UNDERSTANDING CULTURE,
SOCIETY & POLITICS
1
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS
Modules in this course









Introduction: The Understanding of Culture, Society, and Politics
Defining Culture and Society: The Perspectives of Anthropology and
Sociology
Human Biocultural and Social Evolution
Becoming a Member of Society
Organization in Society
Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions
Social and Political Stratification
Cultural, Social, and Political Change
Human Adaptation and Social Change
2
Introduction: The Understanding of Culture, Society, and Politics
Topics under this module









Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Gender)
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socioeconomic Class)
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)
Cultural Variation and Social Differences (Religion)
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality)
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Nationality)
Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Social, Political, and Cultural Change
The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics
3
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Gender)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to discuss gender roles in Philippine society
from pre-colonial to the present era.
How do gender roles vary across cultures according to a particular culture’s beliefs and
expectations concerning men and women’s roles?
Learn about it!
Gender and Gender Roles
People play different roles in society depending on age and occupation. There are jobs that
require a specific gender to perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.
Gender



Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males
and females based on certain social contexts.
It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish a male
from a female.
Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or
feminine.
Gender Roles



Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit
based on his or her sex.
For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives
and take care of their children, while men are expected to be professionals and provide the
needs of their family.
Another example is that society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while
men are expected to be strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.
Learn about it!

Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society

In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and privileges.
Different social functions were assigned to different members of society. There were
functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both
4

Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan was also considered a healer, an adviser, and a
seer.
Learn about it
!
Gender Roles in Philippine Society During the Colonial Period
Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were restrained from other
activities outside their homes, while men were given more social functions. These roles also
changed as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.



With the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost their
role in the religious life of the community. This role was taken over by Catholic priests.
Women were relegated to doing household chores and taking care of children. More often
than not, young women were not sent to school but instead trained to be good wives and
mothers for their future families. Some women were also forced to marry for economic and
political gain.
During the American period, women had more freedom in society. They were allowed to
study and work in any field they wanted. They also adopted American values. Men and
women became equal in the sense that it became acceptable for both genders to have jobs
and be educated.
Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during
the Japanese period, women were usually kept inside their houses to protect them from
abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy defending the country, with most of them
serving as soldiers.
Learn about it!
Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society
5
At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing both men and women to perform
different tasks not based solely on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities and strengths. For
example, fields like engineering, architecture, and medicine, which are often associated with men,
have long been open to women. Likewise, there are also lots of male teachers, nurses, chefs, and
hairdressers nowadays.
Explore!
What are your hobbies? Do you have a hobby that is typically done by the opposite sex?
What do people say about your "unusual" hobby?
Try it!
Ask five of your friends about their dream jobs. Does any of these jobs tend to be associated
with men or women? What do you think about your friends’ dream jobs?
What do you think?
Is it proper to limit a person’s choices based on his or her gender? Why or why not?
Tips
Gender is a set of characteristics that pertains to a person’s masculinity or femininity while
biology determines sex. For example, a man is male because he has male sex organs. He, however,
can be considered effeminate because the things he likes are often associated with women.
Key Points





Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males
and females based on certain social contexts.
Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit
based on his or her sex.
In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same rights and privileges.
Different social functions were assigned to different members of society. There were
functions that were specifically given to males, females, or both.
Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically. Women were restrained from
other activities outside their homes, while men were given more social functions. These roles
also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.
The present Filipino society has become more open in allowing people of different genders
to do things not based on their sex but based on their capabilities.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socioeconomic Class)
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss the different socioeconomic
classes that exist in Philippine society.


What are the different socioeconomic classes in the Philippines?
How did these socioeconomic classes change through time?
Learn about it!
Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During prehistoric
times, our ancestors developed a society where people were assigned with different social functions.
However, as society changed, differences in societal functions became wider and more diverse.
Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period
6
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community was called a barangay. It was headed
by a datu or rajah. Our ancestors were divided into three different groups−maharlika, timawa,
and alipin.
Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)



first social class
composed of community leaders (datu) and their families
also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat
Timawa (Freemen)




second or “middle” social class
composed of all freemen living in the barangay
consisted of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who were not under debt bondage
had their own properties such as houses and pieces of land to cultivate
Alipin (Slaves)






third class
served another person or family as payment for debt
became slaves when their families lost to a war with another
were not bound to their masters for life
could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they marry
a maharlika, who will then pay for their debt
had two kinds−alipingsaguiguilid and alipingnamamahay
AlipingNamamahay



had their own properties such as houses or pieces of land
often from the timawa class and became slaves because of debt or as punishment for a
wrongdoing
could go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt
Alipingsaguiguilid



did not have the right to own any property
often came from a family of slaves or were captives in war
could also be sold or exchanged for goods or other slaves
Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period
Upon the coming of the Spaniards, Philippine society changed and a new set of
socioeconomic classes was created. During this period, the people were divided based on their
ancestry—peninsulares, insulares, mestizo, and indio.
Peninsulares


Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain
came from the word “peninsula,” which was in direct reference to the Spanish peninsula
Insulares


Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
came from the word “insular,” which means "from the islands"
Mestizos



those of mixed ancestry
usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and indio couples
had economic and political power because of their mixed heritage
7
Indios




consisted of the natives
the lowest class in society
were stripped of their rights and freedom
were forced to bow down to Spanish colonizers
This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until the time when
some insulares and mestizos were able to gain some form of power. In the 19th century, the socalled “middle class” emerged—the principalia and the ilustrados.
Principalia


consisted of native leaders in the government and their families
were often educated and served as gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de
barangay (barangay leader)
Ilustrados


the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe
consisted mostly of the popular artists and scholars of the period, including Jose Rizal
Learn about it!
Modern Socioeconomic Classes
Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from Spain.
The Americans introduced democracy and did not impose any form of socioeconomic class in the
country.
At present, a person’s position in society is based mainly on his or her family’s economic
status. Social stratification or the division of society based on occupation, income, wealth, or
power is simpler at present than in the past.
In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population into
high-income, middle-income, and low-income classes.
High-income Class


people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per month
the “rich” class that accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total population
Middle-income Class


people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per month
consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs
Low-income Class


people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month
consists of laborers and minimum wage earners
8
Learn about it!
Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific class have no choice but to die
as part of the same class, people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to transfer from a
lower socioeconomic class to a higher one.
This process, called social mobility, is:


the movement of people or families within or between different levels in society, and
the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one possibly through
education or marriage.
Explore!
Have you ever wondered why young children are often asked what they want to be when
they grow up? Most children choose to be doctors, engineers, lawyers, or any high-earning
profession that often comes from long years of education. In some cases, students will choose their
college degrees based solely on their socioeconomic capabilities.
Try it!
Research more about your community, and compare it to other communities in your city or
province. If possible, ask local leaders for basic information about the budget and spending of
your barangay. Compare your data with those of your classmates'. Note the differences in budget
and spending in each barangay. What may have caused the differences you noted? Where did
each barangay focus its spending?
What do you think?
In which socioeconomic class does your family belong? What can you do to help your family
climb up the modern socioeconomic ladder.
Tips


Knowing about one’s socioeconomic class is not a cause for discrimination. Everyone in the
Philippines has the same set of rights regardless of socioeconomic class.
If one can move from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one, it is also possible for the
opposite to occur.
Key Points



Anyone can move from one socioeconomic class to another, depending on educational
attainment and life decisions.
Social mobility is the movement of people or families within or between different levels in
society.
Social stratification is the division of society based on occupation, income, wealth, or
power.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)
Objective
9
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and discuss different concepts and issues
regarding ethnicity and ethnic groups in the Philippines.




What is ethnicity?
What is race and how is it related to ethnicity?
What are the issues regarding ethnicity?
What are the ethnic groups in the Philippines?
Learn about it!
Ethnicity and Race
Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races. This
makes society very diverse and unique.
Ethnicity


Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a common or
shared culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
Here, people are divided into groups based on different social factors.
Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.
Race




Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as skin color,
height, and facial features.
People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
Human beings are classified into three major races−Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face and eyes,
texture of the hair, and other prominent physical features.
Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For example,
Asians belong to the Mongoloid race but consists of different ethnic groups like the Japanese, the
Chinese, and the Malays. They all share the same physical features but have different cultures,
histories, and languages.
Learn about it!
Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines
10
There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are based on
the language each group uses.


There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:
1. Ilokano,
2. Kapampangan,
3. Pangasinense,
4. Tagalog,
5. Bikolano,
6. Ilonggo,
7. Cebuano, and
8. Waray.
Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are
the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan, and Zamboangueño.
There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same ethnolingguistic
groups, but have different cultures or traditions. Some of them are the Mangyans of Mindoro,
the Igorots of the Mountain Province, and the Moros of Mindanao.
Learn about it!
Issues About Race and Ethnicity
Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinities or physical
similarities. However, differences in ethnicity and race make some people believe that one ethnic
group is superior than others. This belief creates discrimination and prejudice against people from
minorities who are perceived to be of “inferior” ethnicity or race.
There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race.
Racism


Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.
In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids) discriminated black Americans (Negroids) who
were descendants of immigrants from African countries.
Ethnocentricism



Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s culture.
Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim countries
because of their religion.
In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and discrimination in Christian-dominated
regions like Metro Manila. Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao between the
government and Islamic militants, Christians tend to think that all Muslims are terrorists.
11

On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are discriminated and prejudiced
against in Muslim-dominated areas.
Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause crimes against it.
Genocide

Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group, religion,
or nation.
It is an extreme action against people from another ethnicity or race.
The Holocaust during the World War II, executed by the Nazis of Germany led by Adolf
Hitler, killed millions of Jews all over Europe.


Ethnic cleansing

Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group to banish
them from a certain area or territory.
This happens in certain areas in Africa.

Explore!
Research about your family. Look into the ethnicity of your parents as well as your
grandparents. Is there anyone from your family who is part of a different race or ethnic group? If so,
how did your parents introduce you to the different cultures and languages of your family?
Try it!
Pick five of your classmates or friends and ask them about Philippine languages that they
know. Ask them to share a characteristic or practice that distinguishes their ethnic group from other
groups.
What do you think?
In your opinion, what are the advantages and disadvantages of being ethnocentric?
Key Points







Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic group, who have a common
culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
People from the same ethnic group share a common culture, language, religion, belief,
and tradition.
There are more than 180 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.
Race refers to a group of people that shares the same physical attributes, such as skin color,
height, and facial features.
Racism is prejudice or discrimination against people of other races with the idea that one’s
race is superior than others'.
Ethnocentrism is similar to racism, but it discriminates based on differences in culture.
Ethnocentrism and racism may lead to genocide or ethnic cleansing which are crimes
against a specific ethnic group or race.
Cultural Variation and Social Differences (Religion)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

explain religion as a form of cultural variation,
12


describe the diversity of religions in the world and in the Philippines, and
analyze issues regarding religion in the world and in the Philippines.



How is cultural variation explained in terms of religion?
What are the existing religions in the world and in the Philippines?
What are the issues surrounding differences in religion?
Learn about it!
Religion as a Cultural Variation





We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies, one of which
is religion.
Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's
belief in a god or a group of gods.
Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.
In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.
Variety of Religion




There are many religions around the world.
Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism,
and Buddhism.
Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed by its
believers.
In a society, several religions may exist, and since religion affects an individual’s way of life,
we can observe cultural variations in the form of different religions.
Learn about it!
Religion in the Philippines



The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not prescribe a
specific set of activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own
religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the
population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country.
Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of inhabitants in the
archipelago.
13

Different religions are being practiced in Philippine society today. This variation in religion is
a product of the evolution of Philippine society across time.
Learn about it!
Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion



Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world, more so in
Philippine society.
For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, Hindus believe in many gods, and
Buddhists do not.
The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of its followers
and their interaction with other members of society.
Learn about it!
Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion
Because people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious groups or
denominations cannot be prevented.
Problems or Conflicts


Since differences in religion do not only mean worshipping different gods, conflicts
sometimes arise between believers.
Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while some feel
like those following other religions are taking advantage of their number.
14


It may be easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer or
follower of a particular religion may offend a follower of another religion if he or she imposes
his or her religious beliefs or practices.
In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and unfortunately,
conflicts continue until now due to varying religions.
Solutions or Actions





To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, started recognizing some of the
special days celebrated by different religions.
Employees are not required to work during Holy Week, when Catholics commemorate the
suffering and death of Jesus Christ.
The start and end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the Chinese
celebrate the start of their new year.
This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their religious
obligations without work getting in the way.
To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word is respect. This
entails a conscious effort to acquire cultural knowledge and understand which this course is
mainly about.
Explore!
Do some research about the beliefs and practices of your religion and of others' religions.
List down their similarities and differences.
Try it!
Find some of your friends or friends of your family who belong to other religions. Ask them
how their religion affects the way they behave and interact in society. You may also ask them how
much they know about other religions and their perceptions of the people who belong to those
religions.
What do you think?
In your opinion, why is it important to respect differences in religion and religious practices?
Key Points










Cultural variation takes many forms, one of which is religion.
Religion is a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in a god
or group of gods.
Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the
population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country, while some
inhabitants practice Buddhism, Taoism, or Hinduism.
Protestants also believe in Jesus Christ, but they do not share the same practices as
Catholicism.
The Philippine government started to recognize special days in different religions to give
believers freedom to practice their own religions.
Despite being largely Catholic, the Philippines remains a secular country. A citizen's right to
choose his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
Many conflicts happened because of cultural variations such as differences in religion.
Recognizing cultural variations and showing respect to different religions can help avoid
conflict.
Respect can effectively be achieved through the conscious effort of acquiring cultural
knowledge and understanding.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences
(Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality)
15
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




describe exceptionality and non-exceptionality as a form of social category or one’s source of
identity,
explain the characteristics that make a person “exceptional,”
discuss the challenges and problems affecting exceptional people, and
suggest solutions to the problems.


What makes a person exceptional?
How similar/different are they from “non-exceptional” people?
Learn about it!
Exceptionality and the Exceptional People
People have different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges. However,
there are people who, from one reason or another, are described or categorized by the society
as exceptional.
What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or "different" mean to you? How does
society influence your knowledge and attitudes toward people with such labels and differences?
Exceptionality


a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from an established
norm in a society
various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a person and which makes it
difficult for him or her to function properly in society
Exceptional People



differ from societal and community standards of normalcy
have learning or behavioral problems and physical and sensory disabilities
are intellectually gifted
The characteristics that make a person exceptional may have been acquired from birth, through
a medical condition, or through an accident.
Learn about it!
Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems
Exceptional people, the disabled, or the intellectually gifted, encounter challenges and issues
in dealing with other members of the society.
Here are some common problems and challenges that exceptional people experience.
Learn about it!
Overcoming Challenges and Problems
16
In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta for
People with Disabilities (PWDs) in 1991, there are still significant barriers that keep exceptional
people from fully participating in society−including the stigma surrounding disability and society’s
poor understanding of the abilities and aspirations of exceptional people. However, the government,
private sectors, media, and some concerned groups have been working together to solve these
existing problems.
Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have been helping them.
The picture below shows the International Symbol of Access (ISA). It is found in locations or
spots that are designated for all persons with disabilities.
Explore!
Aside from those already mentioned, what other rights and privileges do PWDs enjoy?
Try it!
Take note of areas where you see the ISA in malls and public transportations. Compare the number
of these spots to the number of PWDs in the Philippines. Are there enough areas reserved for them
in the country?
What do you think?
Research on some notable persons with disabilities who made a difference in the world. What do
you think made their achievements unique? What do their accomplishments say about a person’s
“disability”?
Key Points
17







Society categorizes people based on their characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and
challenges.
Exceptionality refers to a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from the
established norms in society.
Exceptional people are individuals who differ from societal and community standards of
normalcy.
Some of the problems and challenges that the exceptional people experience
are discrimination, limited access to educational opportunities, and isolation from
society.
Philippine Republic Act 7277 gives special rights and privileges to persons with disabilities
(PWDs).
The International Symbol of Access (ISA) is placed in all areas that are reserved for
PWDs, regardless of their disability.
By law, all public schools in the Philippines are mandated to offer special education classes
for all students with physical or learning disabilities.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Nationality)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define nationality as a concept in cultural variation and social differences,
explain different concepts regarding nationality, and
discuss issues regarding nationality and statelessness.



What is nationality and how is it related to nation and citizenship?
What does Philippine law say about Filipino nationality?
How does the United Nations Organization resolve issues regarding the right to have a
nationality?
What is statelessness? What happens to a stateless person?

Learn about it!
Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship
The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality" is quite thin. Most of the
time, "nationality" and "citizenship" are used interchangeably. However, it is important to note that
these words do not mean the same thing and actually pertain to different concepts.
Nation
A nation is a large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture,
language, and economic life through inhabiting a particular country or territory.
Example:
The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four nations: English, Irish,
Scottish, and Welsh.
A nation emphasizes a particular group of people, and a country emphasizes the physical
dimensions and boundaries of a geographical area. On the other hand, a state is a self-governing
legal and political entity.
Nationality





It is a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or country.
It can be acquired by an individual from the country where he or she was born (jus soli).
It can be acquired by an individual through his or her parents (jus sanguinis)
An individual is a national of a particular country by birth. Nationality is acquired through
inheritance from his or her parents.
People with the same nationality often share the same language, culture, territory, and in
some cases, ancestry. They share the same rights and are protected by the same laws.
18
Citizenship


It is a person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which means that an individual has
been registered with the government in some country.
An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he or she is accepted into that
country’s political framework through legal terms.
Examples:



An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino nationality. He may, however, apply for
citizenship in another country, should he wish to (e.g. a Filipino national applying for
citizenship in Mexico).
Some people from European Union member countries may have European citizenships that
are different from their nationalities (e.g. an Italian national who is registered as a German
citizen).
No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have a different citizenship.
Filipino Nationality


The Philippine Nationality Law is based on the principles of jus sanguinis or "right of
blood." Therefore, anyone with a parent who is a citizen or national of the Republic of the
Philippines can acquire Philippine citizenship. This is the primary method of acquiring
citizenship.
For people born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents, the Administrative Naturalization
Law of 2000 (R.A. 9139) provides an avenue for administrative naturalization.
Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness
What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?
Right to a Nationality


Every person has a right to a nationality.
The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an individual’s right to acquire,
change, or retain his or her nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot deprive a person the
right to gain a nationality, in case he or she loses it.
Statelessness



People who do not have a nationality are considered as stateless people.
According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons of
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person is
someone who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law."
Most stateless people are considered "refugees," while others lose their nationalities due to
war or conflict, or if their country is annexed by another country and loses its sovereignty.
Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah




Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered "stateless." Thus, they are not
recognized as people with a nationality. They do not belong to any country or nation.
Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the Philippines, the people in
Sabah experience problems in securing their nationalities. Filipinos from nearby Sulu and
Tawi-tawi, even those who are born in Sabah, are not recognized by the Malaysian
government as Malaysians. They are also denied of their Filipino nationality since they are
not properly registered in the Philippines. As a result, they do not enjoy the rights and
privileges that citizens of either country enjoy.
This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and conflict.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handles all issues
regarding refugees and stateless people. The role of UNHCR is to identify stateless people
and protect their rights, as well as prevent statelessness from happening all over the world.
They also aid stateless people in acquiring new citizenship in other countries.
Explore!
19
Do some research on the number of stateless people in the world, and list the reasons why they are
considered stateless. How do you think can other countries, like the Philippines, help them in their
plight?
Try it!
Look for a foreigner living in the Philippines or a Filipino residing in another country. Ask them the
same question: Do you want to be a Filipino citizen? Why or why not? You can use social media to
look for respondents.
What do you think?
Why do you think a lot of Filipinos migrate to other countries and give up their Filipino citizenship?
Key Points





Nationality is the person’s automatic membership to a specific nation while citizenship is a
person’s political status in a city or state.
No one will be able to change his or her nationality, but one can have a different
citizenship.
Every person has a right to a nationality because it is a fundamental human right.
Statelessness is not having a nationality.
The role of the UNHCR is to identify stateless people, protect their rights, prevent
statelessness from happening all over the world, and aid refugees in acquiring new
citizenship in other countries.
Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




recognize behavior and phenomena in society which are socially, politically, and culturally
significant, and
demonstrate curiosity and open-mindedness to explore the origins and dynamics of society,
culture, and politics.
How should members of society respond toward different social, political, and cultural
behavior and phenomena?
What is the proper attitude toward different social, political, and cultural behavior and
phenomena?
Social Behavior and Phenomena


Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological concepts. These
involve every event between at least two individuals and include all knowledge and
experiences a person acquires in the entirety of his or her lifetime.
Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a
person’s life and development.
20

The table below shows some examples of social behavior and phenomena.
Political Behavior and Phenomena
In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority,
governance, and public opinion are put into practice.
A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political views,
ideologies, and levels of political participation. An example of an act of political behavior is the act of
voting.
Political phenomena are not only limited to public offices as these also include how
institutions like schools, churches, or companies are ran and governed.
The table below shows some examples of political behavior and phenomena.
Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Also known as the bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is an event where certain
individuals behave a certain way merely because other persons do as well.
A cultural phenomenon happens when something or someone gains widespread
popularity. However, it is noteworthy that it is not the subject that is the cultural phenomenon but
rather the process of becoming famous.
The table below shows some examples of cultural behavior and phenomena.
21
Interactions within Society
Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the society are results of
interactions within society. People talk and share stories. People share ways of living among other
things. People do things together and work for the attainment of the common good and social order.
These behaviors, be they usual or not, are natural responses to changes and ideologies developing
within society as a result of constant interactions between its members.
Explore!


How should a person show curiosity about social, cultural, and political phenomena?
Should people always be open to knowledge and experiences brought about by social,
cultural, and political behaviors? Explain your answer.
Try it!
Aside from what was mentioned in this lesson, identify other events and classify them as either
social, cultural, or political phenomena. Write at least two for each.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a person to gain knowledge and experiences without interacting with other members
of society? Explain your answer.
Key Points



Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructs that influence a
person’s life and development.
Political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance,
and public opinion are put into practice.
Cultural behavior is emphasized when certain individuals behave a certain way merely
because other individuals do so as well.
22
Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




define and explain social, cultural, and political changes,
recognize common concerns or events within society on the phenomenon of change,
explain the concept of social and cultural change and highlight the mechanisms, and
analyze social, political, and cultural change within society.
How do changes in society take place?
Social and Cultural Changes
Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural change, on the
other hand, is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
Communication




Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people exchange
information and thoughts.
Nowadays, communication is made easier.
Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media−social networking, text
messaging, e-mail, and the like−have defied time and distance.
While it makes the world seem borderless, this form of communication may produce
individuals who lack the basic understanding of direct and personal connections.
Transnational Families



A transnational family is where one or both parents live and work in another country while
the children remain in their country of origin.
While these families remain secured financially, their members are also exposed to
setbacks.
Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves facing peer pressure, too much
independence, and lack of family orientation. These may result in alcohol or drug abuse,
unwanted pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.
Political Changes

Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of
governance in the country changes. Governance is the kind of system or ideology used to
express authority in a country. It may be a democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and others.

Local Public Services

Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its jurisdiction,
either directly (through the public sector) or by financing the provision of services.

Youth Volunteerism

Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community services.
Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools involved in social and cultural changes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted,
and adopted by another and considered as its own.
Examples:
23


Migration
Globalization
Invention
Invention is the process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural
problems.
Example: Internet
Discovery
Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing
elements present in the environment.
Example: Scientific research
Changes within Society
Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. The big question,
however, is what makes it happen? Of course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.
Along with time, persons, environments, and ideologies change. People move in and move
out. People live and die. People's stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and
innovations.
The environment changes as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources
of raw materials, and energy.
New knowledge replaces old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights were granted to
those who were once deprived of them. Same-sex marriage is on its way to worldwide recognition.
Nothing is permanent but change, so they say.
All these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and
culturally.
Explore!
How should a person react to changes within society? Is it with acceptance or with reservation?
Explain your answer.
Try it!
Cite three societal changes. Cite one for each: social, political, and cultural changes. Identify their
positive and adverse effects.
Changes within Society
1.
2.
3.
What do you think?
Is change constant? If yes, what makes it consistent in society?
Key Points




Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time.
Cultural change is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of
governance in the country changes.
Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed,
transmitted, and adopted by another and considered as its own.
24



An invention is a process where new cultural elements are created to solve social and
cultural problems.
Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better understanding of already
existing elements present in the environment.
Changes are inevitable. Therefore, all changes−socially, politically, and culturally−must be
for the benefit of all.
The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:


recognize the importance of the study of culture, society, and politics, and
identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of anthropology, political science, and sociology.


What is the significance of having scientific knowledge about culture, society, and politics?
How do the disciplines of anthropology, political science, and politics help us understand and
make decisions in society?
The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics
Culture is the focus of anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for political science.
These are disciplines of the social sciences.
The goal of having these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic
engagement through the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline
exposes its learners to the following:




social diversity and inequality,
self-reflective knowledge and practice,
appreciation of complexity, and
advocacy for social change and order.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what
makes us human, anthropology delves into objects and materials we have created, our
interconnectedness and adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication,
and
our
under
standi
ng of
the
world
aroun
d us.
25
Goals of Anthropology




to describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind
to describe and assess the cultural development of our species
to explain and analyze present-day human cultural similarities and differences
to describe and explain human biological diversity today
Political Science


Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and
the analysis of political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an
understanding of “who gets what, when they get it, and how they get it.”
Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy,
and philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty, and how the said
subject matters affect economy, public and private life, law, and public services.
Goals of Political Science




for people to be immersed in current affairs
to build an understanding of local, national, and international politics
to assist people in learning how political activities are organized in and out of our country
to provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society
Sociology

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This discipline mainly
focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.
26

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family, the functionality and
relevance of state as an important human institution, social issues on religion, crime, race,
social class, and the stability and instability of societies.
Goals of Sociology




to guide in understanding intrapersonal factors
to build a better understanding of mankind
to aid in decision-making in the micro and macro level
to gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is
going on in a situation, and present alternatives
Explore!
Why is it important for the study of culture, society, and politics to be included in the school
curriculum?
Try it!
Cite three practical situations where knowledge of anthropology, political science, and sociology can
be applied.
What do you think?
Which among the three social science disciplines is most relevant in your life?
Tips


The study of culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and responsible civic
engagement through the development of critical thought.
Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science exposes its learners to
social diversity and inequality, self-reflective knowledge and practice, appreciation of
complexity, and advocacy for social change and order.
Key Points



Anthropology is a social science discipline that studies humans and their society in the past
and present.
Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government and
the analysis of political activity and political behavior.
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.
27
Defining Culture and Society: The Perspectives of
Anthropology and Sociology
Topics under this module






Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society
Aspects of Culture and Society I (Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive; and Shared &
Contested)
Aspects of Culture and Society II (Learned Through Socialization/Enculturation and
Transmitted Through Socialization/Enculturation)
Aspects of Culture and Society III (Patterned Social Interaction, Integrated and at
Times Unstable, Requires Language, and Other Forms of Communication)
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage
28
Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on
Culture and Society
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


explain anthropological and sociological perspectives on culture and society, and
describe society and culture as a complex whole.

Why should people use different perspectives in recognizing the existence of culture and
society?
Why is culture said to be a product of society?

Learn about it!
Anthropology and Sociology
Humans are interesting subjects to study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to
the associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society colloquially known as the
twin social sciences are anthropology and sociology.
Anthropology



Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how
they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human
(such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and their social
aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family, and religion).
Sociology


Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This discipline examines
how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by wider social,
economic, and political pressures.
Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the
state, from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture,
and from social stability to radical change in whole societies.
29
Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on Culture and Society






In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on
the other hand, culture comes first as a subject matter followed by society.
Let us put the two concepts this way.
When talking about culture, we are mostly talking about tangible factors which include
language, technology, and institutions−like our churches, schools, or houses.
However, culture also has intangible aspects such as our values and behaviors. It also
includes norms, the standards or rules of acceptable behavior.
Culture is what makes society a collective whole. It gives the community its form, shape, and
identity.
A society, in terms of sociology, is a group of people living and interacting with one another
to create a culture. Its population is bound by a shared culture−beliefs, attitudes, languages,
and institutions.
Learn about it!
Society and Culture as a Complex Whole
Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief,
law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."




With this premise, it can be said that culture is a product of society. These two exist
dependently on each other.
Culture, just like every person in society, is susceptible to change or death.
Society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture changes
along. New trends exist. New technologies are invented and new means of interaction have
been created.
People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values,
and standards of society.
Explore!
Think about the different factors involved in shaping society and culture. How do they affect
continuous societal and cultural changes?
Try it!
Identify three societies or groups of people. Write at least three characteristics for each group.
What do you think?
What is the dividing line between anthropology and sociology? Culture and society?
Key Points




Anthropology is the study of humans' evolutionary history and how people behave, adjust,
communicate, and socialize in different environments.
Sociology is the study of human institutions and their interrelationships.
Culture is a way of life of a group of people. It involves symbols, languages, values, and
norms.
Society is a community or group of people joined together by sustained bonds and
interactions.
30
Aspects of Culture and Society I (Dynamic, Flexible, &
Adaptive; and Shared & Contested)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:






define society and culture,
explain the relationship of culture and society,
identify aspects of culture and society,
prove that culture is dynamic, flexible and adaptive,
prove that culture is shared and contested, and
raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.


Is there something unique that only your family does?
Do you practice a certain custom or celebrate a special feast in your province?
Learn about it!
Culture and Society
Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.
Culture




According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that
a person learns and shares as a member of society."
Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family, church, school, and government.
Our culture defines who we are.
Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.
Society



Society can be defined as the interaction among people where a common culture can be
shared.
Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
A common location may not just develop a common culture. It can also be formed by gender,
shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.
For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet and
caring.
Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?
31
The Relationship of Culture and Society
Culture and society are two closely related concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed, it
needs human interaction. It needs people to interact with one another, and it needs people to
practice it continuously. Without a society practicing their common culture, the culture may cease to
exist.
Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue
to thrive. A society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society
need each other so they can both develop and prosper.
Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion
to name a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
Examples:



In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional
music during the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway music while the popular
music during the 1970s was disco music.
Because we are now more inclined to use computers and tablets especially when playing
games, some children are not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some game
developers to introduce Filipino street games as video games.
When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have
already developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.
Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is
a shared learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the
learning process with other people.
If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because
of diversity, culture is subjected to debate and analysis.
Explore!
32
Observe your interaction with your classmates. Try to identify what common culture you and your
classmates share that made you become friends.
Try it!
Try to ask your parents about popular songs and dances during their teenage years. Find out how
different they are from yours and how much they have changed.
What do you think?
What do you think the Philippine culture will be twenty years from now?
Tips




Our society needs to preserve and promulgate our indigenous culture so that we can
maintain our identity as a nation.
Culture changes and adapts to current society, but that does not mean that our traditional
culture should be forgotten.
Different cultures exist in the world, but there is no culture greater than another. We should
learn to accept our differences, help other cultures learn ours, and learn other cultures as
well.
We should not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because those are part of
their unique culture.
Key Points






Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed. It is a set of characteristics that help us
relate and bond with other people.
Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place and shares the same culture.
It is crucial to preserve and promulgate our culture and traditions if we want to keep them
alive. We are facing lots of changes, developments, and technological advances today that
we tend to forget to look back on our old culture and traditions.
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation of
society. Culture continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in our world.
We need to share our unique culture with others to get to know theirs and also spread ours.
While it is learned and shared, culture is also contested. Because of diversity, culture is
subject to debate and analysis.
Aspects of Culture and Society II (Learned Through
Socialization/Enculturation and Transmitted Through
Socialization/Enculturation)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:





define socialization and enculturation,
discuss the different agents of socialization,
identify aspects of culture and society,
prove that culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation, and
raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.
Recall the very first person you interacted with. Do you think he or she affected the development of
your personality?
Review!
Aspects of Culture
There are different aspects of culture such as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and
religion.
Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
33
Shared and Contested


Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared
learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning
process with other people.
If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in different ways and situations. Because
of diversity, culture is always subjected to debate and analysis.
Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While the
members of society share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural
groups create some that differentiate them from others in the community.

Socialization

Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand societal norms or
expectations and societal values as members of society.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the
culture he or she is immersed in.
Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization−the family, community, mass media, and religion.
Family


The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most important
social group that a person has. It is also the principal agent of socialization.
We first start to learn things with the help of our parents and family. They are the main
source of our traits and behaviors, the values, norms or rules that we follow, and the ideas
we initially believe in.
Community



Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our community. One
them is the school. In schools, we become exposed to ideas, values, norms, and behaviors
that may be different from what we learn from our family.
We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our peers.
Research shows that since children and teenagers spend most of their time with peers, peer
groups can create youth sub-culture (Mondal, 2015).
Our peers can also influence us with the different norms, values, and behaviors that they got
from their families.
Mass Media


One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass media which come in the form of
television, movies, books, magazines, and social networking sites. Mass media plays a
major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal, 2015).
Unfortunately, both good and bad behaviors can be learned through mass media. It is
important that the the youth remain supervised whenever they are accessing all forms of
media.
Religion
Another social agent is religion. Through the family, one is immediately exposed to the teachings of
religion. It helps shape and equip individuals with the attitudes and behaviors that are deemed
appropriate.
Aspects of Culture
34
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in
various ways and situations.
Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed below.
Learned through Socialization or Enculturation
Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values,
norms to acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn culture. Socialization also allows us to interact
with others and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature. It is
an essential part of building our character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.
Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend
migrated to America with her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after three months of being in
America, she started to act and look differently and she is using some slang words you only hear
Americans say. This is the process of enculturation. Your friend is slowly starting to adapt to the
American culture because it is necessary so she would fit in.
Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation
Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one society to
another. One good example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos
during the Spanish colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both
socialization and enculturation. We learned their culture by socializing with them through the church
and the schools they established.
Explore!
Do you notice that when you stay at one place for a period of time, you unknowingly learn some of
its culture?
For example, you went to Vigan during your summer break. After two weeks, you start to understand
their dialect, Ilocano, and speak a little of it. Can you explain why?
Try it!
Try observing a culture different from yours. Try exploring the culture of a classmate that comes from
a different province or has a different religion.
What do you think?
Do you think social media significantly affects and influences our culture nowadays?
Tips




The people or groups you socialize with will greatly affect your behavior because you learn
most of it from them.
Socialization begins during childhood, right after a person is born. The first group that
teaches about socialization is the family.
Throughout your life, you will get to interact with a lot of different people from different
cultures. You will learn different behaviors, norms, or values from them. It is up to you to
identify what you will keep or practice and what you will reject.
Not all acquired behaviors are helpful. Some learned behaviors can be destructive in the
long run.
Key Points





Enculturation is the process of adopting the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed in.
Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values, or
norms to acquire a personal identity.
There are different agents of socialization that aid in acquiring and learning a specific culture.
These include the family, school, peer groups, mass media, and religion.
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways
and situations.
Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization and enculturation.
35
Aspects of Culture and Society III (Patterned Social Interaction,
Integrated and at Times Unstable, Requires Language, and Other
Forms of Communication)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




explain the different patterns of social interaction,
identify aspects of culture and society,
prove that culture is a patterned social interaction, integrated and unstable, and requires
language for social interaction, and
raise questions toward a holistic appreciation of cultures and societies.
How are your interactions influenced by culture?
Aspects of Culture
Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, may be shared and contested, and transmitted through
socialization and enculturation.
Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs do not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared
learning experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with
other people. However, culture is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of
diversity, culture is always subjected to debate and analysis.
Learned through Socialization or Enculturation
Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and
others to acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how
to interact with other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of
human nature.
Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation
Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even from one society to another.
One example of this at the micro level is the transmission of an old family recipe from one generation
to the next. This can be done through both socialization and enculturation.
Learn about it!
Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and contested in various
ways and situations, and learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.
Let us continue to identify some aspects of culture.
Patterned Social Interaction
Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good
and the bad?
36
There are five patterns of social interaction−exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and
coercion.
Exchange
Exchange or social exchange is the expectation that whenever we do something good, we will
receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129). It is the most basic pattern
of socialization.
Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you come to your friend's
sleepover.
Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
Cooperation is considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social
life would be unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: A husband and a wife should cooperate in raising their children. Without it, their children
will not grow up the way they want them to.
There are also negative social interactions that are necessary in order to develop and sharpen
behavior and culture.
Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation. Instead of working together towards a
common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Even if you had lost, at least you
were still able got to enhance your spelling skills.
Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to
achieve their goals. However, conflict is not always considered bad. The existence of a conflict can
strengthen the unity within a group because it is threatened by an external factor (Thompson and
Hickey, 2005, p.129).
Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises
between you and your parents, you and your sibling team up.
Coercion
Coercion happens when there is a use of threat or force in persuading others. People usually
coerce other people when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.
Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you will tell your mother
that he failed his exam.
Requires Language for Social Interaction
In every interaction, language is the most important tool that is always used.
37



Language is the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our culture
are passed on through our mouths. There are no written records (Young, 1930).
We can do social interaction through the use of language.
Language is not only restricted to verbal language. It is also used in non-verbal
communication or body language during interaction. For example, our first interaction with a
friend is usually with a smile. This shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can
help us learn and acquire culture.
Integrated and at Times Unstable


The patterns of social interaction are connected to each other and may change from time to
time. The type of our social interaction may change. A simple social exchange may lead to
cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.
Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to
school the next day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately
came to his aid, supported each other, and stopped the bullies. This scenario shows that
even if you and your sibling fight almost every day, you will still opt to unite in times of need.
Explore!
Social interaction is a part of our everyday lives. Observe your activities for the day. You will
notice that in everything that you do, you get to interact with another person. Your interaction varies
from day to day. This shows how the patterns of social interaction are integrated or connected with
each other.
Try it!
Try staging a little competition among you and your friends. Observe everyone's behavior
while the game is ongoing. Also see if alliances will be formed along the way or the initial
competition will turn into cooperation or conflict.
What do you think?
How will culture prosper if language will cease to exist?
Tips
 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes, when we
do harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something wrong to us in return.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do
our best to win and, in the process, enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and
cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be
friendly and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change when we feel
threatened.
Key Points










Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
There
are
five
patterns
of
social
interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.
Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we
will receive something good in return.
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people
just to achieve their goals.
Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult
to interact with other people.
Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects
our behavior towards other people.
Our social interactions are also unstable. It may change depending on the situation we are
in. We may be in conflict with one person today but may become friendly with him or her in
other situations.
38

Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive, shared and contested in various ways and
situations, learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation, patterned on social
interactions, integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social interactions.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



discuss the differences of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism,
explain why and how cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism, and
explain the importance of cultural relativism in the proper understanding of cultures of other
societies.


How should we view and understand different cultures?
How can cultural relativism help us better understand and evaluate other cultures?
Ethnocentrism



People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other cultures in the context of their own
culture. Language, behavior, customs, or religion, which are understandably unique for every
culture are the common subjects of these judgments. Sociologically speaking, this ideology
or tendency is known as ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior than others'. It is also
the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may be
measured or understood. Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects
in a wider or encompassing perspective. It may cause people to practice bias and
intolerance.
Seeing the belief and behavior of others which are different from yours as brutish, confusing,
or unbecoming is an ethnocentric thought or behavior. The tendency to be avoidant,
doubting, or questioning towards members of another culture is also a manifestation of
ethnocentrism.
Cultural Relativism




Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in associating
their culture from another’s. There are people who accept and respect the evident
differences of members of the society. When people recognize that each culture is naturally
different from others, that is cultural relativism. Cultural relativism does not mean that we
should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences. Instead, it requires
understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context that is free from
another’s biases.
Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their
cultural context, and should be treated as such. According to Franz Boas (1887),
"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions
are true only so far as our civilization goes."
With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be evaluated not
based on their own cultural context but on the social community the people themselves
inhabit. Cultural relativism means respect and tolerance.
In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to practice or
show cultural relativism. There should be no reservations and blind opinions while they are
immersed in the community of their subjects. One may also practice this concept by learning
and recognizing that there are reasons or cultural significance of why people of a certain
community act and talk the way they do.
How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism

It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possesses an ethnocentric attitude or
behavior. There is nothing wrong with having such because, unlike social scientists or
anthropologists, not all people are equipped with sufficient knowledge and exposure to
cultures across the globe, thus, the hardship in understanding and tolerating others' acts and
values. However, we also have to recognize that ethnocentric behavior, if not controlled, may
39


cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern time when everyone calls for social or
cultural inclusion.
Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached the areas
populated by the natives whom they considered as uncivilized and savage, they saw the
promise to civilize and tame them through religion (Christianity) and colonialism. Despite its
advantages, we can say that the Age of Exploration changed the course of world history in a
way which deprived the conquered.
It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be mitigated
through the recognition and application of cultural relativism. A person can practice cultural
relativism by recognizing that culture shapes what is considered to be beautiful, ugly,
appealing, disgusting, virtuous, funny, and abhorrent, and that these should not be the basis
for evaluating other cultures. Cultural relativism shapes our understanding of different issues
in the society−as to why certain religions believe in this and others do not, or how come this
group eats this type of dish, wears this weird clothing, sings and dances along to music while
others prefer not to. What we need is an open heart and an unbiased and critical mind,
exposure, education, and involvement in activities, and programs supporting and recognizing
the uniqueness and beauty of every culture for us to truly grasp what cultural relativism
means.
Explore!
What actions can social institutions present to promote cultural relativism and mitigate
ethnocentrism?
Try it!
Give three personal stories wherein you have shown or practiced ethnocentrism or cultural
relativism.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a society to have individuals who do not practice ethnocentrism?
Key Points



Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other
cultures may be measured. It is also the tendency to think of one’s culture as superior to
other cultures.
Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their
cultural context, and should be treated as such. It calls for an unbiased evaluation and
understanding of other cultures.
Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.
Forms of Tangible and Intangible Heritage
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


identify forms of tangible and intangible heritage and the threats to these, and
recognize the importance of tangible and intangible forms of heritage in writing down our
heritage and history.
What critical roles do tangible and intangible heritage play in the quest for knowing our heritage?
Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to another, legacy
magnifies one’s life and living. It is said that legacy is what cultural heritage is.
According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to inform.
Examples:

architectures such as buildings, houses, and structures
40


artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
things that make people who they are, like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals, and
traditions
Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way of living
people of yesterday had. Through these objects, we are presented with facts and figures which help
us draw the landscape of the world as it once was.
Tangible and Intangible Heritage
Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society or a group
that is passed on from generation to generation. Cultural heritage can be categorized as
either tangible or intangible.
Tangible
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible heritage is a physical
artifact or object significant to the archaeology, architecture, science, or technology of a specific
culture.
Objects that can be stored are included in this category, such as:





traditional clothing,
utensils (e.g. beadwork, water vessels),
vehicles (e.g. the ox wagon),
documents (e.g. codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (e.g. buildings,
historical places, monuments, temples, graves, roads, bridges).
Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible heritage is not a
physical or concrete item. Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture.
Intangible heritage includes:







songs,
myths,
beliefs,
superstitions,
oral poetry,
stories, and
various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.
Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage
There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and in a hurry to
look for historical materials to display. Due to the increase in demand for cultural materials,
opportunists saw this as an avenue to earn money. They invented materials and claimed that these
were excavated or unearthed and were once owned by a cultural group.



Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include the Hitler diaries, crystal
skulls of Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status or story of Saint Nicholas' companion, Black
Peter (intangible).
Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of
the issues concerning the sources of our culture.
Aside from authenticity issues, preservation, or the act of making a cultural heritage last and
exist, is also a primary concern.
Preservation of Cultural Heritage

In comparison to intangible heritage, tangible heritage possesses qualities and properties
which make it easier to recover and preserve. Despite this, it is noteworthy that they remain
susceptible to perishing over time especially if not given proper attention.
41



The government should work on implementing and enriching existing national policies,
projects, training, and researches promoting the preservation of our cultural heritage. It is
true that intangible heritage is harder to preserve, but it should still be given equal attention
like what is given to tangible heritage.
Each nation should take part in maintaining cultural identity and making it a vital driving force
for social progress. This objective is cited in the Convention on the Protection of the Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
According to UNESCO, “heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and
what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritage are both
irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration.” Indeed, whatever we had yesterday is our
present, and whatever we make out of it will be the foundation of our future. We better
ensure that it is well taken care of.
Explore!
What actions can social institutions consider to preserve our tangible and intangible heritage?
Try it!
Give three materials or specific samples of either tangible or intangible heritage. Give a short
background about each object.
What do you think?
“Without document or proof, there is no history.” Agree or disagree?
Key Points





Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by a society or a
group and passed on from generation to generation.
Tangible heritage is a physical artifact or objects significant in the archaeology, architecture,
science, or technology of a particular culture. It includes buildings, historic places,
monuments, etc.
Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in culture. It includes oral traditions,
social practices, performing arts, rituals, festive events, etc.
Authenticity is the truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage.
Preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage last and exist should be a top priority of
the government.
42
Human Biocultural and Social Evolution






Biological Evolution of Man
Cultural Evolution of Man
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Neolithic Revolution
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Early Civilizations and the Rise of States
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Democratization
Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic
Processes
43
Biological Evolution of Man
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans, and
recognize national, local, and specialized museums, and archaeological and historical sites
as venues to appreciate and reflect on the complexities of biocultural and social evolution as
part of being and becoming human.



What does the biological evolution of man refer to?
How can we trace the biological evolution of early to modern humans?
What physical and biological factors have greatly developed throughout the evolution of the
human species?
Biological Evolution of Man

The current biological makeup of humans has long and complex origins. The biological
evolution of man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human species from primates
to its current form, the Homo sapiens. Evolution is not an overnight phenomenon. It took
millions of years to end up with the specific set of biological traits that humanity presently
has. In this lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved in this evolutionary
process will be discussed.
The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution
44


Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a
period of time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment while
some faced extinction for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to
the genus Homo, are seen as by-products of events and processes that occurred in the past.
Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear process. Scientists argued that
human evolution developed much like the branches of a tree wherein each branch extends
into smaller, more specific stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one
evolutionary profile—the current human being—was able to adapt and further develop.
The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological
makeup took millions of years to complete. Despite this, scientists, through the help of
archaeological pieces of evidence and modern technology, were able to identify and
distinguish distinct transitional stages of human evolution. These stages are described
below.
The Significance of Artifactual Evidences in Understanding Evolution
Artifactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the
developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution. Early human species
were discovered through fossils which are remains preserved in rock. Scientists study the structure,
shape, and development of skeletal properties including head shape and teeth to determine
biological differences across early to modern species.
Artifactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or symbolic
writing found in caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the Homo erectus, though
scientists are still hoping to find further evolutionary data on other species. Below are some
authentic examples of artifactual evidences that greatly contributed in understanding human
evolution.


An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool
served as evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet among early stone-tool
making humans, the Oldowanhominin.
A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made
archaeologists believe that cooking food was practiced among early humans.
Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. Nowadays,
technological advances has made delving into the past more accessible. Interactive and
national museums, for example, make great venues for learning more about the prehistoric
45
past. The great biological evolution that the human species has been through is complex and
developmental. As human beings, we are called to understand and appreciate these
advances.
Explore!
The development of humans have persisted for millions of years. These evolutionary processes
have been greatly influenced by natural phenomenon such as climate change, natural disasters, or
the development of other species. Through research, explore how these natural phenomena might
have affected human evolutionary development.
Try it!
Visit the National Museum or any museum near your area of residence. Immerse yourself in the
archaeological findings featured in the museum. Since the museum has several sections, it is highly
recommended that you devote time to visit each area. Note the differences in biological makeup and
lifestyle of different human species featured at the galleries.
What do you think?
Is there a possibility of finding evidence for a new human species that existed in the past? Why?
Why not?
Tips


Human evolution always moves forward. It is unlikely that humans will regress in terms of
physical and biological makeup in the coming centuries.
Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first emerged.
They are the earlier part of human evolutionary transition.
Key Points




Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a
period of time.
Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as branches wherein
each branch extends into smaller, more specific stems.
The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo erectus,
and Homo sapiens from the genus Homo.
Fossils are artifactual remains that were preserved in rock.
Cultural Evolution of Man
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


explain the concept of cultural evolution, and
trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans.


What is cultural evolution?
How can we trace the cultural evolution of early to modern humans?
Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, they represent technological
advancements due to constant changes in their key features.
This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through time.
From the early writings of the cuneiform up to the present features of the different units of
smartphones and tablets, we can say that the way of life of people constantly changes. This concept
is called cultural evolution.
What is Cultural Evolution?
Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, and
languages of humans over time. It proposes that as humans transform themselves, their culture
becomes progressively complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.
46
The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced back to the beginning of the Stone Age when
they started creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the earliest known period of human
culture which started roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE. This
period is also known as the prehistoric period because writing was not yet invented during this
time. It is divided into three separate periods:



Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
New Stone Age (Neolithic).
Paleolithic Period


The Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation
and use of crude stone tools which are the most primitive among the three periods. The word
"paleolithic" is derived from the Greek words palaios (old) and lithos(stone) to collectively
mean "old stone age."
The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that
changed their diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of
the early humans during the Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on
nature and developed their own language based on sounds and hand signals.
Mesolithic Period


The Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the
transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is
derived from the Greek words mesos (middle) and lithos (stone) that collectively mean
"middle stone age."
Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also
started to form their own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering
were the primary activities of the early humans. They also started to use microliths or smaller
and more delicate stone tools.
Neolithic Period


The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone)
that collective translates to "new stone age."
The Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern
humans started to exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers and
introduced the concept of farming. They also became herders from being hunters during the
Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots
and jars were evident during this period which served as their food containers and storage.
Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started to have their own tribes and
villages.
Explore!
Based on the development of human culture during the Stone Age and the previous lesson on
biological evolution, who were the humans that existed during the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and
Neolithic periods? What would be your justification or supporting evidence that these humans
existed during those periods?
Try it!
Make a table of the three periods of stone age and compare the different contributions of each
stage. Why do you think these periods are important in the study of the evolution of human culture?
What do you think?
Following the timeline of the cultural evolution from the Paleolithic period up to the Neolithic period,
what do you think would be the next step of human development?
Key Points

Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge, customs,
skills, attitudes, and languages change over time.
47




The Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when the early
humans started the use of weapons and tools made out of stones.
The Paleolithic period was the first stage of the Stone Age. In this age, the early humans
began to use fire and stone tools. Hunting, fishing, and other practices such as religious
rituals based on nature and language based on sounds or hand signals also emerged during
this period.
The Mesolithic period was the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic
periods. It witnessed the gradual transformation of human culture such as the domestication
of plants and animals, formation of settlements and communities, and food gathering.
The Neolithic period was the last stage of the Stone age. This period was when modern
humans started to exist. Modern humans introduced farming, started herding animals, and
formed their permanent homes and settlements.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Neolithic Revolution
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of
agriculture and settlement,
discuss the implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the evolutionary process, and
explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting
cultural and sociopolitical processes.
From a prehistoric hunting and gathering society, modern society has indeed faced lots of changes
and development.
How is modern society able to achieve its current form from such simple beginnings?
Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life also occurred in
response to the natural environment. In this lesson, a significant era of sociopolitical evolution will be
tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.
The Neolithic Revolution
The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They were nomadic people who
could easily transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and
survival. This had been the practice until around 12,000 BCE when humans started to domesticate
animals and crops. This era of this newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.
From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers through domestication, the process of
increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them
useful for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants implied that humans stayed
in a particular area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized
for domestication included wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.
One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the
country of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China, the
Americas, and Africa.
Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the Evolutionary Process
The Neolithic Revolution facilitated an economic and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in the early human lifestyle. As such, advances in different aspects of human life
started during this era.
Below are the implications of the Neolithic Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human
development.
48
Sociopolitical Development




The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent
settlements dictated by reliable food supply.
Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex society
and the possibility for urbanization.
With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to
the economy and a hierarchical society with public leaders and castes.
A form of social stratification was developed. This created the idea of inequality and ideas of
social power and influence.
Economic Developments


Because of the domestication of crops and animals, abundant supplies of food and
resources were maintained.
A selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow for the development of
new species was introduced.
Biological Developments


There was increase in lifespan and human population across civilizations.
People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priest,
leader).
Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution
Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.
Here are some actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.




There were morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size and
mandible and simple dietary changes from solely eating plants to consumption of meat.
A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to have been built during the
Neolithic Revolution and served as a communal storage facility.
Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but during the Neolithic Revolution, there was an
increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were also more worn down and pitted, owing to hard
inclusions from poorly grounded flour.
Molleson (1994) has proven that there were changes in the bones of women that were taskrelated and associated with cereal grinding.
Explore!
Agriculture considerably expanded throughout the Neolithic revolution. Because of this era,
domestication and pastoralism were discovered as sustainable ways of living. Systems and tools
were also developed. As such, civilization was formed.
In your perspective, what could have been the implication if the early humans did not discover the
method of domestication and farming?
Try it!
Using a video streaming website, watch videos that detail the Neolithic Revolution and its
significance in the development of societies. Try to note the significant implications and contributions
of the Neolithic Revolution to the present community and survival practices.
What do you think?
Why is the Neolithic period called a revolution?
Tips


The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic Revolution occurred gradually. It
took thousands of years for this change to happen.
If you look at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you will notice that all
early civilizations were situated near a body of water. This was strategically done by early
humans because bodies of water may also function as a source of food and other resources.
49
Key Points






The Neolithic Revolution was a period where agriculture and farming became prominent
through plant and animal domestication.
Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to
regulate certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamiawhich is, at
present, the country of Iraq.
The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human implications to the
evolutionary process.
A form of social stratification was developed. This created idea of inequality and ideas of
social power and influence.
Many artifactual evidences prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Early Civilizations and the Rise of States
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



trace the sociopolitical evolution of man from the rise of civilizations to the development of
states,
discuss the implications of the rise of civilizations and development of states to human
biocultural and social evolution, and
explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting
cultural and social, including political and economic, processes.
From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in terms of
socioeconomic factors of early human life. Despite this already drastic movement, human lifestyle
continued to develop into more organized socioeconomic and political systems.



What factors contributed to these changes?
How did these developments influence future sociopolitical movements and policies?
he Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved the way for
the beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the development and
implications of these civilizations will be discussed and explained.
The Rise of Civilizations


Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period when the early humans learned to
settle in just one area to domesticate plants and animals for survival. The first civilizations
were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was
part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the
“cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and
science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of water, the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also valuable resources for the early civilizations.
During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both genders
equally as the first labor only involved farming, domestication, and harvesting. Though this
may be the case, social roles began to emerge, with some members of the community
becoming priests or priestesses, laborers, and farmers.
The Development of States
In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two significant developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations.
These were:


the rise of states, and
the invention of writing.
50
Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades among different regions. The
early civilizations would have had some form of writing to document or record traces of their
products and deals.
During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with prosperity, leading
to the development of cities and changes in sociopolitical positions with some civilizations promoting
a kingship to replace priestly rule. This was done to foresee the flow of trade and negotiations with
other regions. This era gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and
the transition from the use of stone tools to copper tools.
In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced with bronze
tools. Along with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for
economic and political stability. As a result, more empires, civilizations, and states began to rise and
develop.
Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States
The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political power, and material
development. These changes allowed both positive and negative implications that directly affected
future developments in the sociopolitical evolution of men.
Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states.



Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them. Soon,
professional armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.
Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of civilizations
and states. During this time, people began to discover various raw materials, such as iron,
copper, and bronze for making tools and weapons.
Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, leadership among citystates began to be more organized and developed. With the kingship system replacing the
priestly leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized decisions and
communications with other states.
Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States
Artifactual evidence prove the existence and occurrence of early civilizations and states.
Here are some of the actual evidences found to support the existence of this era.


In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-wheeled
wagons that dated back to the time of Mesopotamia.
Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during 10,000 BCE.
Explore!
The developments within the Fertile Crescent, specifically in Mesopotamia, generated numerous
contributions to contemporary lifestyle and practices. Because of this, the early civilizations became
an important aspect of history. It was during this period that an organized sociopolitical and
economic structure was established.
If you were an archaeologist, what aspect of the early civilizations would you prefer to focus on?
Try it!
Using clay and other art materials, create your structure of the early civilizations and states. You
may choose one civilization (e.g. Mesopotamia) or one area of early life (e.g. trading or farming). It is
your prerogative to incorporate any structure that you think might exist during the period. Use your
learning in this lesson as a guide.
What do you think?
What form of sociopolitical development would have risen from the implications of the rise of states
and civilizations?
Tips
51


Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to “between two rivers”. This translation refers to the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates that surround the land.
The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before the Egyptian civilization. After the Middle
Eastern civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed along the Nile River.
Keypoints
 The
first
civilizations
were
found
mostly
in
Asia,
particularly
in China and Mesopotamia which is now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be the “cradle
of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due
to its fertile land area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000 BCE, two important developments took
place that influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations. These
were the rise of states and the invention of writing.
 The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare, developments
in metalwork, and changes in political systems.
Sociopolitical Evolution of Man: Democratization
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


explain democratization as a sociopolitical evolution, and
explore the significance of human material remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting
cultural, social, political, and economic processes.



What is democratization?
How did democratization start?
The early civilizations created new environments, called city-states which introduced new
developments in various aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these continuous
progress and ventures?
The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new
developments during the Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted the
following periods and developments.

Democracy and Democratization



Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.
Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes from the Greek words demos,
which means "people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced
back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of
primitive democracy is said to have existed during the hunting and gathering period in
independent tribes.
The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct
democracy where citizens participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the
evolved form of democracy−**representative democracy**−that became widespread in
nation-states is where officials are elected to represent a group of people.
Historical Path to a Democratic City-State
Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece
and Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming culture developed by the
Mesopotamians, even following the latter’s sociopolitical structure of kingship. Eventually, they were
able to engage in trade as their resources highly developed and impacted socioeconomic growth.
Greece

Societal status and groups began to develop:
o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
52
o
o



the aristocracies and noblemen, then
the farmers.
Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social classes.
Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform themselves into wealth-laden rulers just like
their predecessors from the Bronze Age.
The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the period was
iron, a relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king sought greater power, he
would not be able to do so easily since weaponry and machinery, primarily made of iron,
were much cheaper, and could be afforded by practically anyone within the city-state.
In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen gathered
together and ousted him, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.
The Beginnings of Democratization
The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of
democratization in societies.
Oligarchy




Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.
City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy where rulers were from
aristocratic families.
Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-states,
even ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against drastic
changes.
The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary
people also used their collective power against an abusive government.
Tyranny




Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in effect, were ruled by a
tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong and
abusive decisions that eventually lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.
Birth of Democracy



Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed that
power must be held by the common people.
This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the citystates to have a democratic setting.
In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of
democracy in Greece.
It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially the poorer,
more backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece soon led Rome to follow a democratic
ruling thereafter.
Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time was
limited to males and therefore, did not encompass the total population.
Significance and Implications of Democratization
The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by
reducing inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization in Greece
laid a foundation for modern-day democracy.
53
Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications
that eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any other ancient civilization.
Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of democratization.


Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics, the Iliad and theOdyssey.
Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek
structures upon the rise of democratization.
Explore!
Attaining democracy in Greek antiquity involved lots of shifts in leadership and political functions like
kingship, oligarchy, and tyranny. If you were living during this period, which among these forms of
leadership would you have preferred to be part of? Why?
Try it!
The rise of democracy led to numerous cultural and artistic reforms among Greeks and Romans. Try
to search videos or pictures of Greek and Roman art. Compare them and cite commonalities and
differences that you may observe.
What do you think?
The United States and the Philippines are democratic countries. How do you think citizens from
these countries still affect or influence the decision-making process that involves the welfare of these
nations?
Key Points





In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the king bearing the highest
position in all Greek city-states, followed by the aristocracies and noblemen, then the
farmers.
In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the king, the noblemen
collectively acted on ousting him, leading to a successful establishment of the first
republics.
It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered
as the rise of democracy in Greece.
The establishment of a democratic government had cultural and artistic implications.
Wars and tensions across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary factors
in the rise of democracy.
Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political,
and Economic Processes
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to explore the significance of human material
remains and artifactual evidence in interpreting cultural, social, political, and economic processes.
In your home, you have probably seen objects belonging to your great-great grandparents that were
kept by your parents or other relatives. Like artifacts, these objects help in describing or creating a
picture of the past.



What implications do these objects have at present
What do they tell about the past?
What role do artifactual pieces of evidence play in understanding early societies?
Artifacts

Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidences even dating back to the
beginning of human evolution. As a result, present-day social and biological scientists are
54

able to open a window to what life was in the past. In this lesson, the significance and value
of artifacts in several aspects will be described and discussed.
Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a
long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance. Apart from serving as windows to
the past, artifacts are also deemed significant because they are tangible or authentic proof
that a certain period in history actually occurred.
The Significance of Artifacts

Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural, political, and economic
processes that occurred in the past. Their existence proves and describes these aspects
thoroughly. The discovery of artifacts and the understanding of various processes have
provided a stable foundation for the socioeconomic, political, and cultural growth that
humans have come to recognize today.
Importance of Artifact Preservation
There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved and taken care of. Below are some of
them.




Artifacts are irreplaceable. Artifacts, being made hundreds, even thousands of years ago,
are very delicate objects that cannot be replaced by any available material in the present
time.
Artifacts are keys to understanding the past. Practices that occurred in the past would not
have been known if not for the discovery of artifacts.
Artifacts give people a sense of identity. Artifacts greatly describe culture and society.
They provide people with an opportunity to further understand their identities and heritage,
as well as some collective qualities that their culture may have.
The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great successes
archaeologists have made in recent years, there is still more to discover about history.
Treating artifacts like pieces of puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.
Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future

Many advances have already been made and discovered within this century. It is logical to
treat these discoveries as significant elements that can help shape the future. As such, the
technologies and developments that the world has today must also be well-preserved. These
must be treated with certainty that one day, these “artifacts” will be discovered and be
understood by future generations.
Explore!
Archaeologists hunt for artifacts for a period of months, some even extending up to several years.
They proceed with their digs with caution to eliminate the risk of damaging any artifact they may find.
If you were to place yourself in an archaeologist’s shoes, would you be willing to sacrifice so much
time and effort to know about the past? Why? Why not?
55
Try it!
Create your own artifact by making a time capsule. Find a container that you can seal. In this
container, put anything you want that may have a significant value to you. You may put in letters,
pictures, or toys. Be sure to firmly seal the container once you are done. Keep the container
somewhere safe. Set a specific date in the future when you will open your time capsule.
What do you think?
What could be the soci implications if no artifact was ever discovered?
Tips


Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was originally part of the distant past but was
recently discovered. They may include bones, fossils, tools, and a lot more.
Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts. Anthropologists study an area’s
culture. Together, they work to create a holistic picture and identity of a certain group.
Key Points




Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a
long time through archaeological endeavor or by chance.
Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social, cultural, economic, and political
processes.
It is important to preserve artifacts because they are irreplaceable, help understand the past,
and give people a sense of identity.
Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts for the future
generation.
Becoming a Member of Society
Topics under this module







Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation (Identities, Disciplines, and
Aspirations)
Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values
Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles
Conformity and Deviance: Social Control
Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance
Human Dignity and Rights
The Common Good
56
Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation (Identities,
Disciplines, and Aspirations)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:





define and explain the different concepts regarding enculturation and socialization,
discuss the development of one’s self and others as a product of enculturation and
socialization, and
prove that identity, disciplines, and aspirations are necessary for the development of
personal and cultural identity.
What does it mean to be a person?
In a society where there are many cultures, how do you form your personal identity?
Learn about it!
57
Enculturation and Socialization
What is the difference between socialization and enculturation? How is enculturation related to
socialization?
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that
differentiate them from others in society.
Enculturation

the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations and
values as members of society.
Study the chart that further explains the differences and relationships of socialization and
enculturation.
58
Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors,
language, morals, and norms of where he or she belongs in. However, as a person grows, he or she
learns to make his or her own set of beliefs, values, and morals. This is how a person develops an
identity. This is what makes a person different from others.
Identity
Identity is what makes a person distinct from others. It is the total knowledge and understanding of
an individual about who he or she is.
Types of Identity
1. Personal



the concept an individual develops about himself or herself
the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
may depend on the age and circumstances of a person
Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She believes that time
is gold, so spends her free time studying her lessons.
2. Cultural



the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in
the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
a collective sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests, and
fundamental principles of living
Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for centuries. Old
men wear the bahag, a unique style of clothing. They prefer to stay in the forest than to stay in
lowlands. They mainly look for natural food sources.
Study the chart that further explains the two types of identity.
59
Discipline


a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders
Kinds of Discipline
Discipline is categorized into different types.
1. Discipline of Nature or Reality
A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A person learns to do
things on his or her own without the supervision of others.
Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the bike. He fell
many times, but he did not stop trying. He was so motivated to learn how to ride the bike that he
tried to learn on his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.
2. Discipline of Culture or Society
What this discipline instills in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A person learns
according to what he sees in his society or his culture.
Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she can be “in” with the
latest social trends.
3. Discipline of Superior Force
This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training, a person learns
through supervision and guidance.
Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to fall in love
because of her personal idea that men are cheaters. Even if Patricia does not know how it feels to
be brokenhearted, she does not entertain any suitor.
Learn about it!
Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations
Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.




It may be through enculturation and socialization.
It may also come through observation of a role model.
You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense of
yourself.
60
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might discover that, at
35 years old, he is a different person. Perhaps he is living a good life with his family. He would like
his children to have a comfortable life in the future.
Explore!
Observe the different political parties in our country. Can you describe the differences between the
Liberal Party (LP), the United Oppositions (UNO), and the People’s Reform Party (PRP) in the
context of different cultures?
Try it!
Ask two persons about their personal identity development and aspirations. Compare them with
yours.
What do you think?
Is there a difference between one’s thoughts or feelings and one’s behavior? When is it
enculturation? When is it socialization?
Keypoints






Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the
culture in which an individual is immersed.
Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms,
expectations, and values as a member of the society.
Identity formation starts when you learn to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors,
language, morals, and norms of where you belong in.
Identity is the total knowledge and understanding of a person of who he or she is.
Discipline is the control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed and
punishing bad behavior.
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Becoming a Member of Society, Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain different concepts of norms and values,
discuss the relations and functions of norms and values, and
prove that norms and values are essential factors in the development of one’s self, others,
and the community as a product of enculturation and socialization.
What characteristics should a person demonstrate to be considered as a useful member of society?
Review!
Socialization and Enculturation
61
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate
us from others in society.
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and
values as members of society.
Enculturation
It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person
is immersed in.
Learn about it!
For society to function well, it must be guided by cultural principles of behavior to maintain stability,
peace, and harmony. Every society has its set of accepted norms and values of its culture that is
socially accepted.
Norms
Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow or exemplify
in the society where he or she belongs in. It pertains to specific guidelines of conduct in society that
guides its members on how to act in particular situations.
Classification of Norms
Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.
62
Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is distinguished
from the intensity of feelings they initiate and the consequences that flow from violations of them.
Folkways
They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.
Examples:


the practice of waiting in line
courtesy to older people
Mores



stricter than folkways
determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
dictates what is right and wrong
Examples:


religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex
the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical (e.g.racism and sexism)
Taboos



very strong negative norms
strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly
violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society
Examples:


cannibalism
incest
Laws



formally instituted by the government
exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
impose sanction on people who disobey the authority
Examples:


curfews for minors
laws against domestic violence
Values
Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile. Values are
general guidelines that are fundamental parts of our lives. They stand for the things we believe in.
Most of the values we have are learned from family, friends, school, media, and other sources in
society.
Classification of Values
Values can be classified into two types.
1. Individual Values
63
These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.
Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor
2. Collective Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community or
society.
Examples: equality, justice, solidarity
Relationship Between Norms and Values
Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.
Functions of Social Norms and Values
Values are general guidelines which govern our daily behavior. They are the guidelines for our
judgments, thereby playing a vital role in the maintenance of stability and harmony in society.
Norms are specific guidelines which allow us to function or act appropriately in society. They are a
set of behaviors that is perceived to be acceptable to its members. Following norms results in social
order and gives a feeling of security, safety, and harmony.
Social norms and values perform the following primary functions:
64
Explore!
What are the norms that should be observed during class discussions and examinations?
Try it!
Form a group composed of five persons. Discuss and decide on the top five critical values that
society must uphold based on the issues and challenges that the nation is currently facing.
What do you think?
If a person leaves his present society and transfers to a new one, it is possible that his personal
values will also change?
Keypoints





Norms are the standard or accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow in society.
They are either formal or informal.
Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. They
are folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
Values may be explained as measures of goodness or desirability. They are classified as
either individual values or collective values.
Values provide the justifications for accepting or rejecting specific norms.
Norms and values are critical factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the
community as a product of enculturation and socialization.
Becoming a Member of Society, Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
65



define and explain the different concepts regarding statuses and roles as part of the social
structure,
identify statuses and roles played by oneself and others in the community, and
evaluate the impact of the various statuses and roles of people for the attainment of society's
goals.
You have a friend named Paulene, a 30-year-old Filipino-Indian female from New Delhi. She grew
up in slum areas. Paulene knew at an early age that she wanted to be a lawyer. She graduated from
college with flying colors and was eventually accepted as a scholar at a prestigious law school. Now,
at the age of 30, she works as a lawyer in a private company in the United Kingdom. It was there
that she met her better half with whom she has four children.


Can you name Paulene’s roles and statuses?
What typical roles and statuses do people play in society?

Review!

Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of
society share many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones
that differentiate us from others in society.

Socialization

It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and
values as members of society.
Enculturation


It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed in.
Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human interactions that
we call social structure. It also refers to the manner in which society is arranged into predictable
interactions.
Status


describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or in society
defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person
Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender
66
Classifications of Statuses
There are three kinds of statuses.
1. Ascribed Status



a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth
inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is often
involuntary
Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor, a firstborn
2. Achieved Status



a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards that can
be controlled
a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills, and life
choices
Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist
3. Master Status



the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general position in
society
can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious or spiritual
tradition, employment status, or family responsibility such as a parent or grandparent
may come with a sense of prestige for some−the consensus from the community around
them that a status is to be desired
Example: a CEO, an activist, a Pope
The chart shows the differences among the three statuses.
Role Exit and Role Conflict
What are some issues concerning roles?
Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that is essential to his or her selfidentity.
Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role of an employee with
responsibilities to someone just living a comfortable life, or when an individual becomes a parent and has to
change their lifestyle.
Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more statuses that a person is
occupying. Performing the assigned role of one status makes it challenging for the person to play the
assigned role of another status.
Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children and the best employee to
her company all at the same time.
The Impact of Statuses and Roles in Attaining Society’s Goals
As members of society, people acquire statuses and roles which are necessary for socializing within
their society. These statuses and roles are important elements in the process of socialization
because they serve as agents for the fulfillment of society’s goals.
67
We are all encouraged to fulfill the roles of the statuses we are occupying at present and in the
future stages of our lives for us to be better members of the community.
Explore!
Think of your parents or your guardians. What are the multiple statuses they are occupying at
present and the roles attached to those statuses?
Try it!
List at least three (3) roles for each status.
male or female
police officer
business tycoon
What do you think?
What do you think will happen to society if its members fail to fulfill the roles of their respective
statuses?
Keypoints
 Status refers to the particular position that a person occupies in a particular scenario or
setup.
 Roles refer to the norms, customs, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to
the status of the individual.
 Ascribed status is a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily
or by birth.
 Achieved status is an acquired position due to unique skills, knowledge, or ability and are
based on standards that can be controlled.
 Master status pertains to the status of the person which determines his or her general
position in society.
 Role conflict takes place when two or more statuses are incompatible.
 Role exit pertains to the course of disengagement of a person from his or her role that is
essential to his or her self-identity.
68
Conformity and Deviance
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




explain the inevitable existence of conformity, deviance, and social control in the social
processes of our everyday lives,
discuss the significant part or role of gossip, social ostracism, laws, and punishments to
social control,
analyze the societal goals and socially acceptable means to survive,
and discuss the consequences of defying and conforming to social order.
Suppose that in one exclusive school, it is the norm for students to be at their best behavior at all
times while inside the school premises. All students therefore continuously make an effort to
maintain their grace, poise, and good appearance in order to avoid any sanctions.
Liz, a difficult and problematic student, transferred to the same school last year. In just one year of
stay, she was able to set up at least 5 pranks on her classmates and teachers. Despite being
punished for several times, she still cuts classes and comes to school not wearing the prescribed
uniform. There was also a time when she punched two of the school's guards because they did not
let her vandalize the principal's office. Liz's classmates do not want to be friends with her because of
her behavior. They call her "Crazy Liz" behind her back.
Analyze the scenario.



What qualities characterize conformity and deviance?
How does deviance affect a person's social status?
Will actions have an effect on social status if they were unintentional?
Conformity and Deviance
In our everyday lives, we notice that there are specific standards for our actions, simple or complex,
set by society. People tend to have different responses with these imagined pressures depending on
their upbringing, values, or ideals. These reactions are called conformity and deviance.
Conformity
is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms in order to be acceptable in a particular society, group, or
social setting
Example: The majority of the class members, through a group consensus, agreed to accept the proposal.
Deviance
is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a particular group or
society
Example: There are power struggles among netizens who disagree on the re-imposition of the death penalty.
Social Control
It is believed that society must have a social order to function smoothly. The social order includes social
standards, laws, rules, and norms which are set by society, whether they are by the majority or by a
hierarchy. Ideally, people must exhibit social order, but in reality, no society succeeds in getting all its
members to behave as expected all the time. If social order is seen as the only way for communities to
survive, they must have ways of making people conform to social norms.
Social Control Theory




This is based on the idea that a person's fundamental belief system, values, morals,
commitments, and relationships promote a protected environment.
Oftentimes, individuals who have these beliefs and commitments have a level of self-control over
their actions.
It examines or evaluates how society affects criminal behavior.
It emphasizes the idea that when people are involved and in contact with their community, they
are less likely to perpetrate criminal acts.
69
Gossip, Social Ostracism, and Laws and Punishments
Failure to embrace the accepted norms and values of society or inability to perform the roles of a person’s
status may lead to consequences in the form of gossip, social ostracism, and laws and punishments.
Gossip


refers to the idle talk or rumors about the personal or private matters of others
may lead to the discrediting of the reputation of the subject
Social Ostracism



refers to the exclusion of an individual from being socially accepted
includes the removal of social privileges and friendship with the general members of the society
a result of one's actions that give him or her an impression of not being a worthy member of that
society
Laws and Punishments
Laws refer to the set of rules by the government to regulate the way in which society behaves.
Punishments pertain to the pain, penalty, or suffering that is imposed on a person who violates a law.
People learn the mechanisms of social control through interactions with other people. Couples who are
expected to have a respectable family choose not to quarrel out loud to avoid being talked about around
their neighborhood.
An individual will conform with his peers to avoid social rejection or ostracism. To avoid punishment,
people must follow the law.
Social Processes and Relationships
The illustration below shows the social processes and relationships of deviance, conformity, and
social control.
In the given scenario earlier, the school was the representation of society−the students were the
conformists and Liz was the defiant one. The school had particular rules and standard of behaving, and
Liz's actions caused disturbance within the school. They did not only cause chaos, but they also led Liz to
be stigmatized.
Negative sanctions will be given to people who exhibit deviant acts, while effective sanctions will be given
to those who observe or conform.
Explore!
Bert is invited to an event that requires a particular costume. Not well-informed and not so serious about
it, he arrives with no costume at all.
70
Will Bert be criticized for not conforming to the required attire? Will he feel shy throughout the event? How
will Bert behave at the start of the event? Do you think this deviant behavior will have a psychological
effect on him?
Try it!
During recess or class break, try wearing your shirt differently−with its front displayed at your back−and
walk backwards as if it is your normal way of walking. Expect students to stare at you, look confused, and
talk about you.
What do you think?
Given the reality in this modern time, do you think that complete conformity to the rules, laws, standards,
and norms will result in social order and deviance will lead to chaos? Why? Why not?
Tip
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior deviant, but the
same behavior may be acceptable in another society.
Keypoints






Conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms that are acceptable in a particular
society, group, or social setting.
Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of
a particular group or society.
Social control theory is based upon the idea that an individual's underlying belief system,
values, morals, commitments, and relationships foster a proper environment.
Social order is considered to be the only solution to achieve societal survival and social control.
Conformity is the only way to achieve this.
Gossip, social rejection or ostracism, and laws and punishments are forms of social
pressures that contribute to the exhibition of social control.
Deviance, conformity, and social control are always present in a given society or group. These
are not limited to a high number of people but to a group that is capable of setting standards,
rules and norms.
71
Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:


describe deviance as explained by the Structural Strain Theory, and
identify the forms of deviance.


What causes deviant responses or behaviors as explained by the Structural Strain Theory?
What are the different forms of deviance?
Conformity and Deviance



The concept of conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms to be
acceptable in a particular society, group, or social setting.
Deviance, on the other hand, is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct,
expectations, or norms of a particular group or society.
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior
deviant, but the same behavior may be acceptable in another society.
Deviance as Explained by the Structural Strain Theory

The forms of deviance are the responses or adaptations by people in a society caused by
the imbalance or “strain” between the valued goals in the society and the legitimate or
acceptable means to achieve such goals. This idea is taken from the Structural Strain
Theory conceptualized by sociologist Robert K. Merton. Two variables taken into account in
this theory are valued goals and legitimate means to achieve goals.

Valued Goals

These are goals that are defined by society as valuable, or simply, the goals that are typically
pursued in a society.
Example: financial success




Legitimate Means to Achieve Goals
These are the acceptable ways people can do to achieve such valued goals in a society.
Example: get a good education
Types of Adaptation
In our everyday lives, we would notice that there are actions considered to be legitimate or
acceptable for a particular society toward achieving valued goals.
While people usually conform to legitimate or acceptable means to achieve goals, there are people
who will not. One reason for this is because the legitimate means are just not available for them, and
so unequal opportunities exist to achieve these goals. Merton identified five typologies of how people
adapt to their value system or the goals-means dynamics of their respective society.
These typologies are:


conformity–accepts goals and the institutionalized, acceptable or legitimate means of
obtaining them,
ritualism–rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining them,
72



retreatism–rejects both goals and means of obtaining them,
rebellion–creates new goals and new means of obtaining them, and
innovation–accepts goals and rejects institutionalized means of obtaining them.
Ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation are forms of deviance.
Forms of Deviance
Merton conceptualized four responses that are considered deviant and caused by a strain or
imbalance between valued goals and legitimate means in a particular society.
Ritualism
Ritualism is exhibited when someone rejects traditional cultural goals but still adheres to the
culturally approved methods or rules for making progress towards the same goals.
Example: An employee still stays in his job even though he is aware that it is a dead-end job. In
ritualism, people experience feelings of despair and anomie (social instability) that result to
modification or abandonment of the idealized cultural goals, but still persist at a ritualized, unfulfilling
line of work.
Retreatism
Retreatism is the response that rejects or abandons both cultural goals and the institutionalized or
legitimate means for attaining them.
Example: Examples of people who exhibit retreatism are drug addicts and alcoholics. The ultimate
form of retreatism is suicide.
Innovation
Innovation entails the acceptance of the valued goal but the rejection of legitimate or
institutionalized means to achieve them (resorting to criminal or delinquent acts).
Example: An example of this is when a person wants a nice car but does not have enough money,
so he steals money from the bank. Some people may resort to stealing or dealing drugs to achieve
cultural goals.
Rebellion
Rebellion not only rejects the valued goals and the legitimate means of the established society but
also actively attempts to substitute new goals and means. This can be applied to political deviants
who attempt to modify the existing structure of society.
Example: Examples for this are neo-Nazis and other hate groups. The rebels will publicly
acknowledge their intention to change the norms and the social structure.
The table below summarizes Merton’s typology of individual adaptations.
Legend:
73



"+" signifies acceptance
"–" signifies rejection
"+ and -" signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new goal or
means
Explore!
In the particular society that you live in, you can observe different people and groups that exhibit any of
the five types of adaptations or responses. Notice their way of expressing their beliefs toward specific
ideals, values, norms, or cultural goals and categorize them according to their action or statement.
What do you think?
In today’s time, different ideologies, religions, cultures, and traditions have already emerged and are
recognized, resulting in a diverse society. Different needs and expectations are expressed by groups and
individuals according to their social status. Given this situation, do you think that the presence of these
five adaptations is inevitable in a given society? Why or why not?
Tip
A person can exhibit different types of adaptations depending on the situation. He or she might be a
conformist in school, following all the rules, while also being an innovator when it comes to his or her
interests. A person’s response and adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the person
weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
Keypoints






Conformity is the obedience to the norms that make a person acceptable to a particular society,
group, or social setting.
Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of
a group or society.
Robert K. Merton developed the Structural Strain Theory to explore how people respond to
cultural values and how they are supposed to achieve them.
There are five typologies of how people adapt to the value system of their respective society
and these are conformity, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
The four forms of deviance are ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
A person’s response or adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the person
weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
74
Human Dignity and Rights
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain human dignity and rights as part of everyone's freedom,
discuss inclusive citizenship as it advocates policies promoting human rights, and
help improve the protection of human dignity and rights.
It was on the 10th of December 1948 in Paris when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) was proclaimed to have a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations.
According to its Article 1:
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”
Given these, why do you think some people are still repressed from these privileges based on their
race, citizenship, or color?
Human Dignity and Rights
As stated, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” No color of skin, physical
disability, sexual orientation, or religious belief can stop anybody from protecting his or her dignity
and enjoying his or her rights as a person. Human dignity and rights go together and are essential
to the attainment of common interest.
Human Dignity
There are two ways to understand human dignity.
The religious aspect believes that humans have a unique place in the world and that human life is
sacred.
In moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions, human dignity is used to express the idea that
a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
Human dignity




an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological integrity,
and empowerment
affirms that every person is worthy of respect; that our value as people should never be
debated
means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation
is uplifted when people are granted with their rights
It is, therefore, true to say that any right safeguarded by the International Human Rights Law is
substantiated by the dignity of the human person.
75
Human Rights



are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or
ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status
are the freedom and privileges that belong to every person in the world
guarantees that all people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility
Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political, or social issues, human rights are inherent
to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness
The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Both human dignity and rights should not be taken away, but sadly, they are denied to some people
as manifested by poverty, illiteracy, crime, and discrimination in society.
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.






It focuses on legal equality for each citizen directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that they
are part of the overall society.
Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens, regardless of their
race, gender, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status.
While a government cannot guarantee equality in all private organizations, inclusive citizenship
focuses on the legal rights of all individuals in cases where the government determines their
rights of inclusion.
It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that they
will feel that their government hears and respects their ideas.
In return, people will be more inclined to voice out their grievances through proper channels, such
as petitioning a representative to investigate their situation.
Moreover, this right can motivate the citizens to participate in government activities, raising voter
turnout, civic participation, and serving in the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples
of these are the equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same right to marry, similar
tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, and equal rights and acceptance by
national figures.
Protection of Human Dignity and Rights
Laws and declaration support the protection of human rights and the dignity of people.
The International Human Rights Law constitutes the basis of fundamental rights. With this law,
dignity is also protected. It must be respected, even where a right is restricted. Conventions such as
the 1997 European Union Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human
Being are also held to promote rights and dignity through different fields.
76
Explore!
In our everyday lives, we can observe different people pursuing their rights as humans and as
citizens of the country. Not only government agencies, but also institutions and organizations
promote human rights through billboards, posters, television ads, and even in outreach programs.
Notice these channels in your everyday journey and you can observe how people practice and
advocate their rights.


Since people have different race, citizenship, beliefs, and values, do you think an individual
or group practicing human rights and dignity would deprive another person or group of their
rights and dignity?
If yes, how can we ensure complete observation of human rights and dignity?
Try it!
In today's society, human rights are more emphasized and practiced than before. Some groups
promote human rights in different ways. Examples of these are people who initiate and participate in
fun runs for a cause. Protesters are usually seen in open areas or roads, calling the attention of our
countrymen, or in front of government agencies. If you encounter events like these, try to observe
their effects on the audience. If they are hazard free, try joining one.
What do you think?
Since the concept of dignity is said to be difficult to define, there are claims that it is a meaningless
slogan and a useless concept in bioethics. Moreover, there is considerable overlap in the idea of
personhood as to whether it is an innate quality of human beings or something that is granted or
attributed to a person.
Thus, according to some philosophers, this cues a few questions, like:



Is dignity a property of a person or of the way others react to him?
Can one's dignity be affected by the way one is treated?
Can dignity be inviolable but at the same time something that can be lost or destroyed?
Keypoints
 Human dignity in a religious sense believes that humans have a special place in the world
and that human life is sacred. In a moral, ethical, legal, and political sense, it is used to
express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive
ethical treatment.
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are
universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that focuses on legal equality for each citizen.
 Human rights and dignity are protected and promoted through laws, declarations, and
conventions.
77
The Common Good
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain human rights, dignity, and the common good,
discuss the role played by human rights to the attainment of the common good, and
help encourage the protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.
In making a personal decision or a choice, do you think about how such decision would benefit others?
Why or why not?
##Human Dignity
In a religious point of view, it is believed that humans have a unique place in the world, and that
human life is sacred. In the secular point of view, a human is seen as having an innate right to be
valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.



Human dignity is an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and
psychological integrity, and empowerment.
It affirms that every person is worthy of respect. Our value as persons should never be
debated.
It means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation.
Human Rights
Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are the freedoms and
privileges that belong to every person in the world. All people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty,
and security.
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility: Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political or social issues, human rights
are inherent to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness: The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in
part, the fulfillment of others.
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.





It focuses on legal equality for each citizen and directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that
they are a part of the overall society.
Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens regardless of their
race, gender, religious affiliation, or socioeconomic status.
It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that the
community feels like the government hears and respects its ideas.
Citizens are more inclined to voice their grievances through proper channels, such as petitioning
a representative to investigate their situations.
Moreover, this right can motivate citizens to participate in the government by raising voter turnout,
civic participation, and greater willingness to serve in the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples of
these are equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same right to marry, similar tax
responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, equal rights, and acceptance by national
figures.
78
The Common Good
The common good refers to:


what is shared and advantageous for all or most members of a given society, and
what is achieved by citizenship, be it collective action or active participation.
When dignity and rights are granted to people, the common good is achieved. It happens when society
benefits as a whole. The common good is reached when the majority, a high number of individuals, or
society as a whole benefits from a situation or event.
The recognition of people's dignity and rights is the foundation of "freedom, peace, and justice in the
world," as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The common good sustains
order and happiness in the community. It is not hard to achieve.
Protection of Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good
Human dignity, rights, and the common good are not new concepts; neither are the issues about their
existence in society.


Can they be granted?
Can they be achieved?
Since ancient times, literature figures have given criticisms on issues of the existence and absence of
human rights, dignity, and the common good. Among the list are the works of Aristotle, Rousseau, and
Machiavelli. In modern times, not much has changed. The same old questions and problems are asked,
but the modern world continues to work towards addressing such concerns.
International organizations and different countries pledged to the United Nations to uphold human rights
and dignity. If proven to disobey laws and rules, one has to be punished in accordance with the law.
Ideally, the common good is protected when all people enjoy their rights and preserve their dignity. For an
individual, this means having freedom as a consumer, owner, and citizen that also includes right to rest
and leisure, equal access to public works and services, freedom of association, religion, or speech and
employment.
Explore!
Do you believe that laws and public works were built to function for the common good? Why or why not?
Try it!
Enumerate three (3) situations or events you witnessed where the common good was upheld.
What do you think?
Are the efforts of local and national government agencies on upholding the common good sufficient to
ensure its existence in society?
Key Points




Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.
Human dignity is a person's or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and
psychological integrity, and empowerment .
The common good refers to what is shared and favorable for all or most members of a given
community. The common good is protected when each person enjoys his or her rights and
preserves his or her dignity.
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights. This
focuses on legal equality for each citizen, and is directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that
they are part of the overall society.
79
Becoming a Member of Society







Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation (Identities, Disciplines, and
Aspirations)
Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values
Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles
Conformity and Deviance: Social Control
Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance
Human Dignity and Rights
The Common Good
80
Enculturation/Socialization: Identity Formation
(Identities, Disciplines, and Aspirations)
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:





define and explain the different concepts regarding enculturation and socialization,
discuss the development of one’s self and others as a product of enculturation and
socialization, and
prove that identity, disciplines, and aspirations are necessary for the development of
personal and cultural identity.
What does it mean to be a person?
In a society where there are many cultures, how do you form your personal identity?
Enculturation and Socialization
What is the difference between socialization and enculturation? How is enculturation related to
socialization?
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that
differentiate them from others in society.
Enculturation
81

the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations and
values as members of society.
Study the chart that further explains the differences and relationships of socialization and
enculturation.
Identity Formation
Identity formation starts when one learns to socialize and be aware of the culture, behaviors,
language, morals, and norms of where he or she belongs in. However, as a person grows, he or she
learns to make his or her own set of beliefs, values, and morals. This is how a person develops an
identity. This is what makes a person different from others.
Identity
Identity is what makes a person distinct from others. It is the total knowledge and understanding of
an individual about who he or she is.
Types of Identity
1. Personal



the concept an individual develops about himself or herself
the sense of oneself as a distinct or unique individual
may depend on the age and circumstances of a person
Example: Rolen is an African girl. She is the most quiet student in her class. She believes that time
is gold, so spends her free time studying her lessons.
82
2. Cultural



the identity of the culture to which a person belongs in
the feeling or sense of belongingness to a group
a collective sense of companionship that involves the same beliefs, interests, and
fundamental principles of living
Example: In the Philippines, the Agta tribe has been practicing a unique culture for centuries. Old
men wear the bahag, a unique style of clothing. They prefer to stay in the forest than to stay in
lowlands. They mainly look for natural food sources.
Study the chart that further explains the two types of identity.
Discipline


a way of behaving that expresses a willingness to obey rules or laws
behavior that is judged by how well a person follows a set of rules or orders
Kinds of Discipline
Discipline is categorized into different types.
1. Discipline of Nature or Reality
A person meets this kind of control every time he or she tries to do something. A person learns to do
things on his or her own without the supervision of others.
Example: Ryan rented a bicycle near his town. He does not know yet how to ride the bike. He fell
many times, but he did not stop trying. He was so motivated to learn how to ride the bike that he
tried to learn on his own, and eventually, he was able to ride it.
2. Discipline of Culture or Society
What this discipline instills in every culture is distinct, different, and unique. A person learns
according to what he sees in his society or his culture.
Example: Mika wears the trendiest dresses these days. She wears them so she can be “in” with the
latest social trends.
3. Discipline of Superior Force
This discipline is the opposite of the discipline of nature or reality. In this training, a person learns
through supervision and guidance.
83
Example: A single mother raised Patricia. Her mother always reminded her not to fall in love
because of her personal idea that men are cheaters. Even if Patricia does not know how it feels to
be brokenhearted, she does not entertain any suitor.
Development of Personal Identity and Aspirations
Personal identity develops in many ways, depending on preferred directions.




It may be through enculturation and socialization.
It may also come through observation of a role model.
You tend to imitate a successful person that leads to changes in personality.
Your personal identity may change and eventually, you may develop a clear sense of
yourself.
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work hard.
Example: Rico at 20 years old identified himself as a happy-go-lucky guy. He might discover that, at
35 years old, he is a different person. Perhaps he is living a good life with his family. He would like
his children to have a comfortable life in the future.
Explore!
Observe the different political parties in our country. Can you describe the differences between
the Liberal Party (LP), the United Oppositions (UNO), and the People’s Reform Party (PRP) in the
context of different cultures?
Try it!
Ask two persons about their personal identity development and aspirations. Compare them
with yours.
What do you think?
Is there a difference between one’s thoughts or feelings and one’s behavior? When is it
enculturation? When is it socialization?
Keypoints






Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the
culture in which an individual is immersed.
Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal
norms, expectations, and values as a member of the society.
Identity formation starts when you learn to socialize and be aware of the culture,
behaviors, language, morals, and norms of where you belong in.
Identity is the total knowledge and understanding of a person of who he or she is.
Discipline is the control that is gained by requiring that rules or orders be obeyed and
punishing bad behavior.
Aspiration is a strong desire and ambition with which someone is motivated to work
hard.
84
Enculturation/Socialization: Norms and Values
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain different concepts of norms and values,
discuss the relations and functions of norms and values, and
prove that norms and values are essential factors in the development of one’s self, others,
and the community as a product of enculturation and socialization.
What characteristics should a person demonstrate to be considered as a useful member of society?
Review!
Socialization and Enculturation
Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones that differentiate
us from others in society.
Socialization
It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations, and
values as members of society.
Enculturation
It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a person
is immersed in.
85
Learn about it!
For society to function well, it must be guided by cultural principles of behavior to maintain stability,
peace, and harmony. Every society has its set of accepted norms and values of its culture that is
socially accepted.
Norms
Norms are standards or sets of accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow or exemplify
in the society where he or she belongs in. It pertains to specific guidelines of conduct in society that
guides its members on how to act in particular situations.
Classification of Norms
Norms can be classified in many ways. Norms are either formal or informal.
Norms are also categorized by their relative importance to society. This classification is distinguished
from the intensity of feelings they initiate and the consequences that flow from violations of them.
Folkways
They are the customs of people that came from repetition and routines.
86
Examples:


the practice of waiting in line
courtesy to older people
Mores



stricter than folkways
determines what is the moral and ethical behavior
dictates what is right and wrong
Examples:


religious doctrines such as the prohibition of pre-marital sex
the belief that forms of discrimination and suppression are unethical (e.g.racism and sexism)
Taboos



very strong negative norms
strict prohibition of certain behaviors that society holds firmly
violating it results in extreme disgust or expulsion from the group or society
Examples:


cannibalism
incest
Laws



formally instituted by the government
exist because its violation can result in injury or harm to other members of society
impose sanction on people who disobey the authority
Examples:



curfews for minors
laws against domestic violence
Values

Values refer to the abstract idea of people about what is necessary or worthwhile. Values
are general guidelines that are fundamental parts of our lives. They stand for the things we
believe in. Most of the values we have are learned from family, friends, school, media, and
other sources in society.

Classification of Values






Values can be classified into two types.
1. Individual Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of human personality.
Examples: honesty, loyalty, honor
2. Collective Values
These values are those that are connected with the development of unity in the community
or society.
Examples: equality, justice, solidarity



Relationship Between Norms and Values
Here are some significant relationships between norms and values.
87
Functions of Social Norms and Values
Values are general guidelines which govern our daily behavior. They are the guidelines for our
judgments, thereby playing a vital role in the maintenance of stability and harmony in society.
Norms are specific guidelines which allow us to function or act appropriately in society. They are a
set of behaviors that is perceived to be acceptable to its members. Following norms results in social
order and gives a feeling of security, safety, and harmony.
Social norms and values perform the following primary functions:
Explore!
What are the norms that should be observed during class discussions and examinations?
Try it!
Form a group composed of five persons. Discuss and decide on the top five critical values that
society must uphold based on the issues and challenges that the nation is currently facing.
What do you think?
If a person leaves his present society and transfers to a new one, it is possible that his personal
values will also change?
Keypoints


Norms are the standard or accepted behaviors that a person is expected to follow in society.
They are either formal or informal.
Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. They
are folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
88



Values may be explained as measures of goodness or desirability. They are classified as
either individual values or collective values.
Values provide the justifications for accepting or rejecting specific norms.
Norms and values are critical factors in the development of one’s self, others, and the
community as a product of enculturation and socialization.
Enculturation/Socialization: Statuses and Roles
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain the different concepts regarding statuses and roles as part of the social
structure,
identify statuses and roles played by oneself and others in the community, and
evaluate the impact of the various statuses and roles of people for the attainment of society's
goals.
You have a friend named Paulene, a 30-year-old Filipino-Indian female from New Delhi. She grew
up in slum areas. Paulene knew at an early age that she wanted to be a lawyer. She graduated from
college with flying colors and was eventually accepted as a scholar at a prestigious law school. Now,
at the age of 30, she works as a lawyer in a private company in the United Kingdom. It was there
that she met her better half with whom she has four children.


Can you name Paulene’s roles and statuses?
What typical roles and statuses do people play in society?
Review!

Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. There are many cultures within a society. While members of
society share many of the same expectations and experiences, cultural groups create ones
that differentiate us from others in society.

Socialization

It is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms, expectations,
and values as members of society.

Enculturation

It is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed in.
89
Learn about it!
Statuses
Our society is guided by a network of similar statuses and roles that govern human interactions that
we call social structure. It also refers to the manner in which society is arranged into predictable
interactions.
Status


describes the position an individual occupies in a particular setting, in a group, or in society
defines and clarifies the rights and obligations expected from a person
Example: a farm boy, a teacher, a human rights defender
Classifications of Statuses
There are three kinds of statuses.
1. Ascribed Status



a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily or by birth
inherited and not based on the person’s abilities, accomplishments, or efforts
can be rigid and unchanging since it is given to a person when he is born and is often
involuntary
Example: a Filipino national, a male or a female, a king or a queen, a son of a vendor, a firstborn
2. Achieved Status



a position one holds in a social system that one attains based on merit or effort
acquired due to unique skills, knowledge, or abilities, and are based on standards that can
be controlled
a position that has been earned or chosen and is mostly dictated by abilities, skills, and life
choices
Example: a student, an employee, a doctor, an artist
90
3. Master Status



the greatest role in a person’s life that determines social identity and general position in
society
can be based on any status, such as gender, ethnicity, economic status, religious or spiritual
tradition, employment status, or family responsibility such as a parent or grandparent
may come with a sense of prestige for some−the consensus from the community around
them that a status is to be desired
Example: a CEO, an activist, a Pope
The chart shows the differences among the three statuses.
Role Exit and Role Conflict
What are some issues concerning roles?
Role exit pertains to the course of disengaging a person from his or her role that is essential to his
or her self-identity.
Example: when a person retires from a long career and must shift from the role of an employee with
responsibilities to someone just living a comfortable life, or when an individual becomes a parent and
has to change their lifestyle.
Role conflict arises when incompatible expectations occur from two or more statuses that a person
is occupying. Performing the assigned role of one status makes it challenging for the person to play
the assigned role of another status.
Example: It is very challenging for a woman to be the best mother to her children and the best
employee to her company all at the same time.
The Impact of Statuses and Roles in Attaining
Society’s Goals
As members of society, people acquire statuses and roles which are necessary for socializing within
their society. These statuses and roles are important elements in the process of socialization
because they serve as agents for the fulfillment of society’s goals.
We are all encouraged to fulfill the roles of the statuses we are occupying at present and in the
future stages of our lives for us to be better members of the community.
Explore!
Think of your parents or your guardians. What are the multiple statuses they are occupying at
present and the roles attached to those statuses?
Try it!
List at least three (3) roles for each status.



male or female
police officer
business tycoon
91
What do you think?
What do you think will happen to society if its members fail to fulfill the roles of their respective
statuses?
Keypoints
 Status refers to the particular position that a person occupies in a particular scenario or
setup.
 Roles refer to the norms, customs, values, and personal characteristics that are attached to
the status of the individual.
 Ascribed status is a position a person holds in a social system that one attains involuntarily
or by birth.
 Achieved status is an acquired position due to unique skills, knowledge, or ability and are
based on standards that can be controlled.
 Master status pertains to the status of the person which determines his or her general
position in society.
 Role conflict takes place when two or more statuses are incompatible.
 Role exit pertains to the course of disengagement of a person from his or her role that is
essential to his or her self-identity.
Conformity and Deviance: Social Control
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




explain the inevitable existence of conformity, deviance, and social control in the social
processes of our everyday lives,
discuss the significant part or role of gossip, social ostracism, laws, and punishments to
social control,
analyze the societal goals and socially acceptable means to survive,
and discuss the consequences of defying and conforming to social order.
Suppose that in one exclusive school, it is the norm for students to be at their best behavior at all
times while inside the school premises. All students therefore continuously make an effort to
maintain their grace, poise, and good appearance in order to avoid any sanctions.
Liz, a difficult and problematic student, transferred to the same school last year. In just one year of
stay, she was able to set up at least 5 pranks on her classmates and teachers. Despite being
punished for several times, she still cuts classes and comes to school not wearing the prescribed
uniform. There was also a time when she punched two of the school's guards because they did not
let her vandalize the principal's office. Liz's classmates do not want to be friends with her because of
her behavior. They call her "Crazy Liz" behind her back.
Analyze the scenario.



What qualities characterize conformity and deviance?
How does deviance affect a person's social status?
Will actions have an effect on social status if they were unintentional?
Conformity and Deviance
In our everyday lives, we notice that there are specific standards for our actions, simple or complex,
set by society. People tend to have different responses with these imagined pressures depending on
their upbringing, values, or ideals. These reactions are called conformity and deviance.
Conformity

is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms in order to be acceptable in a particular
society, group, or social setting
Example: The majority of the class members, through a group consensus, agreed to accept the
proposal.
92
Deviance

is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or norms of a
particular group or society
Example: There are power struggles among netizens who disagree on the re-imposition of the
death penalty.
Social Control
It is believed that society must have a social order to function smoothly. The social order includes
social standards, laws, rules, and norms which are set by society, whether they are by the majority
or by a hierarchy. Ideally, people must exhibit social order, but in reality, no society succeeds in
getting all its members to behave as expected all the time. If social order is seen as the only way for
communities to survive, they must have ways of making people conform to social norms.
Social Control Theory




This is based on the idea that a person's fundamental belief system, values, morals,
commitments, and relationships promote a protected environment.
Oftentimes, individuals who have these beliefs and commitments have a level of self-control
over their actions.
It examines or evaluates how society affects criminal behavior.
It emphasizes the idea that when people are involved and in contact with their community,
they are less likely to perpetrate criminal acts.
Gossip, Social Ostracism, and Laws and Punishments
Failure to embrace the accepted norms and values of society or inability to perform the roles of a
person’s status may lead to consequences in the form of gossip, social ostracism, and laws and
punishments.
Gossip


refers to the idle talk or rumors about the personal or private matters of others
may lead to the discrediting of the reputation of the subject
Social Ostracism



refers to the exclusion of an individual from being socially accepted
includes the removal of social privileges and friendship with the general members of the
society
a result of one's actions that give him or her an impression of not being a worthy member of
that society
Laws and Punishments
Laws refer to the set of rules by the government to regulate the way in which society behaves.
Punishments pertain to the pain, penalty, or suffering that is imposed on a person who violates a
law.
People learn the mechanisms of social control through interactions with other people. Couples who
are expected to have a respectable family choose not to quarrel out loud to avoid being talked about
around their neighborhood.
An individual will conform with his peers to avoid social rejection or ostracism. To avoid punishment,
people must follow the law.
93
Social Processes and Relationships
The illustration below shows the social processes and relationships of deviance, conformity, and
social control.
In the given scenario earlier, the school was the representation of society−the students were the
conformists and Liz was the defiant one. The school had particular rules and standard of behaving,
and Liz's actions caused disturbance within the school. They did not only cause chaos, but they also
led Liz to be stigmatized.
Negative sanctions will be given to people who exhibit deviant acts, while effective sanctions will be
given to those who observe or conform.
Explore!
Bert is invited to an event that requires a particular costume. Not well-informed and not so serious
about it, he arrives with no costume at all.
Will Bert be criticized for not conforming to the required attire? Will he feel shy throughout the event?
How will Bert behave at the start of the event? Do you think this deviant behavior will have a
psychological effect on him?
Try it!
During recess or class break, try wearing your shirt differently−with its front displayed at your
back−and walk backwards as if it is your normal way of walking. Expect students to stare at you,
look confused, and talk about you.
What do you think?
Given the reality in this modern time, do you think that complete conformity to the rules, laws,
standards, and norms will result in social order and deviance will lead to chaos? Why? Why not?
Tip
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior deviant,
but the same behavior may be acceptable in another society.
Keypoints
 Conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms that are acceptable in a
particular society, group, or social setting.
 Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or
norms of a particular group or society.
 Social control theory is based upon the idea that an individual's underlying belief system,
values, morals, commitments, and relationships foster a proper environment.
 Social order is considered to be the only solution to achieve societal survival and social
control. Conformity is the only way to achieve this.
 Gossip, social rejection or ostracism, and laws and punishments are forms of social
pressures that contribute to the exhibition of social control.
 Deviance, conformity, and social control are always present in a given society or group.
These are not limited to a high number of people but to a group that is capable of setting
standards, rules and norms.
94
Conformity and Deviance: Forms of Deviance
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:


describe deviance as explained by the Structural Strain Theory, and
identify the forms of deviance.


What causes deviant responses or behaviors as explained by the Structural Strain Theory?
What are the different forms of deviance?
Conformity and Deviance



The concept of conformity is linked to the obedience of a person to the norms to be
acceptable in a particular society, group, or social setting.
Deviance, on the other hand, is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct,
expectations, or norms of a particular group or society.
Note that deviant behavior is relative. A particular society may consider a certain behavior
deviant, but the same behavior may be acceptable in another society.
Deviance as Explained by the Structural Strain Theory

The forms of deviance are the responses or adaptations by people in a society caused by
the imbalance or “strain” between the valued goals in the society and the legitimate or
acceptable means to achieve such goals. This idea is taken from the Structural Strain
Theory conceptualized by sociologist Robert K. Merton. Two variables taken into account in
this theory are valued goals and legitimate means to achieve goals.

Valued Goals

These are goals that are defined by society as valuable, or simply, the goals that are typically
pursued in a society.
Example: financial success




Legitimate Means to Achieve Goals
These are the acceptable ways people can do to achieve such valued goals in a society.
Example: get a good education
Types of Adaptation
In our everyday lives, we would notice that there are actions considered to be legitimate or
acceptable for a particular society toward achieving valued goals.
While people usually conform to legitimate or acceptable means to achieve goals, there are people
who will not. One reason for this is because the legitimate means are just not available for them, and
so unequal opportunities exist to achieve these goals. Merton identified five typologies of how people
adapt to their value system or the goals-means dynamics of their respective society.
These typologies are:





conformity–accepts goals and the institutionalized, acceptable or legitimate means of
obtaining them,
ritualism–rejects goals and accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining them,
retreatism–rejects both goals and means of obtaining them,
rebellion–creates new goals and new means of obtaining them, and
innovation–accepts goals and rejects institutionalized means of obtaining them.
Ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation are forms of deviance.
95
Forms of Deviance
Merton conceptualized four responses that are considered deviant and caused by a strain or
imbalance between valued goals and legitimate means in a particular society.
Ritualism
Ritualism is exhibited when someone rejects traditional cultural goals but still adheres to the
culturally approved methods or rules for making progress towards the same goals.
Example: An employee still stays in his job even though he is aware that it is a dead-end job. In
ritualism, people experience feelings of despair and anomie (social instability) that result to
modification or abandonment of the idealized cultural goals, but still persist at a ritualized, unfulfilling
line of work.
Retreatism
Retreatism is the response that rejects or abandons both cultural goals and the institutionalized or
legitimate means for attaining them.
Example: Examples of people who exhibit retreatism are drug addicts and alcoholics. The ultimate
form of retreatism is suicide.
Innovation
Innovation entails the acceptance of the valued goal but the rejection of legitimate or
institutionalized means to achieve them (resorting to criminal or delinquent acts).
Example: An example of this is when a person wants a nice car but does not have enough money,
so he steals money from the bank. Some people may resort to stealing or dealing drugs to achieve
cultural goals.
Rebellion
Rebellion not only rejects the valued goals and the legitimate means of the established society but
also actively attempts to substitute new goals and means. This can be applied to political deviants
who attempt to modify the existing structure of society.
Example: Examples for this are neo-Nazis and other hate groups. The rebels will publicly
acknowledge their intention to change the norms and the social structure.
The table below summarizes Merton’s typology of individual adaptations.
Legend:



"+" signifies acceptance
"–" signifies rejection
"+ and -" signifies rejection of prevailing goal or means and substitution of new goal or
means
96
Explore!
In the particular society that you live in, you can observe different people and groups that exhibit any
of the five types of adaptations or responses. Notice their way of expressing their beliefs toward
specific ideals, values, norms, or cultural goals and categorize them according to their action or
statement.
What do you think?
In today’s time, different ideologies, religions, cultures, and traditions have already emerged and are
recognized, resulting in a diverse society. Different needs and expectations are expressed by groups
and individuals according to their social status. Given this situation, do you think that the presence of
these five adaptations is inevitable in a given society? Why or why not?
Tip
A person can exhibit different types of adaptations depending on the situation. He or she might be a
conformist in school, following all the rules, while also being an innovator when it comes to his or her
interests. A person’s response and adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the
person weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
Keypoints






Conformity is the obedience to the norms that make a person acceptable to a particular
society, group, or social setting.
Deviance is the non-conformity or violation of the standards of conduct, expectations, or
norms of a group or society.
Robert K. Merton developed the Structural Strain Theory to explore how people respond to
cultural values and how they are supposed to achieve them.
There are five typologies of how people adapt to the value system of their respective
society and these are conformity, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
The four forms of deviance are ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation.
A person’s response or adaptation is not always linear. It clearly depends on how the
person weighs the situation according to his or her needs.
Human Dignity and Rights
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain human dignity and rights as part of everyone's freedom,
discuss inclusive citizenship as it advocates policies promoting human rights, and
help improve the protection of human dignity and rights.
It was on the 10th of December 1948 in Paris when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) was proclaimed to have a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations.
According to its Article 1:
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”
Given these, why do you think some people are still repressed from these privileges based on their
race, citizenship, or color?
Human Dignity and Rights
As stated, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” No color of skin, physical
disability, sexual orientation, or religious belief can stop anybody from protecting his or her dignity
and enjoying his or her rights as a person. Human dignity and rights go together and are essential
to the attainment of common interest.
Human Dignity
There are two ways to understand human dignity.
97
The religious aspect believes that humans have a unique place in the world and that human life is
sacred.
In moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions, human dignity is used to express the idea that
a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.
Human dignity




an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and psychological integrity,
and empowerment
affirms that every person is worthy of respect; that our value as people should never be
debated
means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation
is uplifted when people are granted with their rights
It is, therefore, true to say that any right safeguarded by the International Human Rights Law is
substantiated by the dignity of the human person.
Human Rights



are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or
ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status
are the freedom and privileges that belong to every person in the world
guarantees that all people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty, and security
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility
Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political, or social issues, human rights are inherent
to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness
The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in part, the fulfillment of others.
Both human dignity and rights should not be taken away, but sadly, they are denied to some people
as manifested by poverty, illiteracy, crime, and discrimination in society.
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.






It focuses on legal equality for each citizen directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling that
they are part of the overall society.
Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens, regardless of their
race, gender, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status.
While a government cannot guarantee equality in all private organizations, inclusive
citizenship focuses on the legal rights of all individuals in cases where the government
determines their rights of inclusion.
It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that
they will feel that their government hears and respects their ideas.
In return, people will be more inclined to voice out their grievances through proper channels,
such as petitioning a representative to investigate their situation.
Moreover, this right can motivate the citizens to participate in government activities, raising
voter turnout, civic participation, and serving in the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples
of these are the equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same right to marry, similar
tax responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
98
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, and equal rights and acceptance by
national figures.
Protection of Human Dignity and Rights
Laws and declaration support the protection of human rights and the dignity of people.
The International Human Rights Lawconstitutes the basis of fundamental rights. With this law,
dignity is also protected. It must be respected, even where a right is restricted. Conventions such as
the 1997 European Union Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human
Being are also held to promote rights and dignity through different fields.
Explore!
In our everyday lives, we can observe different people pursuing their rights as humans and as
citizens of the country. Not only government agencies, but also institutions and organizations
promote human rights through billboards, posters, television ads, and even in outreach programs.
Notice these channels in your everyday journey and you can observe how people practice and
advocate their rights.


Since people have different race, citizenship, beliefs, and values, do you think an individual
or group practicing human rights and dignity would deprive another person or group of their
rights and dignity?
If yes, how can we ensure complete observation of human rights and dignity?
Try it!
In today's society, human rights are more emphasized and practiced than before. Some groups
promote human rights in different ways. Examples of these are people who initiate and participate in
fun runs for a cause. Protesters are usually seen in open areas or roads, calling the attention of our
countrymen, or in front of government agencies. If you encounter events like these, try to observe
their effects on the audience. If they are hazard free, try joining one.
What do you think?
Since the concept of dignity is said to be difficult to define, there are claims that it is a meaningless
slogan and a useless concept in bioethics. Moreover, there is considerable overlap in the idea of
personhood as to whether it is an innate quality of human beings or something that is granted or
attributed to a person.
Thus, according to some philosophers, this cues a few questions, like:



Is dignity a property of a person or of the way others react to him?
Can one's dignity be affected by the way one is treated?
Can dignity be inviolable but at the same time something that can be lost or destroyed?
Keypoints
 Human dignity in a religious sense believes that humans have a special place in the world
and that human life is sacred. In a moral, ethical, legal, and political sense, it is used to
express the idea that a being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive
ethical treatment.
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are
universal, inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that focuses on legal equality for each citizen.
 Human rights and dignity are protected and promoted through laws, declarations, and
conventions.
The Common Good
99
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



define and explain human rights, dignity, and the common good,
discuss the role played by human rights to the attainment of the common good, and
help encourage the protection of human dignity, rights, and the common good.
In making a personal decision or a choice, do you think about how such decision would benefit
others? Why or why not?
##Human Dignity
In a religious point of view, it is believed that humans have a unique place in the world, and that
human life is sacred. In the secular point of view, a human is seen as having an innate right to be
valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment.



Human dignity is an individual or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and
psychological integrity, and empowerment.
It affirms that every person is worthy of respect. Our value as persons should never be
debated.
It means having a quality life and not experiencing oppression or manipulation.
Human Rights
Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex,
national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They are the freedoms and
privileges that belong to every person in the world. All people shall be ensured to enjoy life, liberty,
and security.
Human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
Universality and Inalienability: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Indivisibility: Whether they relate to cultural, civil, economic, political or social issues, human rights
are inherent to the dignity of every human person.
Interdependence and Interrelatedness: The fulfillment of one right often depends on, wholly or in
part, the fulfillment of others.
Inclusive Citizenship
Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.





It focuses on legal equality for each citizen and directed at giving all citizens a strong feeling
that they are a part of the overall society.
Its policies include laws that provide non-segregated access to all citizens regardless of their
race, gender, religious affiliation, or socioeconomic status.
It establishes a governing foundation where it gives its citizens a sense of security so that the
community feels like the government hears and respects its ideas.
Citizens are more inclined to voice their grievances through proper channels, such as
petitioning a representative to investigate their situations.
Moreover, this right can motivate citizens to participate in the government by raising voter
turnout, civic participation, and greater willingness to serve in the military.
Under inclusive citizenship, there are rights that the government provides for its citizens. Examples
of these are equal right to vote, equal right to serve in the military, same right to marry, similar tax
responsibilities, and equal right to represent others in the government.
Citizens also have access to public funds, public organizations, equal rights, and acceptance by
national figures.
100
The Common Good
The common good refers to:


what is shared and advantageous for all or most members of a given society, and
what is achieved by citizenship, be it collective action or active participation.
When dignity and rights are granted to people, the common good is achieved. It happens when
society benefits as a whole. The common good is reached when the majority, a high number of
individuals, or society as a whole benefits from a situation or event.
The recognition of people's dignity and rights is the foundation of "freedom, peace, and justice in the
world," as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. The common good
sustains order and happiness in the community. It is not hard to achieve.
Protection of Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common
Good
Human dignity, rights, and the common good are not new concepts; neither are the issues about
their existence in society.


Can they be granted?
Can they be achieved?
Since ancient times, literature figures have given criticisms on issues of the existence and absence
of human rights, dignity, and the common good. Among the list are the works of Aristotle, Rousseau,
and Machiavelli. In modern times, not much has changed. The same old questions and problems are
asked, but the modern world continues to work towards addressing such concerns.
International organizations and different countries pledged to the United Nations to uphold human
rights and dignity. If proven to disobey laws and rules, one has to be punished in accordance with
the law.
Ideally, the common good is protected when all people enjoy their rights and preserve their dignity.
For an individual, this means having freedom as a consumer, owner, and citizen that also includes
right to rest and leisure, equal access to public works and services, freedom of association, religion,
or speech and employment
Explore!
Do you believe that laws and public works were built to function for the common good? Why or why
not?
Try it!
Enumerate three (3) situations or events you witnessed where the common good was upheld.
What do you think?
Are the efforts of local and national government agencies on upholding the common good sufficient
to ensure its existence in society?
Key Points
 Human rights are rights inherent to all people, regardless of nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.
 Human dignity is a person's or group's sense of self-respect and worth, physical and
psychological integrity, and empowerment.
 The common good refers to what is shared and favorable for all or most members of a
given community. The common good is protected when each person enjoys his or her rights
and preserves his or her dignity.
 Inclusive citizenship is a governing policy that promotes human dignity and human rights.
This focuses on legal equality for each citizen, and is directed at giving all citizens a strong
feeling that they are part of the overall society.
101
Organization in Society
Topics under this module





Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Blood
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Marriage
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Ritual
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Family and the Household
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Politics of Kinship
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Blood
Objectives
At the end of the lesson you should be able to:




define kinship and social network,
explain the Filipino concept of kinship,
discuss the concepts surrounding kinship by blood and descent, and
trace your own ancestry by blood up to the third degree.


How can you be sure that blood relates you to your ancestors?
How do you draw the line between descent and ancestry?
Learn about it!
We do not live alone in society. From birth until death, we are surrounded by many people. Most of
these people are our relatives, friends, and neighbors, while some are strangers. We are bound to
all individuals who are related to us either by blood or by descent.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks
The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people
together in a group is called kinship.




According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized
relationships based on supposed and actual genealogical bonds. These relationships are
products of social interactions and are recognized by society.
In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves
and to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
Kinship or relationship can also refer to a principle by which people or groups of individuals
are organized into roles, social groups, categories, and genealogy through kinship
terminologies.
On the other hand, a social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors
(individuals or organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions
between actors. It represents relationships and flows between people, groups, and
organizations.
Learn about it!
The Filipino Concept of Kinship


According to F. LandaJocano, "Kinship characterizes the overall framework of community
relations as it enables Filipinos to map their relationships and be able to work together
harmoniously. It lies deep in the heart of every Filipino as it forms the core of the Filipino
social organization. It significantly influences the formation, structure, and functions of
institutions, relationships, and values of the Filipinos."
There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created
its terminology, but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based
language, is widely used.
102

Kinship helps Filipino people in understanding their relationships with others and be able to
interact with each other with little or without any difficulty.
Kinship by Blood or Consanguineous Kinship



The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related
through blood. The relationship between the parents and their kids, and that among siblings,
is consanguineous kinship.
Thus, son and daughter, brother and sister, uncle and aunt, nephew and niece, and cousins
are consanguineous kin, that is, related through blood. With this connection, it can be
pointed out that blood bond may be actual as well as supposed.
In polyandrous tribes, the real father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as if it
were one's own biological child. As a result, blood relationship may be established not only
on biological basis but also by social recognition.
Genogram


A genogram is a graphical representation of one's family and its members' relationship to
one another.
It is widely used in medicine, sociology, and genealogy to determine medical, psychological,
sociological, or historical patterns of health and behavior.
Below are the basic symbols used in making a genogram. You should know, however, that more
symbols are available to use for more complicated family relationships.
103
In making a genogram, make sure to note the following:



children must be drawn from oldest to youngest and from left to right, respectively,
one level or layer presents one generation, and
the shapes corresponding to family members always represent sex, not gender.
Descent System




A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent
from a real or mythical ancestor. This system of acknowledged social parentage, which
varies per society, is where a person may claim kinship ties with another.
If there is no limitation on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to everyone
else. But in most societies, some restrictions are imposed on the perception of common
ancestry so that an individual regards many of his associates as not his kin.
The importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert rights,
privileges, duties, and status with another person who may be related to the first, either
because one is an ancestor of the other or because the two acknowledge common
ancestors.
Descent has limited influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow
kinship lines.
One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize relationships through one parent
only. Such is called a unilineal kinship system. There are two types of this system−patrilineal
systems, in which relationships reckoned through the father are emphasized, and matrilineal
systems, in which relationships reckoned through the mother are emphasized.
In a bilateral descent, all descendants of an ancestor enjoy membership of a common descent
group by any combination of male or female linkages.
See it!
A friend of your family visited your house and noticed that you have several medals and trophies
displayed in the living room. She exclaimed, "You have a very smart child!"
In what other way do your parents reaffirm your relation to them aside from using the expression,
"Nasadugo eh" or "It runs in the blood"?
Try it!
Make a genogram of your family. Try to look over the net for more genogram symbols that may
describe any unique relationship within your family (e.g. engaged but not married couple, adopted
children, twins).
What do you think?
104
Have family and kinship always meant the same thing throughout history? Justify your answer.
Keypoints
 Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of
the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
 A social network is a social structure composed of a set of social actors (individuals or
organizations), sets of a partner or dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors.
 The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin is related
through blood.
 There is no generic Filipino term for kinship as each language group in the country created
its terminology but the term kamag-anak or magkakamag-anak, from the Tagalog-based
language, is widely used.
 A descent group is any social group wherein membership depends on a common descent
from a real or mythical ancestor.
 There are different descent kinship systems, such as unilineal (with two main types—
patrilineal and matrilineal) and bilateral kinships.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Marriage
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define and explain the different concepts of marriage
and discuss how marriage becomes the formation of kinship ties and social networks.



What types of networks are formed through marriage?
What are the different kinds of marriages and what causes their formation?
What factors are to be considered for the residency of newlyweds?
Review!
Kinship Ties and Social Networks





The relations based on blood may be close or distant. The bond of blood which binds people
together in a group is called kinship.
According to the Dictionary of Anthropology, kinship system involves socially recognized
relationships based on genealogical bonds. These relationships are the products of social
interaction and are recognized by society.
In a broader sense, kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves
and to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern
of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations,
membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the
attainment of the goals of society.
Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get
connected, get updated, and become aware. Furthermore, social networks act as social
support systems that provide people information and guidance in times of need.
Kinship by Marriage



Marriage is a formal and legal union of two people as partners in life. It is the universal social
institution that promotes procreation and establishes the bonds that are the basis of the
household, family, and kinship system.
Marriage is a legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based on a
sexual relationship, and implying a permanence of the union. The statuses the spouses
acquire go through from institution to companionship that may endure and sustain in their life
cycle (Burgess and Locke, 1945). They play complementary roles to meet their material,
sexual, emotional, psychological, and spiritual needs for their survival.
Marriage gives the offspring a position in society as he or she may be categorized as a
legitimate son or daughter. It establishes continuing connections between the kin of each
party. It is always symbolically marked in some way, usually a public ceremony.
Cross-cultural Marriage
105
A cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
How does this happen? As they say, "Love is blind." It does not care about race, color, or culture.
We see more and more marriages of people from different cultures nowadays.
In marrying a person from the same country, distinct differences in family life, values, educational
attainment, ideas, and ways of living already exist. By comparison, marrying a person from a
different country has even more differences.
Examples:


A traditional Ifugao man is married to a liberated Catholic woman.
A Japanese woman is married to an English man.
In a cross-cultural marriage, it is important to respect your spouse's native culture and deal with your
differences in a loving manner.
Here are some tips for avoiding challenges in cross-cultural marriage/relationships:







embrace the opportunity,
understand, respect, and compromise,
get first-hand experience of each other's cultures,
pass on both cultures to your children,
think positively about your differences,
maintain contact with family, and
when possible, travel together.
Monogamy vs. Polygamy
By the number of spouses, a marriage can either be a monogamy or polygamy.
Post-marital Residency Rules
After marriage comes a new chapter in a couple's lives. One of the primary concerns couples usually
are faced with is where to live. Kinship system, economic concerns, and personal factors are among
the determining factors for residency among newlyweds. Although not a cultural certainty especially
in this modern age, newly married couples opt to live with existing households than establish their
own. Now, comes the question: Whose family is favored or culturally prescribed?
106
Explore!
What
are
the
personal
and
How does marriage extend one’s social networks?
societal
functions
of
marriage?
Try it!
Find a newly-wed couple and ask them a few questions based on the lesson. Using the table below
and the ideas acquired from your interview, write the common problems and possible solutions of a
married
life.
What do you think?
Which type of marriage is culturally significant or accepted in our society?
In your observations, which type of residency is usually practiced? Which is a practical choice for
you?
Keypoints





Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves and to the study of
the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures.
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern
of links or relations.
Marriage is a formal and legal union of a man and a woman as partners in life.
Cross-cultural marriage is a marriage between two people from different cultures.
Monogamy is a wedding between two individuals at a time.
107


Polygamy is a common practice among Muslims. It is being married to many spouses at a
time.
Post-marital residency or residence rules are rules or arrangements couples usually
consider following their wedding.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Kinship by Ritual
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



explain the different concepts of kinship by ritual,
discuss how relationship by ritual works as a social network, and
recognize the importance of ritual kinship in society.


What advantages does ritual kinship give to society?
What goals of society are achieved through the realization of targets of a ritual relationship?
Review!
Kinship Ties and Social Networks





Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the
rights, obligations, and boundaries of the interactions of members of a self-recognizing
group.
Kinship and family ties may be determined through genetic relationships, adoption, or other
ritualized behaviors such as marriage and household economies.
Kinship systems range in size from a single nuclear-family to tribal or inter-tribal
relationships.
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined together by a particular
pattern of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's
relations, membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a
role in the attainment of the goals of society.
Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get
connected, get updated, and become aware. Furthermore, social networks act as a social
support system which provides people with information and guidance in times of need.
Kinship by Ritual
Anthropologist and ethnographers sometimes call kinship by ritual as fictive kinship. The word
means "fake" or "created by imagination." This type of kinship is not false, but it is just that in this
type of kinship, relationships among individuals are based neither on blood ties nor by marriage.


Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among individuals who recognize their associations
and obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds. Fictive kinship may tie
people together in ties of affection, concern, obligation, and responsibility. Examples include
adopted or surrogate families, brotherhood, sororities, or peer groups.
Kinship by ritual function is used in fictive kinship links for non-kinship purposes. Members of
a brotherhood or fraternity consider each other as brothers despite the absence of blood
relations among them. Such act naturally builds a harmonious relationship between them.
Look at the table below to know about some examples of ritual kinship.
108
Importance and Functions of Ritual Kinship in Society
Kinship by ritual is an essential social network for it is where a good relationship is built and
strengthened. It has positive contributions for shaping our old and new society. Kinship by ritual, in
its various forms, serve many functions in the community. It reinforces affinity or relationships within
society by providing a framework for social interaction. Defined by acts of sharing and support, it
testifies "friends as family."
Below are specific functions of the different types of ritual kinship.
Explore!
What makes kinship by ritual necessary in society?
Will society remain functional without the existence of ritual kinship?
Try it!
Give three examples of ritual kinship. Identify them according to type. Provide a brief description of
each.
What do you think?
Which is more important or necessary in the society: kinship by marriage or kinship by ritual?
Explain your answer.
Keypoints
 Kinship tie is a framework from which harmonious relationships within society are built.
109





A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern
of links or relations.
Kinship by ritual refers to relationships among people who recognize their associations and
obligations despite the absence of blood or marriage bonds.
Compadrazgo is a religious rite of sponsorship in church ceremonies, such as marriage,
baptism, or confirmation.
Blood brotherhood is a sociological custom where two biologically unrelated persons or
groups establish a close relationship through a variety of ceremonies and methods of bloodletting.
Adoption is the process wherein a non-kin is incorporated into the kin group either
traditionally or legally.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Family and the Household
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



trace kinship ties within the concept of family and household,
differentiate family and household, and
identify one’s type of family and household.



What is a family?
What is a household?
How is family related to kinship ties and social networks?
Learn about it!
Kinship and Family Dynamics
Kinship are social relationships derived from universal experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance.
Kinship means being related to others. Being related to other people is something that is defined by
culture and not necessarily determined by biological relations.
A family is a socially recognized group, strengthened by the concept of kinship, where people are
connected by blood, marriage, or adoption, and where a caring relationship mainly occurs. Although
kin group and family are not one and the same, the family is actually one of the strongest kinship ties
in our society.
The family has a very important role in society.




It forms an emotional connection among people and serves as an economic unit of society.
It is considered as the basic building block of society.
It is the institution mostly responsible for the “achievement of adult satisfaction and social
integration.” (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)
It is also responsible for the distribution of economic resources from those who earn them in
the marketplace to those who are dependent on those earnings. (Ross and Sawhill, 1975)
Functions of Family
The family as a form of kinship serves very important functions in society.




It is the smallest unit that cooperates in production and distribution.
It enables and promotes socialization processes for the youth.
It creates alliances with other family units.
It regulates sexual behavior.
110



It provides care and protection.
It is the foundation of social placement and social status.
It gives emotional support and affection.
Types or Forms of Family
A family can be classified based on birth, marriage, nature of residence, ancestry, size, or nature of
relations.
On the Basis of Birth


family of orientation–the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization
takes place
family of procreation–the family that is formed through marriage and by having or adopting
children.
On the Basis of Marriage



polygynous family–a type of family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife,
and all the children born to all wives or adopted by each of them.; It is based on polygynous
marriage.
polyandrous family–a type of family consisting of one wife and more than one husband,
and the children, either born or adopted by each one of them; It is based on polyandrous
marriage.
monogamous family–the family consists of one husband and wife, including children, and is
based on monogamous marriage
On the Basis of the Nature of Residence



family of matrilocal residence–a type of family where the wife remains in her mother’s
household after reaching maturity and brings her husband to live with her family after
marriage
family of patrilocal residence–a type of family where the husband remains in his father’s
household while his wife leaves her family to move in with him
family of changing residence– a type of family where the family stays in the husband’s
house for some time, and moves to wife’s house, stays there for a period of time, and then
moves back to the husband’s parents or starts living in another place
On the Basis of Ancestry or Descent


matrilineal family–a type of family where the ancestry or descent is traced through the
female line or through the mother’s side
patrilineal family–a type of family in which the authority is carried down the male line, and
descent is traced through the male line or the father’s side
On the basis of size or structure



nuclear or the single-unit family–a type of family consisting of a husband, a wife, and
children (unmarried), naturally-conceived or adopted; It is the nucleus of family structures. It
is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or elders of the
family. It consists of two generations only. The adoptation of children legally happen through
an adoption process where the legal responsibilities and privileges of being a parent or
parents are transferred from the biological parents to adoptive parents.
joint or extended family–a type of family that consists of three generations living together
under the same roof, and sharing the same kitchen or economic expenses; It consists of
three nuclear families living together. In this setup, aunts, uncles, and grandparents may live
in a family of parents and their children.
reconstituted or blended family–a type of family that is formed out of another relationship,
otherwise known as a step-family
On the Basis of the Nature of Relations
111


conjugal family–a type of family made up of adults among whom sexual relationships exist;
It refers to a family system of spouses and their dependent children. The emphasis is placed
on the marital relationship that exists between spouses.
consanguine family–a type of family where blood relation exists, or those who are
consanguineal kin (e.g. a family consisting of parents and children, or siblings)
Kinship and Household Dynamics
A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and consumption
that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter. It is important to note that
family and household are not one and the same.
A household may be made up of a person, or persons, who lives in a shared space or dwelling. A
household can be a family household or a non-family household. It would mean that persons living in
a household maybe related or unrelated.
Example of a non-family household: Two friends living in the same condominium unit are
considered a household.
There are different kinds of households:



nuclear household–a domestic group that contains one adult couple that may or may not
have children,
extended–a domestic group that contains more than one adult married couple, and
single-person or single-parent–a domestic group that is composed of one adult person
that may or may not have children living with him or her.
Explore!


How is the concept of family related to the concept of kinship?
How do you identify your type of family and household?
Try it!
Try and trace your family kinship ties through proper agencies or online research. See how far you
can trace your family's roots.
What do you think?
Compare and contrast nuclear and extended families and households. What are the advantages and
disadvantages?
Keypoints

A family is a socially recognized group that is strengthened by the concept of kinship where
people are connected by blood, marriage, or adoption.

A household is a residential unit or dwelling that carries out economic production and
consumption that coordinates work, inheritance, child rearing, and provision of shelter.
112


Family and household are not one and the same. A household may be a family household
or non-family household. It would mean that the people living in a household may be related
or unrelated.
A household can be classified as a nuclear, extended, or single-person household.
Kinship Ties and Social Networks: Politics of Kinship
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:



explain the concept of politics of kinship,
discuss how politics of kinship affect the functions of society to people, and
recognize the existence of issues arising from the politics of kinship.



What caused the existence of politics of kinship?
Is politics of kinship an advantage or disadvantage?
How does the politics of kinship affect society?
Review!
Kinship Ties and Social Networks





Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the
rights, obligations, and boundaries of the interactions of members of a self-recognizing
group.
Kinship and family ties may be determined by genetic relationships, adoption, or other
ritualized behaviors such as marriage and household economies.
Kinship systems range in size from a single, nuclear family to tribal or inter-tribal
relationships.
A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern
of links or relations. Social networks are indicative of a person or an organization's relations,
membership, links, and connections. It is noteworthy that these systems serve a role in the
attainment of societal goals.
Through networks serving as media for the spread and exchange of ideas, people get
connected, get updated, and become aware. Aside from that, social networks act as social
support systems which provide people with information and guidance in times of need.
Politics of Kinship


The idea that "blood is thicker than water” and similar concepts apply to politics. Kinship is
the primary source of political support and action in small or even bigger societies.
Kinship alliances are naturally formed and traditionally remain a power bearer that dominates
Filipino culture.
113


An explanation for this phenomenon would be the family orientation of the Filipinos. For
some reason, the obligation to one's kinship group compels one to prioritize his or her family
before the rest of society. This, from time immemorial, has generated issues in power
allocation in our community.
Topics include political dynasty, padrino system, and the use of political power to build
business empires or personal gains.
Concepts of Power in Filipino Kinship Politics


Ideally, merit is the top qualification for any position of consideration, particularly in politics.
Certain circumstances resulting from the interplay of Filipino values, family, and power have
influenced codes of honor on selection processes.
Here's a list of some of Filipino values which have affected the way we make decisions and
view power.

Issues Concerning the Politics of Kinship

Kinship means family, which could mean the “world” to some people. Without a doubt, we
place the family first on our list of priorities, and there is nothing wrong with that, as long as
you do not put public interest at stake.
Here is a list of issues concerning the politics of kinship.

Explore!
What are the positive and negative effects of politics created by kinship?
How does kinship affect power allocation in Filipino society?
114
Try it!
Give at least one example for each Filipino value enumerated below:




debt of gratitude (utangnaloob)
shame (hiya)
the act of yielding to the majority of the kin group (pakikisama)
competition for greater status (palakasan)
What do you think?
Is it possible for Philippine society to eliminate bad politics created by kinship?
Keypoints
 Kinship is a system of a culture of recognized family roles and relationships that define the
rights, obligations, and boundaries of an interactions of members of a self-recognizing group.
 A social network is a social structure comprised of individuals joined by a particular pattern
of links or relations.
 A political dynasty is the concentration, consolidation, or continuation of public office and
political power by persons related to each other.
 Alliance is a relationship between people, groups, or states that have joined for mutual
benefit or to achieve some common purpose, regardless if explicit agreement has been
worked out amongst them.
 The padrino system is the practice, among those with power or influence, of favoring
relatives or friends.
 Political activism is the way people participate or get involved in various political processes
to promote, impend, and raise awareness of an issue.
 Utangnaloob is a way of reciprocity of debt of gratitude to others within the family circle or
primary group.
 Hiya is the inability to say "no" to offers for the fear of what others will think, say, and do.
 Pakikisama is characterized by togetherness and allegiance to your group with a concern
for what others feel.
 Palakasan is a system wherein those in power compete to obtain special privileges and
exemptions from regulations by bending the rules of law for their kinship group.
115
Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions
Topics under this module
























Social Organizations: Groups within Society (Primary and Secondary)
Social Organizations: In-group and Out-Group
Social Organizations: Reference Groups
Social Organizations: Networks
Social and Political Structures: Political Organizations
Social and Political Structures: Authority and Legitimacy
Economic Institutions: Reciprocity
Economic Institutions: Transfers
Economic Institutions: Redistribution
Economic Institutions: Market Transactions
Economic Institutions: Markets and State
Nonstate Institutions: Banks and Corporations
Nonstate Institutions: Cooperatives and Trade Unions
Nonstate Institutions: Transnational Advocacy Groups
Nonstate Institutions: Development Agencies
Nonstate Institutions: International Organizations
Education: Functions in Society
Religion and Belief Systems: Animism
Religion and Belief Systems: Monotheism and Polytheism
Religion and Belief Systems: Institutionalized Religions
Religion and Belief Systems: Separation of Church and State
Health: Culture-Specific Syndromes and Illnesses
Health: Diagnosis, Prevention, and Healing
Health as a Human Right
116
Social and Political Stratification
Topics under this module




Social Desirables
Social Mobility Systems
Social Inequalities
Global Inequalities
117
118
119
Social Desirables
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:




differentiate social from political stratification,
explain the meaning and characteristics of social desirables,
identify features of the systems of stratification, and
examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective.
Your financially-challenged friend is a service crew at a well-known fast food chain. The
management considers him as the best member in the area. One time, the owner came to visit the
store. Your friend was assigned to assist, but instead of successfully aiding the owner, he made
numerous mistakes and failures throughout the site visit.




In your perspective, what made your friend fail at such simple task?
Is there a difference in terms of power between the service crew and the owner?
Society is divided into several groups or classes that are different from each other in terms o
socioeconomic capability. In the previous example, it was clear that there was a difference in
social class between the worker and the owner, thus making interaction varied and
complicated.
This difference can be accounted by social desirables, a sociological concept that exists in
all societies.
Social and Political Stratification





The dictionary defines stratification as 'something that has been arranged into categories.'
Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a social
system.
Examples: wealth, status, prestige, and privilege
Political stratification is best explained as the extent to which such inequalities are
enclosed in, or influenced by, political structures and processes.
Examples: involving influence, authority, or power
The Meaning and Characteristics of Social Desirables
Social desirables are factors that affect social stratification. A social hierarchy exists because of the
unequal distribution of social desirables—property, power, and prestige—in a society where the
larger population of financially-challenged individuals have less social desirables than the smaller
group of rich people.
The following describes each social desirable:
120



property" income-producing assets that people own (e.g. real estate) that increase financial
wealth
power: the capacity to influence individuals or activities to achieve wealth and prestige
prestige: an individual’s status among his peers in society
These three factors dictate one’s place in society. Ideally, the greater social desirable a person has
denotes a higher position in society. Because social desirables come hand in hand, more top class
people become well-known and influential in society and, as such, are treated with greater care and
professionalism.
Examples:



Service quality in high-end restaurants significantly differ from casual dining venues.
In significant societal functions, good seats are usually reserved for high-ranking individuals.
People quickly follow trends set by powerful and influential people.
The Role of Social Desirables in a Functionalist Perspective




In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in reaching
social equilibrium and balance.
Social desirables serve as rewards for fulfilling certain social goals.
Inequality is seen as universal and, therefore, allows unequal distribution of power, prestige,
and property without disrupting the social structure.
The most important positions in society are rewarded the most.
The Role of Social Desirables in a Conflict Perspective




A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant competition
for scarce resources.
Inequality greatly exists in a society that drives people to compete for resources, resulting to
social change and continuous conflict.
People with social desirables are given more importance and priority than ordinary workers
and individuals.
Social desirables dictate how one should be treated in a society of inequality.
Explore!
Nowadays, people who have power, prestige, and property are not limited to politicians or
businesspeople. They extend to local and international celebrities who were found to be hugely
influential especially among young populations.
Being part of the youth yourself, how do think these celebrities influence your peers? Do they affect
you positively or negatively?
Try it!
List down ten people you know. These may be celebrities, relatives, friends, or anyone you know.
On a sheet of paper, create three columns and label them "Higher", "Middle", and "Lower"
respectively. Try to categorize the names you have identified into one of the categories you have
made. Note that a person may only fall under one category. Once you have already categorized all
names, identify the reasons why you placed them in your chosen category.
What do you think?
Can all social desirables be passed on from one generation to another? Why? Why not?
Tips


Social class may change depending on social desirables. For instance, if a poor person won
big in the lottery and managed to develop successful businesses from his winnings, then he
is most likely to belong to a higher class than he did before.
Power, prestige, and property do not necessarily need to be at high levels at the same time.
A person, for example, may have power or influence at societal issues but do not necessarily
have properties at par with businesspeople, yet he remains to be at a high social position.
121
Keypoints





Social stratification refers to the kind and degree of distribution of resources within a social
system while political stratification is best understood as the extent to which such
inequalities are encapsulated in, or influenced by, political structures and processes.
Social desirables are factors that influence social stratification.
A social hierarchy exists because of the unequal distribution of social desirables in a
society where the larger population of financially-challenged individuals have less social
desirables than the smaller group of rich people.
In a functionalist society, all social elements are seen as contributing factors in reaching
social equilibrium and balance.
A conflict perspective views the attainment of social desirables as a constant competition
for scarce resources.
Social Mobility Systems
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:


examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspectives, and
identify characteristics of the systems of stratification.



What is social mobility?
What role does it play in society?
Society has always consisted of different classes that are usually set apart by socioeconomic
factors. However social and financial resources are not always the basis for defining social
class. There are various systems involved in social stratification, two of which will be
highlighted in this lesson.

Social Mobility and its Systems

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one social status to another.
A movement may be vertical—going up or down the social hierarchy, or horizontal—simply
changing a social role within the same social class. Oftentimes, social status is seen as
mainly dependent upon socioeconomic factors like power, prestige, and wealth. However, in
some cases, status is determined by cultural or spiritual norms. These variations only specify
that social mobility may also involve systems that may or may not be open to social change.
Social mobility may also be looked into in terms of generational factors.
An intragenerational mobility specifies the vertical or horizontal movement of social status
in the course of one’s lifespan. A man who was poor as a child but became rich as an adult
is an example of this.
On the other hand, intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of social status
across several generations. In this case, a man may be able to live a high-status, lavish life
because of the hardwork of his poor grandparents as blue-collared workers and the
perseverance of his middle-class parents to finish a college degree, eventually uplifting the
financial status of their family and allowing their children to live better lives.



Meaning and Types of Social Mobility Systems
A social mobility system may be an open or closed system. As expected, an open system is less
constrictive compared to a closed one. Below are their descriptions.
Open System



This is composed of achieved statuses where social status is gained through merit or effort.
Its members have access to different resources depending upon their social status.
No formal restrictions on marriage across classes is emphasized.
122

Social mobility is possible.
Example: class system
Closed System





This is composed of ascribed statuses where societal membership is defined upon or prior to
birth.
Its members strictly follow spiritual and cultural norms as a way of life.
Mobility from one group to another is not possible.
Decision-making is also based on cultural and spiritual norms.
At present, it is greatly implemented in some parts of India.
Example: caste system
Social Mobility Systems: Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives
Social stratification involves various perspectives such as the functionalist and conflict points of view.
In a functionalist view of stratification, all factors involved within the social structure are seen as
functional aspects that maintain social balance and equilibrium.
Meanwhile, a conflict perspective of stratification implies that society is in constant conflict,
especially with the distribution of resources, due to the existence of inequality where higher-ranking
people are given priority and importance than lower ones.
Social Inequality and the Social Mobility System
Inequality between open and closed systems must be seen as different in terms of underlying
factors. Inequalities in an open system would involve socioeconomic concerns.
Meanwhile, inequalities in a closed system may involve power and cultural relations. Responding to
such inequalities in a closed system would be relatively unsuccessful compared to responding in an
open system.
Explore!
It is not easy for people who are part of the caste system to change from one status to another. As
mentioned previously, social status is ascribed at birth in a closed system. Usually, children inherit
123
the status of their parents or grandparents. If you were part of the caste system, would you have
opportunities for personal growth?
Try it!
Go online and visit a video streaming website. Watch several videos that distinguishes between the
class and caste system. Some helpful keywords you may use are: “Caste vs. Class System,” “Open
and Closed System,” or “Caste and Class System.” In some videos, you will see actual activities
done within each system. Try to list as many observations as you can. Once finished, create your
own description of each system based on what you have listed down.
What do you think?
Can a class system shift to a caste system, and vice versa? Why? Why not?
Keypoints






Social mobility is the horizontal or vertical movement from one social status to another by
individuals or groups.
Intragenerational mobility specifies a vertical or horizontal movement of social status in the
course of one’s lifespan.
Intergenerational mobility refers to movement of social status across several generations.
A class system is an open system where status is achieved from merit or effort.
A *caste system *is a closed system where membership is ascribed at birth.
Social inequality is evident in both systems; however, it is the class system that can easily
address and resolve these inequalities.
Social Inequalities
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:




explain the different forms of capital and their contributions to social inequalities,
discuss some relevant issues involving minority groups,
identify characteristics of the systems of stratification, and
examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective.
You applied for a summer job at a small business unit. Because of your excellent communication
and logical thinking skills, you quickly passed all interviews and got the job. However, during the job
offer, the HR manager informed you that because of your gender and the province you live in, your
salary will be ₱3,000 less than normal.


Was there some form of inequality in the abovementioned situation?
With which social group do such inequalities occur?
Learn about it!
Because of the existence of a dominant culture, practice, or norm, less-recognized sectors have
become evidently discriminated against in different aspects of life and society. Like the given
example, unequal treatment in various forms may occur in any setting and may be made for even
the slightest reasons.
Social, Political, and Cultural Capital
124
Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. The misconception is that
capital only consists of financial value, but according to Bourdieu, capital can take three forms—
social, political, and cultural. These forms of capital initiate and significantly contribute to social
inequalities.
Social Capital


It is a network of mutual relationships within a particular social group.
It deals with interactions that strengthen group solidarity.
Political Capital


It involves passing on public political policies to build up "goodwill" with the public.
Public goodwill may be utilized whenever socially controversial policies or bills need to be
approved without damaging public interest for politicians.
Cultural Capital


It is an accumulation and sharing of symbolic elements of society (e.g. skill, language,
mannerism) within a specific social class.
It may be embodied by a person, objectified by tangible materials, or institutionalized by
qualifications or titles.
Minority Groups
Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that experience
disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts. Minority groups are
characterized by distinct physical or cultural traits, unequal social treatment, subordination in society,
and high-level of group solidarity.
Some relevant issues involving minority groups:
Gender Inequality


In some countries, women are paid relatively lower than men due to their sexuality and
biological differences.
The LGBT community has always been treated differently and discriminatively because they
do not fall within a biologically-defined group.
Ethnic Minorities


Because some minorities live traditionalistic lives far away from the city and technology, and
some may appear differently than usual, they have been consistently labelled and treated as
people with minimal knowledge and capabilities.
Lack of resources easily available for many are not utilized within their group, thus, they
receive negative attention from the dominant public.
Other Minorities


This may include people with disabilities or people with religions that are less prevalent in
society.
These minorities experience discrimination at work, especially when the physically
challenged have physical limitations, while the religious have practices and beliefs that are
greatly disagreed upon by the majority.

Minority Groups in Functionalist and Conflict Societies

The existence of minority groups in functionalist and conflict societies are also embedded in
each type of society’s principles.
In functionalist societies, minorities also play social roles that contribute to social balance
and equilibrium. However, these functions are bound by limitations and social norms.

125

In conflict societies, minority groups are seen as lower class individuals that will not be able
to keep up with the consistent competition occurring within the environment. In both
societies, discrimination against minorities is possible.
Explore!
Even at their young age, school-age children experience acculturation by a dominant society that
looks down on people who fall below prevailing standards. These are evidenced by bullying
incidences occurring among various ages and groups. Tolerance for “simple” bullying reasons like
skin color, tone of voice, or physical deformity trains children to think of society as hierarchical rather
than equal. This phenomenon continues to grow abruptly even up to this day. If you ever become a
parent, how would you let your child address these concerns?
Try it!
Based on your knowledge of history, list down significant social inequalities that occurred across
various nations in the past. You may do further research. At the end of the exercise, try to evaluate
the current treatment of the same nation to its people.
What do you think?
Is there a need for social inequalities to be resolved? Why? Why not?
Tips


At all times, the minority will be the one to experience social inequalities since the standards
are set and fulfilled by the dominant group or the majority.
As emphasized, unequal treatment for minorities may be seen across different forms of
capital. These inequalities may occur in society all at the same time.
Keypoints




Capital is accumulated labor that can produce profits or expand in form. It may involve
social, political, and cultural capital.
Minority groups are groups composed of less-dominant classifications in a society that
experience disproportionately lower opportunities than their dominant counterparts.
Social inequality may occur based on gender, religion, ethnicity, or physical capability.
In both functionalist and conflict societies, minority groups are treated unequally
compared to the dominant group
Global Inequalities
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:





explain the relationships between states and non-state actors in the global community;
discuss the meaning and characteristics of global inequality;
examine stratification in the functionalist and conflict perspective;
comment on implications of global inequality in developing nations; and
suggest ways to address global inequalities.
The Philippines is rich in natural resources and human capital. Every province in the country is
abrupt with export-quality products and raw materials that are recognized from all over the world.
Resources are continuously maintained, and production is abundant.
Imagine if we were the only country in the world to supply raw materials to every nation. What
implications can it bring to our country and other countries, especially those less developed than us?
By just looking at the environment, it can already be seen that inequality exists in all forms. Some
are just at the personal or micro level, while some, like the example above, become national
concerns. In this lesson, the macro perspective of inequality will be discussed.
126
Relationship Between State and Non-state Actors in
the Global Community
The state is the institution implementing the functions of the government.
A non-state actor is an individual or organization that has powerful economic, political, and social
power but is not allied with any particular country or state.
As influential persons or groups, the non-state actor has the capability to influence decision-making
in any national, or even international, concern. The state recognizes the value of non-state actors in
the achievement and implementation of goals in the national and global community.
The Meaning and Characteristics of Global Inequality
Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of nations, as
influenced by non-state actors, significantly affecting the living and economic conditions of nonparticipating countries. It is usual that resources will be centered on developed countries. Because of
this, developing and poor countries will have to buy these resources from richer countries, making
the cost of living greater while keeping the economic condition and opportunities the same.
This will lead to poorer quality of life and less special opportunities for developing countries. A
relevant concept involved in global inequality is global stratification, the unequal distribution of
social gaps across nations that are usually seen on the ratio between some deaths versus some live
births per capita as well as life expectancy. This concept describes the quality of life and socioeconomic capabilities of nations to support such lives.
Examples:



Locally-produced goods that have imported ingredients will still be priced higher.
Salaries for the same job titles in two economically different countries will be significantly
different.
The risk for social inequality between a developing country’s classes may become greater.
Global Stratification in Functionalist and Conflict
Perspectives
Functionalist Perspective


Global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining continued health and viability of all
populations.
Positive reasons are considered for the existence of global inequalities.
Conflict Perspective


Global stratification allows for capable nations to compete for limited resources.
Healthier, more organized nations have greater chances of acquiring goods or materials.
Implications
Nations
of
Global
Inequality
in
Developing
The world has become “wealthier” since 2001, but according to research, 71% of the total
population own only 3% of the global wealth. European and Western countries handle the rest of the
wealth. In projection, less developed countries will have fewer opportunities and capabilities in the
years to come. At 97% of the total global wealth, these rich countries may quickly acquire resources
available to African and Asian countries. Having an inverse relationship, the more developed these
countries get, the poorer the developing countries will be.
Addressing Global Inequalities
Because global inequalities are at the macro-level, it is also emphasized that they are focused on
the same way.
127
Below are some methods by which global inequalities may be addressed:




Ownership of properties and inclusiveness of the lower class
Inclusive partnership across nations that focus on technological advancements and
innovations
Revise taxation plans, ensuring lower taxes for poorer people
Monitoring and stopping labor abuse through higher wages, fewer work hours, bonuses,
health benefits, and non-contractualization.
Explore!
Global inequalities have existed and developed over the years. It has been greatly evident in through
the deterioration of living conditions among presently developing countries that have once been
centers of culture and history of the world. In your perspective, what factors contributed to these
drastic changes?
Try it!
Have you been to another country? If yes, then try to compare that country with the Philippines.
Remember what you observed: the people, their culture, qualities, and norms in society. List the
differences you found and determine the socio-economic impact of that country to the Philippines. If
you have been to multiple countries, you may choose to compare all of them. However, if you have
never been to another country before, you may search the internet regarding a preferred country and
try to compare it with the Philippines.
What do you think?
Can global inequality realistically be lessened? Why? Why not?
Tips


Unlike social inequalities, global inequalities look at the macro level and therefore focuses on
nations and societies as a whole and not on individuals.
Other social factors such as social desirables and social inequalities may also play a role in
the continuity and existence of global inequalities.
Key Points




Global Inequalities involve the concentration of resources among a select number of
nations, significantly affecting the living and economic conditions of non-participating
countries.
Global stratification is the unequal distribution of social gaps across nations that are
usually seen on the ratio between the number of deaths versus the number of live births per
capita as well as life expectancy.
In a functionalist society, global stratification is seen as a method of maintaining continued
health and viability of all populations.
A conflict perspective views global stratification as allowing for capable nations to compete
for limited resources.
128
129