COMMUNICATION
(Communication: Steps in the Communication Process; Communication Channels; Oral
versus Written Communication; Verbal versus non-verbal Communication; upward,
downward and lateral communication; Barriers to Communication, Role of Information
Technology.)
● In the words of Koontz and O’Donnell, “ communication is an intercourse by
words, letters, symbols, or messages, and is a way that one organisation member
shares meaning and understanding with another.”
● Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common
possession. It modifies the disposition of both parties who partake in it- John
Dewey.
● Communication is sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality- Edgar
Dale.
● Communication is a means of persuasion to influence other so that desired effect
is achieved- Aristotle
● Communication is the process through which two or more persons come to
exchange ideas and understanding among themselves.
● This definition involves three aspects in communication.
○ First, there is something which is transmitted such as information, ideas,
feelings etc, which is the subject matter of communication. However, this
subject matter itself is not communication as is understood sometimes but is
only an element of communication process
○ Second, in order that the process of communication is completed, two
parties are involved : The sender of the subject matter of communication
and its receiver.
○ Third, there is an element of understanding in communication. Sharing of
understanding is possible only when the person to whom the message is
transmitted, understands it in the same sense in which the sender of the
message wants him to understand.
● Communication is an indispensable element in human relationships. Human
beings interact with one another through communication. It is the ability to
communicate effectively that has enabled people to build organisations and
societies for survival and better living. We communicate when we speak, write or
act. A large day is spent on communication of one type or the other.
● Communication in all is more important in management because the success of
an enterprise depends on how effectively its employees understand one another.
The greater the degree of understanding, the more is the likelihood that the
human action will proceed in the direction of accomplishing goals.
● Communication is a managerial skill which is essential for effectively leading and
motivating people at work. A manager who is in a position to communicate well
will be able to get the cooperation of subordinates towards the objectives of the
organisation.
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
● Communication is an attempt to affect a transfer of messages, ideas or opinions
between minds. It may take the form of an order, report, suggestion,
memorandum, etc. The word ‘transfer’ tells us that communication is essentially a
two-way process, involving a sender and a receiver.
● There is no communication until the message sent by the communicator is
received by the receiver. It should also be noted that communication is not
effective if it does not produce the desired response. It is not enough for a
manager to give an order; he must also see that it is correctly received,
understood and carried out by the receiver.
● From the above discussion, we can sum up the nature of communication as
follows:
○ Communication involves at least two persons – one who sends the
message and the second who receives the message.
○ Communication is two-way traffic. The process of communication is not
completed until the message has been understood by the receiver.
Understanding is an essential part of communication, but it does not imply
agreement.
○ The basic purpose of communication is to create an understanding in the
mind of the receiver of information.
○ Communication may take several forms. e.g., order, instruction, report,
suggestion, grievance, observation, etc. The message may be conveyed
through words spoken or written or through gestures.
○ Communication is a persuasive function of management. Managers at all
levels must try to achieve effective communication.
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
As Chester Barnard remarked, ‘the first executive function of management is to develop
and maintain a system of communication”. By keeping this statement in mind below are
some points that show how important effective communication is:
● Better Planning: Communication improves the quality of planning. The
management can receive suggestions and comments from the subordinates and
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also gather information from external sources. This will ensure the formulation of
effective plans throughout the organisation.
Effective Operations: Communication helps the management in explaining the
objectives, plans and policies of the enterprise to the employees. This enables the
workers to understand their job responsibilities clearly and relate to the company’s
objectives and plans. As a result, there will be effective implementation of the
company’s plans.
Decision making: A manager can make better decisions by collecting the
necessary information from various sources, developing various alternatives and
their systematic evaluation. The quality of the decision depends upon the quality
of information on which it is based.
Controlling: Communication helps in control by transmitting information about the
performance of the subordinates to the manager. If the information received by the
manager reveals that the performance of the subordinates is not up to the mark,
he can take corrective action immediately.
Coordination: The major requirement for achieving coordination is the presence
of an effective communication system. Top management can communicate its
policies, objectives, programmes, etc. to the lower levels and in turn receive
reactions, suggestions and reports from the lower levels. This will help in the
integration of activities at various levels in the organisation.
Motivation: Communication can help in motivating the subordinates and getting
their cooperation. A manager can motivate his subordinates by using appropriate
rewards to commend their performance. Clear-cut instructions by a manager also
help a great deal in motivating subordinates.
Better Human Relations: Communication develops proper understanding
between superiors and subordinates. It leads to congenital human relations in the
organisation.
Workers’ Participation: Communication is an effective device for ensuring
participation by the workers and receiving their suggestions before making
decisions.
Facilitation of change: communication facilitates change on the part of
employees by sharing the necessary information about the change and securing
their effective cooperation.
Public Relations: Effective communication with external groups such as
shareholders, customers, suppliers, trade unions, press and government is very
important for a modern business. It can build a good public image for the
business.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has been defined as a process. The term process refers to identifiable
flow of information through interrelated stages of analysis directed towards the
achievement of an objective
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING ELEMENTS
(Above model is SHANNON - WEAVER’S model of communication)
● Sender: The sender or communicator is the person who sends a message or an
idea. He/she is the source and initiates the process of communication. A sender
may be a speaker, a writer, or an actor.
● Message: Message is what is conveyed by the sender. It consists of words, facts,
ideas, opinions, feelings, views etc. It is the subject matter of communication.
● Encoding: It is the use of appropriate verbal or non-verbal language for
transmitting the message. In order to transmit the idea, the sender translates the
idea into a language (words, symbols, gestures, signs) known to both parties. This
conversion of the subject matter into these symbols is known as the encoding of a
message.
● Channel: It is a medium or route through which the message is passed from the
sender to the receiver. It may be face-to-face talk, telephone, letter, SMS, e-mail,
etc.
● Receiver: The receiver or communicatee is the person or group who is supposed
to receive the message. He may be a listener, a reader or an observer.
● Decoding: It means translating the message into words for the purpose of
understanding. The receiver interprets the message to derive its meaning from the
symbols encoded by the sender.
● Feedback: It is the response or reaction by the receiver. It represents the return
flow of communication. Feedback is necessary to ensure that the receiver has
received the message and understands it in the same sense as the sender wants.
● Noise: This includes those factors in each of the components of communication
that reduces the accuracy of the message. It can occur in any stage of the
communication process.
IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK IN COMMUNICATION
● Two-way communication takes place when the receiver provides feedback to the
sender. For instance, giving an instruction to a subordinate and receiving its
acceptance is an example of two-way communication.
● On the other hand, in the case of one-way communication, feedback is totally
absent. Here the sender communicates without expecting or getting feedback
from the receiver. A policy statement from the chief executive is an example of
one-way communication. One-way communication takes less time than two-way
communication. In certain situations, one-way communication is more effective to
get work from subordinates.
● Two-way communication is superior to one-way communication in the following
respects:
○ Two-way commitment is more effective than one-way communication. The
feedback allows the sender to refine his communication so that it becomes
more precise and accurate.
○ Receivers’ self-confidence is higher in the case of two-way communication
as they are permitted to ask questions and seek clarification from the
senders.
● However, in the case of two-way communication, the sender may feel
embarrassed when the receiver draws his attention to the sender’s mistakes and
ambiguities.
FUNCTION / PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
● A very significant role is played by communication in the management of modern
large organisations. Such organisations are being designed on the basis of
specialisation and division of labour and have a large number of people working
together.
● Since they are functionally related to each other, there is a high need for
coordination among them. This coordination requires mutual understanding of the
organisational goals. All this can be achieved by effective communication.
Communication, thus becomes an essential ingredient for effective management.
● In an industrial organisation, the communication system is conceived to lead
ultimately to better industrial relations through the existence of a well-informed
workplace, a greater degree of consultation at every level and an atmosphere of
mutual confidence.
● Glover has mentioned the following important purposes of communication:
○ To keep employees informed of the company’s progress.
○ To provide employees with orders and instructions in connection with their
duties.
○ To solicit information from the employees which may aid management
○ To make each employee interested in his respective job and in the work of
the company as a whole
○ To express management’s interest in its personnel
○ To reduce or prevent labour turnover.
○ To indoctrinate employees with the will to work and the benefits derived
from their association with the company
○ To instil each employee’s personal pride in being a member of the company.
● The role of communication in management can be identified by identifying the
various functions that are performed by communication.
○ Information function
○ Command and instructive function
○ Influence and Persuasive function
○ Integrative function
● Information function
○ Information is vital for the functioning of any living system - people or
organisation
○ The technology of communication has greatly enhanced man’s information
generating capacities. It is our ability to affect each other communicatively
which has so greatly increased the importance of the information giving and
receiving aspect of our existence.
○ As a consequence, we can create purposive organisations of people
variously committed to some common endeavour. It is particularly the
existence of such purposive organisations which gives rise to the
importance of information giving and receiving.
○ No organisation can fulfil its purpose except to the extent that its
communication process furthers its movement towards its specified goals in
some way.
● Command and Instructive function
○ Communication performs command and instructive function.
○ Those who are hierarchically superior often initiate communication not only
for the purpose of informing their subordinates but often for the purpose of
telling them what to do, directing them, or commanding their behaviour in
some way.
○ The command and instructive function of communication is more
observable in formal organisations than it is in informal organisations.
○ Orders, directives, requests, procedures, even performance appraisals all
function as command messages.
● Influence and persuasive function
○ In management, influence and persuasion taken together represent one of
the several functions as other functions are equally important.
○ Manager can influence others either through coercively or communicatively.
○ Since influence through coercion has its limitations in organisational setting,
managers can do well to influence others through effective communication.
○ In fact, leadership is more effective than exercise of authority in getting the
maximum from the employees.
○ Leadership, to a very great extent, depends upon how the manager
communicates with his employees and others who may be related with the
organisation in one way or the other.
● Integrative function
○ Communication performs the integrative function by relating various
components of the organisation and maintaining equilibrium among them.
○ In the broadest sense, the integrational aspect includes all behavioural
operations which
■ serve to keep the system in operation
■ serve to regulate the interactional process
■ relate the particular context to the larger contexts of which the
particular interaction is but a special situation.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
7 C’s of Communication
● Completeness: The communication must be complete, in the sense that a
message should convey all the facts required for the comprehension of the
message.
● Conciseness: Consciousness refers to the fact that while communicating one
should try to make a message as short as possible to make it effective.
Conciseness in communication not only saves but is also cost effective and
highlights the message making it more appealing and comprehensible for the
audience/reader.
● Consideration: Consideration in communication implies that the sender of the
message steps into the shoes of the audience/readers in terms of their viewpoints,
background, mindset, education level, etc. to ensure that the message sent is
comprehended properly by the receiver(s).
● Clarity: Clarity in communication implies that the message should be as
clutter-free as possible and that it is easily understandable. To put a message
across with clarity, one needs clarity of thought. And when one has clarity of
thought one can use exact, appropriate and specific words to express oneself.
● Concreteness: Concreteness in communication implies being particular and clear
rather than fuzzy and general. One should be specific in terms of quoting figures
and facts as it makes communication effective and trustworthy and there is less
chance of the message being misinterpreted.
● Courtesy: Courtesy in a message implies that the sender should respect the
receiver/s in terms of being polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. It creates
a positive atmosphere for communication and leads to effective communication.
● Correctness: Correctness in communication implies that there are no
grammatical errors and no dubiousness in facts and figures. Correctness in
communication builds up trust between the sender and the receiver and makes
communication effective.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication can be classified into the following kinds:● Formal and Informal communication
● Verbal and nonverbal communication
● Oral and written communication
FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
● Formal Communication
○ Formal communication follows the route formally laid down in the
organisational structure of the enterprise.
○ Formal channels are the paths of communication which are institutionally
determined and are associated with the status or position of the sender and
the receiver.
○ Formal channels are deliberately created to regulate the flow of
communication. An attempt is made to make the flow of information orderly
so that it flows smoothly and timely to the points where it is required.
○ The channel of communication under this system is, no doubt, narrow, but
ordinarily, it does allow for flow of essential information.
○ It can be easily maintained because it derives support from authority
relationships. It helps in exercising control over subordinates and in the
fixation on responsibility.
○ The important requirements of formal communication are as follows:
■ Determining the information to be communicated and the person to
whom it is to be communicated
■ Transmitting information accurately and at an appropriate time
■ Processing and interpreting the data before giving feedback
■ Maintaining records of information till required
○ There are three forms of formal communication as it flows in three directions
downward, upward and horizontal. Downward and upward flows are two
types of vertical communication.
○ Downward Communication: It represents the flow of information from the
top level to the lower level of the organisation. The purpose of downward
communication is to communicate policies, procedures, programmes and
objectives, and to issue orders and instructions to the subordinates.
A major part of formal communication takes the form of downward
communication. Downward communication takes place through verbal or
written orders and instructions, notices, circulars, letters, memos, posters,
periodicals, publications, group meetings, etc.
Downward communication is needed:
■ To get things done
■ To prepare for changes
■ To discourage misinformation and suspicion; and
■ To let the people feel the pride of being well informed
■ Feedback of subordinates performance
■ Orders and instructions about job
■ Directions about understanding of job and its relationships with other
jobs
In the organisation, people at lower levels have a high degree of fear
and respect towards such communication which leads to a high degree of
acceptance of such communication. Coordination, distortion and resistance
are three important problems that characterise the downward
communication process.
○ Upward Communication: Upward communication refers to the flow of
communication from lower levels (subordinates) to higher levels (superiors)
of authority. Such communication enables the management to know what is
happening throughout the organisation.
An executive can know the outcome of his decisions and instructions
from reliable information from the employees. Such feedback has become
all the more necessary due to the growing tendency towards delegation and
decentralisation. A manager cannot exercise effective control without such
information and he cannot do a complete job of managing without
controlling. Therefore, every manager should provide adequate
opportunities and channels to his subordinates for upward communication.
Subordinates know many things that a superior needs to know but
does not know. It may be a potential problem, a creative idea, or a feeling of
personal satisfaction. These feelings influence the motivation and
performance of employees but they are often reluctant to talk freely and
frankly to their superiors.
Upward communication performs the following important functions:
■ It serves as a measurement of the effectiveness of downward
communication
■ It provides management with the necessary information for decision
making
■ It relieves employees from the pressures and frustrations of work
situations
■ It gives the employees a sense of belongingness through participation
in management
Upward communication is more susceptible to various obstructions
and bottlenecks, because of its special nature. managers, oftentimes, fail to
realise that upward communication cannot be taken for granted, as is the
case with downward communication. This is done because, unlike
downward communication, upward communication is devoid of any support
of managerial hierarchy.
On the contrary, it has to flow in a direction directly opposite to the
flow of official authority, from the dependent subordinates to the superiors
on whom they (subordinates) are directly or indirectly dependent for the
satisfaction of their needs. As such, there is a strong possibility of upward
information being distorted or coloured.
○ Horizontal or Lateral Communication: Horizontal or lateral communication
implies the exchange of ideas and information among people at the same
level of authority. Communication among people of the same status or rank
tends to be faster and more flexible as there are no status barriers. Such
communication is helpful in coordinating the activities of different
departments or divisions of the enterprise. It enables the executives to
exchange information and understanding.
Horizontal communication takes place mostly through meetings,
conferences, telephones, letters, memos, manuals, etc. A lot of information
flows horizontally in an organisation.
The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
■ It is time saving.
■ It facilitates coordination of the task.
■ It facilitates cooperation among team members.
■ It provides emotional and social assistance to the organisational
members.
■ It helps in solving various organisational problems.
■ It is a means of information sharing
■ It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other
department or conflicts within a department
○ Crosswise or diagonal communication: It means communication between
persons who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of
organisational structure. It cuts across departmental lines. Diagonal
communication is the least used channel of communication. It generally
takes place when members cannot communicate effectively through other
channels.
For example, the Cost and Works Accountants who are interested in
conducting a distributor cost analysis may ask for a report directly from the
sales representatives. A diagonal communication takes place when sales
representatives submit their reports directly to the Cost and Work
Accountant. Such communication helps to save time and speed up the
action. But it may violate the principle of unity of command
External communication: Communication that takes place between a
manager and external groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial
institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital the managing director would
interact with the bank manager.
Internal communication:- When people within the organisation communicate
with one another, it is said to be an internal communication. Employees of
an organisation do so to work as a team and realise their common goals.
Internal communication could be official or unofficial. It could be individual to
individual, individual to group, group to individuals, department to
department.
● Informal communication
○ Informal communication or grapevine arises from the social interactions of
people. It is the expression of their natural motivation to communicate. Its
speed is very fast compared to formal communication.
○ The term grapevine arose during the days of the US Civil war. At that time,
intelligence telephone lines were strung loosely from tree to tree in the
manner of grapevine, and the message there on was often distorted; hence
any rumour was said to be from the grapevine. Today the term applies to all
informal communication.
○ Grapevine is more active when
■ There is high organisational excitement such as policy changes,
automation, computerisation or personnel changes
■ The information is new rather than stale
■ People are physically situated close enough to influence one another;
and people cluster in groups along the grapevine, that is when people
have trust among themselves.
○ A study conducted by Keith Davis revealed that the wife of a plant
supervisor had a baby at 11:00 PM and a plant survey the next day at 02:00
PM showed that 46% of the management personnel knew of it through the
grapevine.
○ While formal communication exists to meet the utilitarian needs of the
organisation, informal communication is the method by which people carry
on social, non-programmed activities within the formal boundaries of the
system. It, thus, exists outside the official network, though continuously
interacting with it.
○ When the employees are unable to communicate the required information to
higher authorities because of communication barriers, they may resort to
informal channels of communication. Distortions may appear in the
transmission of such messages through the grapevine in the form of
rumours and gossip. Such informal channels may be resorted to by the
managers when they find that it is not possible to gather information through
the established channels in the formal communication system of the
organisation.
○ The important point that we must recognise is that grapevine is a natural
activity. It is because of the desire of people to communicate without
following the formal channels in the organisation. It is an essential part of
the total human environment. There is nothing inherently bad about
grapevine. It, as a matter of fact, fills in the gaps existing in the formal
communication system.
○ The broad features of grapevine are as under:
■ Informal communication represents a natural desire of people in the
organisation to interact and communicate with each other and it fulfils
the subordinate’s desire to get the latest information.
■ Grapevine works with surprising speed and is often faster than official
channels; information gets disseminated very promptly.
■ Informal communication networks offer managers insight into what
their subordinates think and feel.
■ The informal network of communication is useful for disseminating
certain information which, in the general interest of the organisation,
could not be transmitted through the official channels. Thus,
circumstances that led to the sudden resignation of a manager may
be communicated through the grapevine without giving the
impression that he was the victim of some unfair top management
action.
■ Grapevine is of immense importance as without grapevine employees
will not be able to fill in gaps left from official word or may not feel
ownership of information. Grapevine communication allows
employees to feel a sense of belonging and allows them to discuss
concerns off the record. In turn the management can learn what
employees are thinking in non-formal ways that they could not learn
through formal networks.
● Single-strand – In this pattern information passes from one
person to the other in a sequential order, like: A à B à C and so
on.
● Gossip chain – In this pattern one person passes information to
everyone else in the organisation, like spreading information to
everybody.
● Probability chain – In this pattern information is passed
randomly by one person to those who come in contact with
him. They further pass it randomly, like ‘A’ provides information
randomly to ‘M’, ‘Q’, ‘R’ and ‘Z’ who do so in turn following
probability rules.
● Cluster transmission (most common) – In this pattern one
person passes information to a selected few confidentially;
stating, ‘It is strictly between you and me’. A few of them
transmit it further while others keep it to themselves. For
example, ‘A’ communicates information to four other employees
whom he trusts, two of them duplicate it further
■ Grapevine communication is very useful to the managers as it
spreads very fast like wildfire throughout the organisation. It
supplements the formal channel of communication by transmitting
information about the company’s history and traditions as well as
such information that cannot be communicated through formal
channels. It is also helpful to the managers in seeking feedback about
policies, directions and instructions. It helps in developing healthy
relations amongst people in the organisation as it cuts across the
official channel of communication.
■ However, it is not free from pitfalls. Unsubstantiated rumours can
create dysfunction as a result of grapevine communication.
Information (intended lay-offs, for example) can leak before ready.
Information filtration and distortion usually takes place. Information
transmitted through this channel may be wrong and distorted, it is not
authentic and may also be incomplete. Origin of information cannot
be ascertained and therefore fixing responsibility is difficult. It spreads
through word of mouth and is not supported by evidence. This makes
it non-dependable.
■ Despite its limitations grapevine communication can be effectively
used by the managers by being sensitive to employee anxiety; by
providing important information to employees openly, honestly, and
quickly; by using key communicators amongst employee ranks to
disseminate information and by making decision-making as
participative as possible. Grapevine is inevitable and managers can’t
eliminate it. Hence they must make effective use of it to attain
organisational goals
○ Merits of Informal Communication
Informal communication has the following advantages:
■ It helps in achieving better human relations in organisations.
■ It links even those people who do not fall into the official chain of
command.
■ Its speed is very fast as it is free from all barriers.
■ It serves to fill the possible gaps in formal communication.
■ It provides the workers with an outlet to freely express their fears,
views and thoughts.
○ Demerits of Informal Communication
The demerits of informal communication are as follows:
■ Informal communication is not authentic. The message may get
distorted because of different interpretations by different persons.
■ Informal communication is oral in nature and it is very difficult to find
the responsibility of the communicator for the message transmitted. It
may lead to a generation of rumours in the organisation.
■ It may lead to the leakage of confidential information.
■ Informal channels may not always be active. So informal
communication is not dependable.
FORMAL COMMUNICATION
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
It is based on formal organisational
relationships
It is not based on formal organisational
relationships. It is free from formalities
The channels of communication are
pre-planned
The channels of communication are not
pre-planned
It is slow as it has to follow the path laid
down by the management
It is very fast as it is not supposed to
follow a particular path.
Chances of distortions of information are
very few
Chances of distortion of information are
very high
In case of formal communication, status or In case of informal communication, status
position of the parties is very important
or position of the parties has no relevance
Formal communication is authentic
Informal message may not be authentic
● Rumor
○ That is why, to some people, grapevine means rumour. But it is not always
so in practice. A rumour is grapevine information which is communicated
without authentic standards of evidence being present. It is thus an untrue
part of the grapevine. It can by chance be correct, but generally is incorrect;
so it is presumed to be undesirable.
○ Rumour originates for a number of reasons. One cause is plain
maliciousness, but probably not the most important. A more frequent cause
is employees’ anxiety and insecurity because of poor communication in the
organisation. Rumour also serves as a means of wish fulfilment or applying
pressure upon the management.
○ Rumour largely depends on the interest and ambiguity perceived by each
person; it tends to change as it passes from person to person. Its general
theme may be maintained, but not its details. The rumour gets twisted and
distorted when it passes from one mouth to another. Generally, each person
chooses details in the rumour to fit his/her particular focus on reality. Thus,
the details given at the beginning of a rumour are lost after a few
transmissions because people reduce it to a rememberable number of
details about items of interest to them.
○ A major outbreak of a rumour can be a devastating epidemic that sweeps
through an organisation as fast as a summer storm and usually with as
much damage. Therefore, the most important problem for the management
is how to deal with rumours.
○ Dealing with rumour
Since rumour is generally incorrect, a major outbreak of it can be a
devastating epidemic that sweeps through an organisation. Therefore,
rumours should be dealt with firmly and consistently. However, while dealing
with rumour, it is not wise to strike at the whole grapevine because it
happens to be the agent that carries the rumour. Moreover, certain rumours
are harmless and die out as the time passes. Dealing with such rumours
may not be worthwhile. Problems come with those rumours which tend to
be harmful. In dealing with such rumours, the organisation can adopt the
following practices:
■ Reduction of causes
The best way to control rumour is to get at its causes rather than
trying to stop it after it has already started. Possibility of spreading
rumours is reduced when people feel reasonably secure, understand
the things that matter to them, and feel part of the team. On the other
hand, when people are emotionally upset or inadequately informed
about their environment, they are likely to be rumour-mongers. The
management can create a situation under which the possibility of
raising rumours is reduced.
■ Listening to rumour
Regardless of the importance of rumour, it should be listened to
carefully. Even though it may not be true, usually it carries the
message about the employees feelings on the subject matter of
rumour. In this way, the management can know where the ambiguity
prevails and what actions can be taken to clear the ambiguity.
■ Providing facts
As soon as the rumour, particularly when it is harmful, starts, the
management can weaken it by releasing the facts related to the
subject matter of the rumour. In such cases, the ambiguity is reduced
and the truth tends to prevail. Time factor is very important in dealing
with such rumours. The action should be taken the moment the
rumour starts because once the general theme of a rumour is known
and accepted, employees distort future happenings to conform to the
rumour.
■ Use of reliable sources
The communication of facts is more effective if it comes from a source
that employees think in a position to know the true facts. the source
also should be a person who has a dependable communication
record. Additionally, informal leaders should also be contacted to
communicate facts. If need be, the management can confirm the facts
in writing without referring to the rumour.
■ Use of trade union
Often rumours arise in the minds of employees about the
management practices concerning the employees in particular and
the organisation in general. Such rumours may be quite harmful if
management-employee relation is not good. In such situations, the
management can take the help of employee leaders to refute the
rumours as the employees tend to put more trust on their leaders as
compared to management so far as communication is concerned.
○ Hirschhorn has offered the following guidelines to reduce the negative
consequences of rumours:
■ Announce timetables for making important decisions
■ Explain decisions and behaviours that may appear inconsistent or
secretive
■ Emphasise the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions
and future plans
■ Openly discuss worst-case possibilities – it is almost never as
anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy
VERBAL AND NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
● Verbal communication
○ In verbal communication. Language is used according to the established
rules of grammar/syntax to communicate emotions and feelings and to
share information and meaning. Depending on the way we use words, by
speaking or by writing, verbal communication is divided into two categoriesOral and Written.
■ Oral communication:- In oral communication, both the parties to the
process i.e. sender and receiver, exchange their ideas through oral
words either in face to face communication or through any
mechanical or electrical device such as telephone etc.
Oral communication is very helpful in face to face two way
communication where persons can exchange their feelings fully and
clarity regarding any doubt or ambiguity may be sought.
Possibility of gestural communication being used along with
oral one increases the effectiveness of this type of communication
since actions speak louder than words.
Advantage of oral communication
● It is speedy
● One can get immediate feedback
● There is immediate clarification
● It is most suitable in case of emergency
● There is a personal touch to it.
Oral communication disadvantages
● absence of any permanent record of communication.
● Sometimes, it becomes time consuming especially in meetings
and conferences when after various deliberations, nothing
concrete comes out.
● Sometimes, oral communication is not taken seriously by the
receiver and the basic objective of communication in this case
is not achieved.
● There is also a possibility that the spoken words are not clearly
heard or understood.
● Limited human memory acts as a constraint
■ Written communication
● Communication in writing - written words, graphs, diagrams,
pictures etc - may take the form of letters, circulars, notes,
manuals etc.
● Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated
within sender and receiver through written form. For internal
purposes, common methods used are memos, reports,
●
●
●
●
bulletins, emails etc. For external purposes, websites, emails,
advertisements etc are some common methods of written
communication.
Written communication possesses the capacity of being stored
for future reference.
The communications efforts may be minimised by simultaneous
communication to various points such as through circulars etc.
It also enables the communication to take place between
distantly placed parties without much cost.
Written communication is more orderly and binding on
subordinates and superiors to take suitable actions in the
organisation.
Written communication disadvantages
● It is very time consuming both in terms of preparing the
message and in terms of understanding the message.
● There is a greater chance of communication being
misunderstood
● Sometimes it is more costly in comparison to oral
communication.
○ Oral communication or speech is the more frequently used medium of
communication. There are reasons for it to be so. Some of these reasons
are:
■ We need not be literate to speak as is needed in written
communication. All human beings have the competence to speak one
or more languages. And to achieve it, he or she does not need to be
taught in a formal educational environment.
■ Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD)
which disposes them to learn a language when they grow up in a
sociocultural environment. A child learns spoken language naturally
just by imitating the elders around him or her.
■ We speak more than we write as it is a faster and more spontaneous
and economical medium of communication.
WRITTEN LANGUAGE
ORAL LANGUAGE
Precise and direct
A dynamic transfer of information
Planned and deliberate
Conversational and indirect
Non retractable
Retractable (one can apologise for a
mistake or offer clarification)
Chosen with greater deliberation and
thought.
Spontaneous
Objective
Subjective
Validated by author’s credibility
Dependent upon orientation signals and
projection terms
● Non verbal communication
○ Non verbal communication is very important in both organisational and non
organisational settings.
○ In many cases, no words are exchanged yet communication happens as we
can also communicate through our body language which is non-verbal
communication. It is perceived that non-verbal cues form a major part of the
communication process (93%) therefore it is significant that we focus our
attention on this aspect of communication.
○ There are three important aspects in non verbal communication
■ First, A body position or movement may not by itself have a precise or
universal meaning, but when it is linked with spoken words, it may
give fuller meaning to a sender’s message.
■ Second, sometimes, there may be a contradiction between verbal
and nonverbal communication. The literal meaning of the sender's
words may be different from what he conveys through non verbal
communication. Therefore, it is important for the receiver to be alert to
this aspect of communication.
■ Third, action speaks louder than words in the long run. A manager
who says one thing but does another thing will soon find that his
employees listen mostly to what he does rather than what he says.
When there is a difference between what one says and what one
does, we call that a communication credibility gap.
○ Kinesics
■ Kinesics is the study of the body’s physical movements for the
purpose of communication, that is, the way our body communicates
without words, through various movements of its parts.
■ For example, nodding one’s head communicates acceptance. Some
body movements during communication are conscious, whereas
others we do unconsciously. For example, if two people
communicating who are of similar rank in an organisational hierarchy
and one of them starts fidgeting with his mobile phone, it sends the
message that the person is not interested in the conversation.
○ Proxemics
■ Space or lack of it between the sender and the receiver of the
message also speaks volumes. When one hugs someone, though no
words are exchanged yet the warmth of the relationship can be felt by
both.
■ This is communication. The study of physical space in interpersonal
relations is called Proxemics.
○ Edward T.Hall (1996) divides the communication space into four distinct
zones:
■ Intimate: The intimate zone extends just to 18 inches (one and a half
feet). Members of the family, lovers, spouses, relatives and parents
usually communicate in this zone.
■ Personal: The personal zone stretches from 18 inches to 4 feet.
Close friends, colleagues, and peers, communicate in this zone. This
zone is personal and is quite a relaxed and casual place. When two
or more colleagues sit in a canteen and discuss something informally,
then usually there is a distance between them and yet the distance is
not so much which does not suggest closeness. This is an example of
a personal zone.
■ Social: Social zone is a radius of 4 feet to 12 feet. In this zone,
relationships are more formal and official. People are more cautious
in their movements. The situation involves less emotion and more
planning. Suppose you have gone for an interview and sitting across
the table in front of the interviewers. The distance between you and
the interviewers is that of a social zone.
■ Public: Public zones start from 12 feet and may extend to 25 feet or to
the range of eyesight and hearing. Events are formal in this zone. The
audience views and hears as an impartial observer and is free to do
whatever it feels like. The speaker often uses a microphone to
communicate in this zone. When the Prime Minister or the President
of India addresses the masses, they usually keep a distance from
them for security reasons. It is an example of a public zone.
○ Chronemics
■ How we manage our time communicates a lot about the kind of
person we are. The study of the use of time to communicate is known
as chronemics.
■ In the professional world, time is a valuable resource. When we are
late for an appointment, people react negatively. If we arrive early, we
are considered over-eager.
■ A call at 2 a.m. indicates some kind of emergency.
■ You reached in a party on time shows you are punctual
○ Haptics: Language of Touch
■ The way we communicate through our physical contact or by touching
the other person is known as haptics.
■ For instance, kissing, slapping or shaking hands with someone are
ways of communicating.
○ Paralanguage/vocalic
■ Paralanguage is the way meaning is conveyed by how we say things
while speaking. It includes speed of speaking, pitch, voice
modulation, breaks and pauses.
○ Oculesics
■ It is the study of eye movement, behaviour, gaze, and eye-related
nonverbal communication.
○ Olfactics – use of smell A smell can trigger the oldest of memories We can
remember what we smell longer than what we see & hear. Can even be
used as a warning system
○ Gustorics – use of taste, Can communicate pleasure, displeasure or
warning. We can savour flavours we enjoy. What one person perceives as
mildly spicy may be hot and displeasing to another.
○ Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the study of meaning-making, the
study of sign process (semiosis) and meaningful communication. For
instance, when we see the different colours of a traffic light, we
automatically know how to react to them. We know this without even
thinking about it. But this is a sign which has been established by cultural
convention over a long period of time and which we learn as children, and
requires a deal of unconscious cultural knowledge to understand its
meaning
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS / CHANNELS FORMAL AND INFORMAL
● The communication network is a pattern of inter-connected lines. It is a system
where the message may flow in one direction or several directions.
● As a pattern of contact among the members of an organisation, a communication
network contains channels. It determines the rapidity, accuracy and smoothness
with which the messages flow in the organisation.
● If the network is too long or roundabout, there will be a delay in the flow of
communication. If it is too narrow the message may get blocked. When the
network contains several filtering points the message may get distorted.
● FORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
○ The formal channel, as the very name implies, is the deliberately created
officially prescribed path for flow of communication between the various
positions in the organisation. It is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of
organisational communication so as to make it orderly and thereby to
ensure that information flows smoothly, accurately and timely.
○ This officially prescribed communication network may again be designed on
the basis of single or multiple channels.
■ A single channel communication network prescribes only one path of
communication. The channel of communication under this system is
narrow but it does allow for flow of essential information. Also, it is
easy to maintain, orderly in nature, supports the authority of the
superiors and provides for closeness of contact thereby reducing
channels of miscommunication.
It has some basic limitations, such as, bottlenecks in the flow,
enhancing organisational distance, greater possibilities of
transmission, errors, screening at various filtering points etc.
■ One way of overcoming these limitations is to provide a number of
communication channels linking one position with various other
positions, the system of multiple channels. An unlimited use of this
system may, however, cause confusion and also undermine the
superior authority.
○ Circle Network: In the case of a circle network, the message moves in a
circle. Under it, each person communicates with two others located on both
of his sides. The such network offers a wider choice of channels and offers
greater satisfaction to employees. But it is very slow, noisy and
unorganised.
○ Chain Network: Under this network, the messages flow in a direct vertical
line along the scalar chain of command. This type of network tends to be
inflexible as the communication flow is formal. There is no horizontal and
interpersonal communication at lower levels.
Chain Network – Serial transmission (in a line). The chain here refers
to an arrangement of persons starting from the central authority in a
tree-like structure. The person at the top of the chain, being empowered
with central authority, passes the message to the other person who is linked
to him directly, who passes it further in the same manner.
Such an approach to communication is a formal approach suited for
formal communication and is generally found in any hierarchical
organisation like Civil services. At the top of the hierarchy, the initiator of the
message has full control over its transmission and is able to oversee its flow
downward through the levels of management. Such a serial or hierarchical
flow of information may however make people at the lower levels feel a bit
isolated and distant from the top management and may become indifferent
to it.
○ Wheel Network: Under it, a number of subordinates report to one superior. It
is called a wheel because all communications pass through the central
person similar to the hub of a wheel. It provides no direct communication
among the subordinates. It is the slowest but most authoritarian network.
Wheel Network – Central message unit and separate
transmission/reception units in all directions. This network resembles the
structure of a wheel wherein there is one central unit handling transmission
and
receipt
of
communication
message
through
separate
transmission/reception units in all directions. It has the advantages of quick
and simultaneous transmission of messages to all as messages are passed
directly and not in a serial order. It gives a greater sense of belongingness
to the employees as they feel directly connected to the central authority.
Because of this, such a network is particularly suitable for solving
organisational problems
○ All Chain Network: It represents a free flow of communication. Every
member is allowed to communicate freely with all the other members. It
provides the highest satisfaction. It is an unstructured and flexible
communication network.
○ Y Network: In it A is the central person who communicates with B, C and D.
Both upward and downward communication takes place through A.
This type of network also facilitates flow of information through a
hierarchical structure in an organisation. The difference being in the fact that
here there is more than one source through which information may be
disseminated. An example of this may be Police force and Army people who
receive information from various sources above them.
Decentralised Networks – Decentralised Networks overcome the limitation
of centralised networks becoming redundant in the event of destruction of
the central repository or node. In a decentralised network information flows
more freely and widely throughout the organisation. The presence of a
turbulent and complex business environment; growing flatness in
hierarchical structure in organisations; and greater autonomy and flexibility
of relationships in the organisations have led to the popularity of
decentralised networks.
Decentralised Networks can be put into two categories:
Circle Network - Serial transmission of messages but decentralised. It
resembles a circle wherein each individual is linked to two other persons.
This makes it possible for a person to communicate with any of the two
persons. An example for this may be communication between middle
managers from different departments at the same level of organisation. The
main problem with this type of network is lack of cooperation and
coordination between members.
The “All Channel” Network – This network is suited for small groups.
In such environments because of the involvement of every member it
provides the best solution. It may be used when a department decides to
brainstorm over any issue. Decision-making may be slow, as many people
need to be consulted.
In practice, these networks overlap so that people may be in more
than one network. For example, the marketing manager may be both a
spoke of a wheel (under the general manager) and at the centre of a chain.
Each type of network has its own merits and demerits as given in the
following table. Every enterprise has to choose an appropriate network for
itself. It may also use a combination of two or more networks.
● INFORMAL CHANNEL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
○ Single Strand Network: Here an individual communicates with another
individual through the intervening persons.
○ Gossip Network: In the gossip chain network, there is an individual who tells
the message to all other members in the network directly. He is generally
the central person who seeks out and transmits information to all that he
has obtained.
○ Probability Network: Under this communication pattern, the information
passes randomly from person to person.
■ Such as, there is an individual who acts as a source of a message
and selects any person randomly in his network to communicate the
message.
■ That second person will again, select another person randomly and
pass on the messages to someone else.
■ Here, the source of information for each member of the network is
different.
○ Cluster Network: Here, the individual communicates with only those
individuals whom he trusts.
Out of these informal networks, the cluster is the most popular.
BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION
Despite the development of high-speed electronic devices, communications are not
successful in many cases. These barriers may operate in organisational communication
as well as in non organisational communicationSome of the barriers or obstacles to
effective communication are given below:
● Organisational Barrier:
The breakdown or distortion in communication, sometimes, arises due to:
○ Several layers of management
○ Long lines of communication
○ Long distance of subordinates from top management
○ Lack of instructions for passing information to the subordinates; and
○ Heavy pressures of work on certain levels of authority
● Status Barrier:
○ Every organisation has some kind of status system. Some individuals have
higher status than others.
○ Persons of higher status do not talk freely with those of lower status.
Subordinates at lower levels do not freely talk to superiors. They pass on
only superiors who would like to hear and hold back unpleasant facts.
○ When a subordinate does not have trust in his superior communication
becomes less effective.
● Semantic Barrier:
○ Words and symbols used to communicate facts and feelings may mean
different things to different persons.
○ For example, ‘profits’ may mean one thing to a manager and quite another
to a worker. People interpret the same message in different ways depending
on their social and cultural backgrounds, education and experience.
○ The language of the sender may be very technical or incomprehensible to
the receiver.
● Inattention Barrier:
○ When the receiver does not pay complete attention to the message,
communication becomes ineffective.
○ A person may be inattentive when he considers the message as superficial
or uninteresting. He may be preoccupied with other more important matters
or the message may be contrary to his expectations.
● Perceptual Barrier:
○ People greatly differ in the way they perceive things and events. This is a
major psychological barrier to communication.
○ Everyone tries to evaluate the same message from his or her point of view
or experience. Effective communication requires an open mind and
willingness to see things through the eyes of others.
● Lack of ability to communicate:
○ All persons do not have the skill to communicate. Skill in communication
may come naturally to some, but an average man may need some sort of
training and practice by way of interviewing, public speaking, etc.
● Heightened Emotions:
○ Barriers may also arise due to specific situations, e.g., emotional reaction,
physical conditions like noise or insufficient light, past experiences, etc.
● Premature Evaluation:
○ Communication is hampered when the receiver evaluates the message
before getting the complete information.
○ In such a case he does not have an open mind. He may be unresponsive to
new ideas or may resist change. He jumps to conclusions without a logical
deduction from objective situations.
● Channel Distortions:
○ Physical or mechanical barriers may also cause distortions of
communication.
○ Many people talking simultaneously, inaudible telephone lines, electronic
disturbances, wrong transcriptions in telex messages, etc., are examples of
channel distortion.
● Distrust of communicator
○ It arises out of ill considered judgements or illogical decisions or frequent
countermanding of the original communication by the communicator.
○ Repeated experience of this kind gradually conditions the receiver to delay
action or act unenthusiastically, hence making the communication
unsuccessful, though apparently it is complete.
===================================================================
While the organisational factors discussed above are, no doubt, important influences
operating on communication, a host of factors internal to the two parties - sender and
receiver - to this process also exert important influences on its operation, as
communication is basically an interpersonal process. For the sake of convenience in the
analysis, these barriers have been analysed separately and these are relevant in the
case of downward and upward communication.
● BARRIERS IN SUPERIORS
○ Attitude of superiors
■ The attitudes of superiors towards communication in general or in any
particular direction affect the flow of messages in different directions.
■ For example, if this attitude is unfavourable, there is a greater
possibility that messages would not flow adequately from and or to
superiors.
○ Fear of challenge to authority
■ A person in the organisation always tries to get a higher position and
prestige to satisfy his needs.
■ As such, managers in general try to withhold the information coming
down the line or going up as frequent passing of information may
disclose their weakness.
○ Insistence on proper channel
■ One of the basic features of superiors exercising authority is that they
wish to remain in communication links and they do not like any type of
bypassing in communication.
■ Communication through bypassing may, sometimes, be necessary
but superiors treat this as thwarting of their authority and blocks the
flow of communication
○ Lack of confidence in subordinates
■ Superiors generally perceive, correct or otherwise, that their
subordinates are less competent and capable, they are not able to
advise superiors or they may not have some information coming
downwards
○ Ignoring communication
■ Sometimes superiors consciously and deliberately ignore the
communication from their subordinates to maintain their importance.
This works against the willingness of subordinates to communicate.
○ Lack of time
■ Superiors feel, whether correct or otherwise, that they are
overburdened with the work and they have little time to talk to their
subordinates.
○ Lack of awareness
■ Sometimes, superiors may lack the awareness about the significance
and usefulness of communication in different directions in general or
of particular subject matter. In such cases, communication flow is
blocked.
● BARRIERS IN SUBORDINATES
Vertical communication in either direction can take place only when
subordinates also actively participate in this process. There are various factors in
the subordinates that adversely affect such active participation on their part. Two
factors are more important in the case of subordinates and these are responsible
for blocking communication in upward direction.
○ Unwillingness to communicate
■ Sometimes, subordinates do not communicate upwards certain
information because they are not willing to do so.
■ Thus, if a subordinate feel that he is likely to be adversely affected by
a particular piece of information to his superior, he would not be
willing to supply it.
■ Information going up is utilised for control purposes and subordinates
would not be willing to give any information to their superiors about
any unfavourable happening and if its application is necessary they
would modify the information in such a way so as to protect their own
interest.
○ Lack of proper incentive
■ lack of motivation to communicate also refrains subordinates to
communicate upwards.
■ The rewards and punishment system of the organisation is more
responsible for this.
■ Thus, if a novel suggestion by a subordinate does not evoke any
attention from the organisation, he would not convey it.
OVERCOMING BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION /
MAKING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE
● From the organisations point of view, communication can be said to be effective if
○ Adequate communication flows to different points in the organisation
○ The message received is very close to the message sent
○ The non verbal message is congruent with the verbal message
○ The message elicits desired response
○ The communication results in building trusting relationship between the
source and the target
● Following are some of the attempts which can be made to make communication
effective
○ Clarity: Clarity of throughs is the first essential of good communication. The
message must be perfectly clear and free from all ambiguity. The language
used should be simple and precise which the receiver can understand
easily. Different components of the message must be logical and well-knit.
Technical jargon and high-sounding words should be avoided.
○ Completeness: The message must be comprehensive and adequate. An
incomplete message creates misunderstanding and delays actions. Every
individual should, therefore, be provided with the required information for
the proper discharge of his duties. Any assumptions behind the message
should be clarified.
○ Brevity: All communication should be brief. Meaningless words and
information overload spoil a message. Unnecessary repetition and
over-elaboration should be avoided. The flow of information should be
regulated to avoid information overload. The message should be concise
and concrete.
○ Timeliness: The message should reach the receiver at the right time. A
message which fails to reach the receiver in the proper time may turn out to
be useless. The media used should be proper.
○ Compassion: In order to communicate effectively, the communicator must
understand the intelligence level and background of the receiver. He must
know what information the receiver exactly needs and in what form.
○ Consistency: The messages sent must be consistent with the objectives,
policies and programmes of the organization. Actions speak louder than
words. The actions and behaviour of the sender must also support his
communication.
○ Feedback: Communication is a two-way process. There should be fellow
up action to ensure that the message is rightly understood. Therefore, all
efforts should be made to ensure feedback or return flow of communication.
Feedback enables the communicator to know whether the receiver has
properly understood the message or not.
○ Attention: Careful listening is essential for effective communication. The
communicator should try to secure the individual attention of the audience.
He should convey the message in such a way that the emotions and
sentiments of the receiver are not hurt. Empathetic listening and an open
mind are necessary for this purpose.
○ Strategic use of grapevine: A manager makes use of his grapevine to
supplement the formal channels of communication. For this purpose, he
must understand the informal communication networks and should make
their intelligent use to fill up gaps in a formal communication system.
○ Purpose of communication: Every communication has some purpose, the
basic purpose of any communication being to get behavioural response
from the receiver of the communication. However, the ultimate objective
may be extended further, for example, getting an order accepted by the
subordinate. The communication should be directed towards this objective
by the efforts of communicator.
○ Appropriate language:- The subject matter of communication is
transmitted by decoding it into some symbols. Such symbols may be in the
form of words, either spoken or written, and gestures. If the words are used,
the language used for communication should be such which is
understandable by the receiver. One way of making the communication
simple is to use repetitive language with which the receiver is quite familiar.
○ Credibility in communication:- One criterion for effective managerial
communication is that it has credibility or believability. The subordinates
obey the orders of the superior because he has demonstrated through his
competence that he is worthy of trust. He must also maintain his trust and
credibility. Thus any communication which is based on this trust and
credibility will be followed by the subordinates.
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
COMMUNICATION
● Ever since the dawn of civilization, technology and communication have gone
hand in hand. Ancient people used to write on stone, which remained immobile.
The invention of paper, and the printing press spread communication over long
distances. The ever evolving technology helped circulate the newspaper from one
part to another part of the world. The invention of mobile phones made
communication faster, less expensive and widely available. Text messaging
services have revolutionised the way we communicate. But it is the internet for
some time now that has changed the way we communicate drastically.
● The mass communication system has the power to provide information
customised to gain benefits for the owners. This can have a negative effect on
people. The uncensored and obnoxious news items or television programs can
damage the morals of people, including the teens and youth. People are exposed
to numerous sources of information. The internet advertisements, television,
newspaper, magazines, electronic billboards, and other sources of communication
have pervaded in our daily lives. Because of fast and easily accessible
communication people can expand and enhance their knowledge. But it can affect
people's lives too if they receive the dark side of modern communication.
● Workplaces have become more dynamic and active as employees and employers
can use information technology to reduce costs, increase work efficiency and save
valuable time to invest in other important ventures. Business, products and
services are globally accessible and connected by the internet. People no longer
need to queue up for posting mail in the post office, or sending telegrams. The
internet has increased the speed of communication vastly and reduced the costs
greatly.
● The speed, convenience and availability of modern technology are so
overwhelming that it is easy to notice how technology affects communication.
● Technology evolves fast. it will continue to evolve and change. The methods of
communication will move forward as technology will be moved on.
● Advantages of using IT in communication
○ Money and time can be saved as it is cheap as well as fast to move
information around
○ Video conferencing saves time on flights/accommodation
○ It removes isolation and provides support systems to people who need it
○ It is available 24X7
○ It helps reduce red tapism/delays and corruption in the work processes.
● Disadvantages of IT in communication
○ Loss of face to face communication often results in loss of personal touch
○ There is always an element of uncertainty regarding the authenticity of
information
○ Virus, fraud, identity theft are other concerns.