PRACTICAL RESEARCH LECTURE NOTES
According to Creswell, a LITERATURE REVIEW is a written
summary of journal articles, books, and other documents
that describes the past and current state of information
on the topic of your research study.

It is the examination of relevant books, scholarly
articles, and any other sources pertinent to an
area on research.

Literature review is a summary of the state of
existing knowledge on a research problem or
topic.

It is an analysis and synthesis of articles related
to the research topic being studied.
FUNCTIONS OF A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
>Provides background information about the research
topic
>Provides supporting data for claims/arguments
>Determines whether a study needs to be replicated in a
different setting or different group of population
>Identifies suitable designs or methods for a specific
study
>Assists researchers in interpreting findings
>Provides framework for research
>Basis for identifying research problems



It also present studies and references that
describe what is known, what has been done,
and what else needs to be known and done
relevant to your research’s problem or issue,
purpose, and method.
These should at most be five years since the
copyright/publication/retrieval date.
The only exemption is for classic studies and
references that are essential to the research (e.g.
Memorandum Circular, DepEd Order., CHED
Order, Legislation etc.)
>Basis for research questions
RECONNAISSANCE is the process of reviewing literature;
familiarity in the body of literature on a topic will help
you identify how your proposed study will fit into the
body of literature available.
For example, you might discover that the question you
wanted to answer has already been researched. It will
also help you narrow down the topic.
THE MAIN PROCESSES INVOLVE ARE:

The LITERATURE REVIEW reflects the principles
formulated by experts or authorities in some
field or discipline; and ideas or opinions of
experts contained in books, pamphlets,
magazines and periodicals.
1.Searching relevant articles;
2.Reading and analyzing research reports; and
3.Writing the description of the existing information on
a topic in a manner that is ethical and based on
standards.

Variables of the study, including its theory must
be visible in the discussion.
THERE ARE TWO MAJOR TYPES OF LITERATURE.



It should be organized thematically to conform
with the specific problems.
Arrange the studies and literature in a logical and
thematic order. When citing multiple references,
cite in chronological order from the most recent
to the oldest.
End the Review of Related Literature with one or
two paragraphs stating the insights you gained
from the review.
These are: (1) research literature, also known as
empirical references and (2) non-research references.
Research literature – these are literature based on
research findings. These are data supported by evidence.
Example: journal articles, literature reviews, abstracts of
research studies
On the other hand, NON-RESEARCH REFERENCES – these
are literature which are not based on research findings.
These literatures can provide insights and may broaden
understanding regarding a topic.
Example: literary or artistic works, opinion articles,
brochures, magazines, anecdotes
published articles before the 1970s may not be available
in some online databases.
RESEARCH LITERATURE HAS TWO POSSIBLE SOURCES.
PRINT INDEXES are books that are used to locate articles
in journals and periodicals, books, dissertations,
publications of professional organizations, and
government documents.
>Primary sources – these refer to description of studies
written by the researchers themselves.
>Secondary source – these are description of studies
written by someone else, other than the researchers
who conducted them.
The four major sections are the (1) introduction; (2)
method section; (3) Results; and (4) Discussion.
The IMRAD format also contains the references section.
LITERATURE IDENTIFIERS
Research papers may come in various formats.
>ISBN – an International Standard Book Number is an
internationally regulated system of identifying books by
number. Publishers purchase a bunch of ISBNs at one
time and then assign them to publications.
>DOI – Direct Object Identifiers help identify specific
journal articles. These are frequently used for scientific
articles.
>PMID – PubMed IDs are strings of numbers that identify
records in the PubMed database.
How do you search for relevant articles for your
research study?
In the past, searching for literature is done manually.
A researcher needed to go to libraries and manually look
for relevant documents that he can use in his research
study.
Different groups and institutions have procedures and
policies that must be adhered to by their students.
But the more common format of presenting research
articles come in the form of a research reports as found
in journal.
Journal articles often consist of an abstract and four
major sections (IMRAD format).
The ABSTRACT is a brief summary of the study placed at
the beginning of the journal article.
It is usually composed of 150 – 250 words. In that limited
number of words, the abstract will inform you of the
background (introduction), the methodology, the results
and the conclusion of the study.
These are steps in Literature Review:
With the advent of technology comes the expanding use
of internet. The effectiveness and efficiency of searching
literature using online databases are starting to make
manual search for printed resources obsolete.
>Search for a literature relevant to your study
>Evaluate and select source
>Identify themes, debates, and gaps
>Organize by outlining
>Start writing the literature review
A RESEARCHER must learn the skill of investigating
which data are research-based or not.
These characteristics can serve as criteria in selecting
materials for a review of literature:
Presently, manual searches are being overshadowed by
electronic searches.
1.Materials must be as recent as possible.
However, most top-of-the-line journals are commercially
available only and there are high subscription fees which
can be very expensive for students.
Another reason to do manual search for printed
materials is when a researcher needs to perform a search
to include early literature on a topic. For example,
>This is important because of the changes that are going
on. Sources to be looked into must give information that
are attuned to the time frame indicated in the study.
>These should at most be five years since the
copyright/publication/retrieval date.
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as
possible.
>Avoid data and materials which are extremely onesided.
3.Materials must be relevant to the study.
>Whatever kind of materials is needed to explain or
support the study must have a bearing on the topic.
4.Materials must not be too few but nor too many.
>Use your discretion on how much or many to include
but there should be enough materials included for the
researcher to be able to offer insights on the study. The
availability of materials will also be a determining factor.
PARAPHRASE is a rewriting of a specific passage from
someone else.
>It is written in your own words, without changing the
original meaning or removing any information.
IMPORTANCE OF PARAPHRASING
>To avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism is copying someone else’s words and/or ideas
without giving credit to the author. It is a serious offense
in the academic world.
>To report ideas and information which belong to
someone else
>It serves as an alternative to quoting
>Paraphrasing emphasizes that forms convey our
meaning, and meaning is most important in
communication
HERE ARE THE BENEFITS OF PARAPHRASING TO THE
STUDENTS
>It activates vocabulary and develops the learner’s sense
of appropriate word choice
>It raises an awareness of variation
>It is needed in academic writing
HOW TO PARAPHRASE EFFECTIVELY?
When one borrows other people’s ideas for his
assignment or research project, he must put these ideas
into his own words. How can one possibly achieve this?
Here are the guidelines:
>Read the text several times until you understand it
>Set the work aside to avoid copying
>Re-write the passage in your own words
>Record the bibliographic information with your
paraphrased version of the original
A CITATION is both a signpost and an acknowledgement.
As a signpost, it signals the location of a source.
As an acknowledgement, it reveals that you are indebted
to that source.
WHY CITATIONS ARE IMPORTANT?
>Citation styles’ unique formats are designed to address
specific needs of different fields.
>Citation styles encourage uniformity in the presentation
of the literature
>Citations for sources used indicate that the paper is not
plagiarized
>Adding citations is a good way of recognizing scholars’
works and contribution
PROPERLY CITING SOURCES
There are several ways to properly cite a source. The
styles are some of the ways that you can use to cite a
source in your research manuscript.
1) IMPLICIT
STATEMENT_(AUTHOR, YEAR).
An e-learning system with higher educational
compatibility is believed to effectively facilitate the
learning processes of students (Xu & Wang, 2017)
2) EXPLICIT
AUTHOR_(YEAR)_VERB_STATEMENT.
Taylor and Todd (2016) suggested that Social Influence
(SI) affects other people’s opinion, superior influence,
and peer influence.
3) INTROductory PHRASE with
VERB_AUTHOR_(YEAR)_STATEMENT.
As suggested by Taylor and Todd (2016) Social Influences
(SI) affects other people’s opinion, superior influence,
and peer influence.
CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK enables the readers to
obtain a general understanding of the research; gives
them a notion on the research activities that will be
performed, as well as the manner on how there are
carried out.
> In addition, that, it defines the scope and limitations of
the study; identifies what will, and what will not be
investigated.
> Conceptual framework shows the organization, order,
and direction of a research study.
>Conceptual framework also serves the purpose of
clarifying concepts and their relationships with one
another in a research study.
PARADIGM
Is a visual presentation of variables that interrelate
with one another as perceived by the researcher before
an actual empirical investigation is done to prove its
relationships.
>A paradigm is a visual representation of the entire
research study.
>Paradigms are a way of framing what we know, what
we can know, and how we can know it.
>It is not a methodology, but rather a philosophy which
provides the process of carrying out research, i.e., directs
the process of carrying out research in a particular
direction.
>Gliner and Morgan describe the research paradigm as
the approach or thinking about the research, the
accomplishing process, and the method of
implementation.
>The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect
relationship are called the independent and dependent
variables.
THERE ARE COMMON TYPES OF PARADIGM MODELS
USED IN RESEARCH.
>IPO MODEL (Input-Process-Output) – largely used
when the research attempts to isolate the factor or
major variable that causes the problem, subject, or
phenomenon under investigation.
> PC MODEL (Predictor-Criterion Model) – used when
relating and assessing the influence between two or
more variables. Studies that focus on relationships,
associations, differences, and impacts benefit from this
model.
>It is viewed as series of boxes (processing elements)
connected by inputs and outputs. Flow charts and
Process diagram are often used to represent the process.
>The IPO Model will provide the general structure and
guide for the direction of the study.
>IV-DV MODEL (Independent Variable/Dependent
Variable Model) – used in experiment-based studies.
The questions raised are higher order classified as
situation-relating.
>The independent variable is the cause. Its value is
independent of other variables in your study.
>The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends
on changes in the independent variable.
The expected cause, ex. “hours of study,” is the
independent variable (the predictor or explanatory
variable).
The expected effect, ex. “exam score,” is the dependent
variable (the response or outcome variable).
In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of
study.”
>Remember, you should use PC Model if you have to
correlate two or more variables.
>P MODEL – used in research studies that PROPOSE A
PROGRAM or any intervention measure. It fits the
situation producing level of questioning.
meaning to terms which can be otherwise interpreted in
different ways.
>Definition of key terms will help clarify the purpose and
direction of the study being conducted.
THE TWO TYPES OF DEFINING TERMS IN RESEARCH
>You will use this paradigm model if you propose a
program or any intervention in your study.
>POM MODEL (Proposed Original Model) – used when
the researcher presents an original paradigm. The
requirement is that it must be scientific.
>This model is commonly used in scientific research that
presents an original paradigm.
DEFINITION OF TERMS in research is an alphabetical list
of important terms or acronyms that you define,
particularly ambiguous terms or those used in a special
way.
>Terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order
and acronyms should always spell out fully most specially
if it is used for the first time and not commonly known.
>How you define such terms could considerably affect
how the reader understands your research study.
>Be sure you use these terms in a consistent way
throughout your proposal and study.
THE ROLE OF DEFINITION of terms specifically indicates
or presents the function or how the word or term was
used in the research (which is not the same as getting the
definition from a dictionary).
>This is an important part of research paper in which the
key or important terms in the study are clearly defined.
>It is important to include definition of terms in your
research paper in order to understand the key terms
being used in the study.
>These terms should be clearly defined according to
how they are used in the study in order to make easy
understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous
Conceptual and Operational. Theoretical is also correct
because in some books and sources conceptual and
theoretical definitions are just the same.
The two types of definition of terms are:
>Conceptual definition and
>Operational definition
CONCEPTUAL is the universal meaning that is attributed
to a word or group of words and which is understood by
many people.
>The usual source of conceptual definition is the
dictionary which is the reference book of everyday
language.
>Some other sources of conceptual definition are
dictionaries, encyclopedia, publications and related
literature.
OPERATIONAL definition is the researcher’s own
definition of terms as used in as data in her.
>An operational definition is a precise description that
tells you how to get a value for the characteristic you are
trying to measure.
>It includes what something is and how to measure it.
>Its purpose is to remove ambiguity because everyone
has the same understanding.
>It also provides a clear way to measure the
characteristics (identifies what to measure, how to
measure, makes sure that no matter who does the
measuring, the results are essentially the same.)
>Your operational definitions describe the variables you
will use as indicators and the procedures you will use to
observe or measure them.
>You need an operational definition because you can’t
measure anything without one, no matter how good
your conceptual definition might be. Sources are
empirical data and related studies
What is the difference between conceptual and
operational definitions?
A CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION tells you what the concept
means, while an operational definition only tells you how
to measure it.
>A conceptual definition tells what your constructs are
by explaining how they are related to other concepts.
>This explanation and all of the theories or ideas it refers
to are abstract.
On the other hand, your operational definitions describe
the variables you will use as indicators for your concepts
and the procedures you will use to observe or measure
the variables.
QUESTION: Can you use both in defining terms?
The answer is YES. Define the term conceptually first
then followed by its operational definition.
HOW TO WRITE DEFINITION OF TERMS
>Commonly written with the conceptual first followed by
the operation.
>Ambiguity must be removed by clearly defining how the
term applies in the study.
>Focus only on terms which have various meanings that
can confuse readers of the study.
>Make sure to include important terms mentioned in the
SOPs, framework and questionnaire.
>Definitions should be short, clear and unambiguous.
>If the terms are from dictionaries, books, encyclopedia
and other publications, always acknowledge the source.
LET’S TRY THIS!
RESEARCH TITLE: “Effects of Audio-Visual Materials Used
in Online Distance Learning to the Problem Solving Skills
in Mathematics of Grade 11 Senior High School
Students”
Which words are to be defined here?
The words to be defined are:
>Audio-Visual Materials
>Online Distance Learning
>Problem Solving Skills
Today, we will be discussing “RESEARCH HYPOTHESES.”
HYPOTHESIS is considered as an intelligent guess or
prediction, that gives directional to the researcher to
answer the research question.
HYPOTHESIS OR HYPOTHESES (plural form) are defined
as the formal statement of the tentative or expected
prediction or explanation of the relationship between
two or more variables in a specified population. It implies
that there is a systematic relationship between an
independent and a dependent variable.
Good & Hatt defined hypothesis as a shrewd guess or
inference that is formulated & provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in
further investigation.
Hypothesis is considered as 2nd most important phase
after formulation of research problem/identification,
>The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with
focus. It tells you what specific aspects of a research
problem to investigate.
>A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not
to collect, thereby providing focus to the study.
>The construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity
in a study. Hypothesis helps us to search only for relevant
facts.
>Hypothesis can provide direction to the research. A
hypothesis contains several concepts which are logically
connected or arranged. The interrelationships among
the concepts give a clear answer to the problem under
study.
>A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation
of theory. It enables you to conclude specifically what is
true or what is false.
AS SUGGESTED BY H.H. MC. ASHAN, THE FOLLOWING
ARE THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS IN THE
RESEARCH PROCESS:
>It is temporary solution of a problem concerning with
some truth which enables a researcher to start his
research work.
>It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to
study for and may provide possible solutions to the
problem.
>Each hypothesis provides the researcher with definite
statement which may be objectively tested and accepted
or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing
conclusions that is related to original purpose.
BROADLY, THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
>NULL HYPOTHESIS
>ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
A NULL HYPOTHESIS states the existence of no
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. It is a hypothesis of no difference.
>It is the opposite position of the hypothesis.
>Particular intervention does not make a difference/has
no effect.
>NULL HYPOTHESIS is symbolized by H0.
EXAMPLE:
>There is no significant relationship between
compensation policy and employment satisfaction.
An ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS is the logical opposite of
the null hypothesis. Disagrees with the null hypothesis.
>ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS states that a statistically
significant difference/relationship does exist between
the compared variables.
>ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS is symbolized by either Ha
or H1.
EXAMPLE:
>There is relationship between smoking and incidence of
lung cancer.
Today,
we
will
METHODOLOGY.”
be
discussing
Data collection techniques/tools
Procedures/steps for collecting data
Data analysis techniques/tools
Procedures/steps for analyzing data
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE
PROCESS USED TO:
>Collect data and information for the purpose of making
decisions.
>Interviews, surveys, and various techniques can be
adopted to conduct any study.
>The data and information could include present and
historical background.
RESEARCH DESIGN is a detailed blueprint or plan to
guide the implementation of a research study. It details
the procedures necessary for obtaining the information
needed to structure or solve research problems.
Research design is planning a strategy of conducting
research. It is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collection and analyzing the needed
information.
HERE ARE SOME COMMON TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGNS LISTED AND DEFINED BY FALTALDO III ET AL.
(2016):
Descriptive Research Design
Experimental Research Design
The purpose of descriptive research design is to describe
the status of an identified variable such as events, people
or subjects as they exist.
“RESEARCH
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY is the specific procedures or
techniques used to identify, select, process, and
Analyze information about a topic.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY is defined as a highly
intellectual human activity used in the investigation of
nature and matter and deals specifically with the manner
in which data is collected, analyzed and interpreted.
A system of models, procedures and techniques used to
find the result of a research problem. It is a plan and
structure of the investigation in order to obtain evidence
to answer the research questions.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INVOLVES:
 Type of research design
 Choosing the subjects




DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH is the most widely used
research design as indicated by the theses, dissertations
and research reports of institutions.
Its common means of obtaining information include the
use of the questionnaire, personal interviews with the
aid of interview guide questions, and observation, either
participatory or not.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH is non-experimental research
designed to discover new meaning and to provide new
knowledge where there is very little known about the
phenomena of
Interest.
It is the basis for all other forms of research and is
predominant in the social sciences and education.
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an
accurate description of characteristics of a particular
individual, situation, or group. In short, descriptive
research deals with everything that can be counted and
studied, which has an impact to the lives of the people it
deals with.
Example:
>Finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know
what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will
live a healthy life.
>Data collection by using one or more appropriate
methods: observation, interviewing and survey
questionnaire.
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS







Descriptive-normative survey
Correlational research studies
Descriptive-evaluative
Descriptive-status
Descriptive-analysis
Descriptive-comparative
Assessment evaluation studies
the
DESCRIPTIVE-NORMATIVE
SURVEYS,
the
results/findings of the study should be compared with
the norm.
>Descriptive-normative survey according to Good and
Scates (1972) stressed that “the term normative is
sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to
ascertain the normal or typical condition, or to compare
local test results with a state or national norm.”
Example of Descriptive-normative survey
>A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the English
achievement of college students at the state colleges and
universities in National Capital Region (NCR).
>An achievement test is the instrument used to gather
the data. The results of the test are then compared with
the regional norm.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH studies is designed to
determine the relationship of two variables (X and Y)
whether the Relationship is perfect, very high, high,
marked or moderate, slight, or negligible.
DESCRIPTIVE-EVALUATIVE is made for assessing the
effectiveness of social, or economical, or health
programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects on the development of the
project area (e.g. evaluate the effectiveness of
structured teaching programmes on different topics).
Example of Descriptive-evaluative
>The researcher wishes to conduct a study on evaluation
of an implementation of WOW (War on Wastes) in the
Division of Zamboanga del Norte.
>He devises a questionnaire which evaluates the
implementation of WOW and requests the division and
district supervisors, principals, head teachers, and
teachers as subjects of the study to respond on it.
DESCRIPTIVE-STATUS is an approach to problem solving
seeks to answer questions to real fact relating to existing
conditions.
>This is a technique of a quantitative description which
determines the prevailing conditions in a group of cases
chosen for study.
>Several studies stress the current conditions with the
assumption that things will change. They cover many
traits or characteristics of the group.
Example of Descriptive-status
>A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the socioeconomic status and performances of instructors and
professors of state universities and colleges in Region 9
(Western Mindanao).
>He uses a questionnaire as instrument to gather data
and requests the subjects of the study to answer it.
Based on the responses, the researcher can determine
the socio-economic status and performance of SUC’s
universities and professors in Region 9 whether the
higher the socio- economic status is, the higher the
performance will be; or the lower the socio-economic
status is, the lower the performance will be.
DESCRIPTIVE-ANALYSIS determines or describes the
nature of an object by separating it into its parts.
>Its purpose is to discover the nature of things. The
researcher should determine the composition, structure,
sub-structure that occurs as units with the larger
structure.
Example of Descriptive-analysis
>A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the job
analysis of personnel in government and private
hospitals in Region 6 (Western Visayas).
>He devises a questionnaire to analyze the job of the
subjects of similar positions, functions and
responsibilities and with the same salary.
DESCRIPTIVE-COMPARATIVE is a comparative survey
where the researcher considers at least two entities (not
manipulated) which he can compare and conclude which
of the two is better.
Example of Descriptive-comparative
>A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the
effectiveness of teaching English using rhetoric and
content-based approaches to Bachelor of Computer
Technology students at the National Teachers College.
>He uses tests as research instrument. All things are held
constant, except on the approaches of teaching used. If
significant difference exists, it means an approach is
better than the other. With no significant difference, the
two approaches are almost the same.
ASSESSMENT EVALUATION studies attempts to
determine the effectiveness or efficiency of certain
practices or policies when applied to a group of
respondents. Assessment studies imply measurement of
certain key indicators without attaching any judgment to
them.
Example of Assessment evaluation study
>The Effectiveness of Reading Strategies on Reading
Comprehension among Grade 4 pupils.
>The Efficiency of Mental Health Integration in Primary
Health Care Hospitals in Bicol Region.
An EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is the group that receives the
variable being tested in an experiment. The control
group is the group in an experiment that does not receive
the variable you are testing.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN is an experiment
where the researchers manipulate one variable, and
controls/randomizes the rest of the variables.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH is the most familiar type of
research design for individuals in the physical science
>Experimental research is the most familiar type of
research design for individuals in the physical sciences
and a host of other fields. This is mainly because
experimental research is a classical scientific experiment,
similar to those performed in high school science classes.
>SAMPLE (n) is a subset of the population; number of
elements in the sample is the sample size.
>A sample is a representative group of
individuals/elements from a particular population.
On the other hand, POPULATION N is a collection of the
elements which has some or the other characteristic in
common; the number of elements in the population is
the size of the population.
SAMPLING is one of the most important factors which
determines the accuracy of your research/survey result;
it is the process of selecting a sample is known as
sampling.
>Sampling is a process of drawing a representative group
of individuals/elements from a particular population.
Types of Probability Sampling as Defined by the OECD
Statistics Directorate





Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi Stage Sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
>Every element has an equal chance of getting selected
to be the part sample. It is used when we don’t have any
kind of prior information about the target population.
>Simple random sampling is defined as a sampling
technique where every item in the population has an
even chance and likelihood of being selected in the
sample. Here the selection of items entirely depends on
luck or probability, and therefore this sampling
technique is also sometimes known as a method of
chances.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Pre-test/ Post-test Control Group Design
 Single Group Pre-test/ Post-test Design
 Solomon Four Group Design
 Posttest Only Design
 Non Equivalent Control Group Design
 Parallel-group design
 Counterbalanced or Latin square design
“SAMPLE/POPULATION AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES.”
Let’s define first what is a SAMPLE.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
Researchers follow these methods to select a simple
random sample:
>They prepare a list of all the population members
initially, and then each member is marked with a specific
number (for example, there are nth members, then they
will be numbered from 1 to N).
>From this population, researchers choose random
samples using two ways: random number tables and
random number generator software. Researchers prefer
a random number generator software, as no human
interference is necessary to generate samples
USE OF RANDOM NUMBERS
The use of random numbers is an alternative method
that also involves numbering the population. The use of
a number table similar to the one below can help with
this sampling technique.
TWO APPROACHES AIM TO MINIMIZE ANY BIASES IN
THE PROCESS OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
>This technique divides the elements of the population
into small subgroups (strata) based on the similarity in
such a way that the elements within the group are
homogeneous and heterogeneous among the other
subgroups formed. And then the elements are randomly
selected from each of these strata. We need to have
prior information about the population to create
subgroups.
To select sample using stratified random sampling, we
can use this simple example:
Example:
In a school of 580 students, I want to sample 40 students
and want all grades appropriately represented. How
many should I ask in each grade?
Grade 9 – 120
Grade 10 – 150
Grade 11 – 130
Grade 12 – 180
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
>relies on arranging the target population according to
some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at
regular intervals through that ordered list.
>Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from
then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample
size).
>It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly
chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list.
>A simple example would be to select every 10th name
from the telephone directory (an ‘every 10th’ sample,
also referred to as ‘sampling with a skip of 10’).
CLUSTER SAMPLING
> is defined as a sampling technique in which the
population is divided into already existing groupings
(clusters).
>Then a sample of the cluster is selected randomly from
the population.
>The term cluster refers to a natural, but heterogeneous,
intact grouping of the members of the population.
>The most common variables used in the clustering
population are the geographical area, buildings, school,
etc.
HOW TO CLUSTER SAMPLE
>The simplest form of cluster sampling is single-stage
cluster sampling. It involves 4 key steps.
MULTI STAGE SAMPLING
> is the taking of samples in stages using smaller and
smaller sampling units at each stage.
>Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster
sampling. We use variety of sampling methods together.
>Sampling scheme that combine several methods are
called multistage samples.
>Most survey conducted by professional polling
organization use some combination of stratified and
cluster sampling as well as simple random sampling.
Thus, forming a multi stage random sampling.
>Multistage sampling refers to sampling plans where
the sampling is carried out in stages. Using smaller and
smaller unit at each stage.
>In this method, the whole population is divided in first
stage sampling unit from which random sample are
selected. The selected first stage is then subdivided into
second stage units from which another sample is
selected. Third and fourth stage sampling is done in same
manner if necessary.
>Multistage designs are used in many practical cases.
These are just a few: Large surveys involving the
sampling of housing units – The U.S. Census Bureau
selects geographical areas within each state and then
select housing units within each selected geographical
area.
THERE ARE ALSO TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING AS DEFINED BY THE OECD STATISTICS
DIRECTORATE AND THESE ARE:





Convenience Sampling
Consecutive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Judgmental Sampling
Snowball Sampling
POST COCHRAN’S FORMULA
We will be guided by this learning competency:
>describe adequately quantitative research instrument
used.
>Research instruments use to gather or collect data or
Information.
MOST COMMONLY USED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
ARE:




Another way of computing sample size is by using
SLOVIN’S FORMULA.
>Questionnaire
>Interview
>Checklist
>Observation
A QUESTIONNAIRE is a set of questions for gathering
information from individuals.
>You can administer questionnaire by mail, telephone,
using face-to-face interviews, as handouts, or
electronically (i.e, by e-mail or through Web-based
questionnaires.
>A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to
individuals to obtain statistically useful information
about a given topic.
>A questionnaire is simply a list of mimeographed or
printed questions that is completed by or for a
respondent (Health Research Methodology 2nd ed. 2001
WHO).
>A questionnaire is a means of eliciting the feelings,
beliefs, experiences, perceptions, or attitudes of some
sample of individuals.
>When properly constructed and responsibly
administered, questionnaires become a vital instrument
by which statements can be made about specific groups
or entire population.
As a DATA COLLECTING INSTRUMENT, it could be
structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
Structured questionnaire or closed form specifies the
respondents answer in a several provided options in a
question.
>It has a fixed number of questions and a limited choice
of answers. The respondents should choose one or more
suitable answers.
While a semi-structured questionnaire is a mix of
unstructured and structured questionnaires. Some of the
questions and their sequence are determined in
advance, while others evolve as the interview proceeds.
“RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.”
Whereas unstructured questionnaire or open form
allows respondents to reply freely without having to
select one of several provided responses.
>It consists a number of questions. The answers are in
the form of essay and the content may vary depending
on the respondents.
GUIDELINES IN USING THE QUESTIONNAIRE



>Clarity of language
>Singleness of purpose
>Relevant to the objective of the study
>It is a sense of an oral questionnaire. Instead of writing
The response, the interviewee gives the needed
information orally and face-to-face.
>It is an interactional communication process which
involves the asking of questions by the interviewer for
the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant
information and answering of questions by the
interviewee.
According to McNamara (1999),
>Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story
behind a participant’s experiences.
>The interviewer can pursue in-depth information
around the topic.
>Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain
respondents.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW



>Structured
>Semi-structured
>Unstructured
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
>has a fixed number of questions and limited choice of
answers. It’s like a structured questionnaire, but the
questions are spoken by the researcher to the
respondents.
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Whereas semi-structured interviews have list of
questions or areas of interest that the interviewer uses
to direct the interview, but the interviewer can ask other
questions. It has a few questions as guidelines and can
be added when necessary.
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
>On the other hand, unstructured interview is a type of
interview in which the interviewer asks questions which
are not prepared in advance.
>In unstructured interviews, questions arise
spontaneously in a free-flowing conversation, which
means that different candidates are asked different
questions. It has an informal approach where a friendly
conversation takes place. They contain open-ended
questions that can be asked in any order.
>Another research instrument is a checklist or survey.
>Checklist is the simplest of the devices, consists of a
prepared list of items. The presence or absence of the
item may be Indicated by inserting the appropriate word
or number.
>Observation is perceiving data through the senses:
sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Most direct way
used in studying individual behavior. It is the recording of
the behavior of the sample.
>Researcher relies on his or her own powers of
observation what he or she has witnessed rather than
communicating with people in order to obtain
information what they say or think about issues.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION ARE:
PARTICIPATORY OBSERVATION, the researcher
participates in the activities of the subjects.
Whereas NON-PARTICIPATORY, means that the
researcher is not part of the group being studied. It is a
research technique by which the researcher observes
participants with or without their knowledge.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESAERCH INSTRUMENT
>Valid and reliable Based on a conceptual framework, or
the researcher’s understanding of how the particular
variables in the study connect with each other
>Must gather data suitable for and relevant to
The research topic
>Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed
research questions under investigation
>Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture,
and diversity of the study site
>Contains clear and definite instructions to use the
instrument
We will be guided by these learning competencies:
>chooses appropriate research designs
>describes sampling procedure and sample
>plans data collection, data gathering instrument, and
analysis procedures
>presents written research methodology
Chapter 2 (METHODS)
>deals with the procedures and techniques used by the
researcher in
Completing the study.
>It includes research design, population, sampling,
sources of data, and data analysis.
RESEARCH DESIGN
>The researcher may use one or a combination of the
following research methods, namely, descriptive, survey,
historical, case study, experimental, phenomenological
and other qualitative/quantitative methods.
>Describe variables (A schematic diagram showing
interrelationship of the variables and treatment should
be presented for experimental design).
POPULATION AND SAMPLING
>Description of the population, setting/location of the
study;
>Describe the sampling technique used
>Respondents’/participants’
characteristics,
demographic profile of sample.
IMPORTANCE OF DATA AND DATA COLLECTION
>Data is one of the most important and vital aspect of
any research studies.
>Researchers conducted in different fields of study can
be different in methodology but every research is based
on data which is analyzed and interpreted to get
information.
>Data is the basic unit in statistical studies.
>Statistical information like census, population
variables, health statistics, and road accidents records
are all developed from data.
DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
>There are TWO SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES. Primary and Secondary data collection
techniques.
>Primary data collection uses surveys, experiments or
direct observations.
>Secondary data collection may be conducted by
collecting information from a diverse source of
documents or electronically stored information, census
and market studies are examples of a common sources
of secondary data.
>This is also referred to as “data mining.”
>SURVEY is most commonly used method in social
sciences, management, marketing and psychology to
some extent.
>Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
>QUESTIONNAIRE is the most commonly used method
in survey.
>Questionnaires are a list of questions either an openended or close -ended for which the respondent give
answers.
>Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail,
live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic
mail or through fax and other methods.
>INTERVIEW is a face-to-face conversation with the
respondent.
>It is slow, expensive, and they take people away from
their regular jobs, but they allow in-depth questioning
and follow-up questions.
>OBSERVATIONS can be done while letting the observing
person know that he is being observed or without letting
him know.
>Observations can also be made in natural settings as
well as in artificially created environment.
>Other sources of data can be used are documentary
analysis, anecdotal reckrs, and focus group discussion.
DATA ANALYSIS
>The unit of analysis must be discussed (what and how it
will be measured).
>Description of the statistics tools, method, and
techniques used to measure the
Data and the treatment if there is a related hypothesis.
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE TECHNIQUES USED TO ANALYZE
THE DATA
>Descriptive statistics – statistics that summarize data in
terms of central tendency (e.g., means), variation (e.g.,
standard deviations), relative position (e.g., standard
scores), or relationships (e.g., correlations)
>Inferential statistics – procedures used to infer the
likelihood of the results happening in the population
rather than just the sample.
>Quantitative studies usually focus on the appropriate
statistical procedures to analyze numerical data.