the manufacfuring of polymers and the Downstream which is
of
polymers irrto plastic articles. The Upstream polymer
rnauufacturers have eommissioned globally competitive. size plants rvith imported
state-ot'-art'iecturology from the world leaders. The Upstream petrochemicals
industries ha're also witnessed consolidation to remain globally competitive. The
{own-stream plastic proco:itrg industry is higNy fragmented and consists of micro.,
srnall and medium unitS. Presently, T5 perceat are in the small-scale sector. The
smali-sc'ale sector, however, accounts for only about 25 percent of polymer
consunption. lfhe industry also consumes recycled plastic, rvhich constitutes about
304er cent of lotal -coasupp-tio&
tire' ccrrvr:r-.:icn
tr_+==="::::
plastics industry is yet to realize its
full potential. The low level of per capita plastics consumption in India is indicative
of the'massive growth potential of the plastic industry. India has the advantage of
high population and is exprcted to maintain high economic glowth. This should
propel,. India's plastics consumption to new levels in coming years. The
consumption of plastic polymers is going to increase from 4.? to 18.9 million
tomes, hrrnover of plastic industries from {35000 to <133245 crores
employment from 2;5 to 9.5 million (Table 6).
decacles and crossing several milestones, Indian
and
6;
Vision 2015: Indian Plastic Industry
Table
Unit
Particulars
Consumption of Plastip Polymer @2.15 % CARG Million
Turnover of Piastic Industries
Ernplolrnent In Plastic Indushy (Direct+ Indirect)
Export cf Plastic Products @ 30% CARG
Contribution of Polymers and Plastic
Products to the F',xchequer
Requirelnent of Additional
Plastics Processiltg Machines
191
200s
tonnes 4.J
t Crores
Million (No.)
US$ Millions
{Crores
No.
35000
2.5
1900
620A
45,000
2015
' 18.9
1,33,245
9.5
10215
15990
68 I 13
/
E
The exporr of plastic products is going to
increase from $1900 to $10215
and prasti, p,oa,oi, to the exchequer
from
:{ n"ryfs
*llT.:y,::lPilii:'
:::::":::'::::"',:".::J1*"wlrbe.adi-itionar;"d;;;;;'-#ffiffi;
tlr
two decade, ur, .*p"r"d;;; ;;#;#;;
machines in near future.
l"l,
opportunities
vv,.vrruurlrss r(r
for the
urs plastic
prasuc industry
mcustry rn
in India. A
According
g to a CRISIL
GRISIL rhe \yorld
plastics hade has touched r+o rvrrtai
rn20r,2*a prouiair-;
opportunity
il;ilfi;
ffi; ;;i:1 ; ;Y,,fil
position to capfure this
.opportunity.
;.;;;i;
.#ii ifr: il:fTj,*ff
ffi ::l:not in
a
CONCLUSIONS
The Indian plastic Industry going forward,
needs to consoridate and
enhance capacity, upgrade facilities and
improve- or"a".r*rr" Jrj^TI*r"
utilization of critical prastic apprications. India
has rrr" uJu*rlu"
and is expected to maintain high economic
growth- Lasr but not the reast,
the
various associations need to come together
nut in u-.on"oted effort to join
hands td enhance the image and the growth
or n. Indian plastic industry, create
opportunities to demonstrate the
industry's capabilities, educate a[
society about the benefits of plastics. The
associations
,o create a positive
policy framework with arl statutory entities
and ,no*r.
capita consumption of
^
plastics, encourage e>rports thereby significantry
connibuting ,"
"irfrn*ri"l""
*
seffi; ;;,
oJ
j.,
".ri"".io"iii.
.
RET'ERENCES
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Revr"
. ii; 6:;;diilff
20fi. ?obat eve,.s,,v.
scenaio: prastic
r,ur.rc. ,naustry
iiiii''
-----' sfufistics.
rr"tistics.
cuiled
"w?'p"w"' Culled
www.cipet.gov.in.
Anonymous.
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