SAMPLING
TYPES
PALEN
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Involves random selection, allowing you to make
strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Involves non-random selection based on convenience
or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
POPULATION
VS.
SAMPLE
The population is the entire group that you want to draw
conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of individuals whom you will
collect data from.
The population can be defined in terms of geographical
location, age, income, or many other characteristics.
It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want to make
inferences about the whole adult population of your country;
maybe your research focuses on customers of a certain
company, patients with a specific health condition, or students
in a single school.
It is important to carefully define your target population
according to the purpose and practicalities of your project.
SAMPLING FRAME
The sampling frame is the actual list of
individuals whom the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target
population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).
SAMPLE SIZE
The number of individuals you should include in
your sample depends on various factors, including the
size and variability of the population and your research
design. There are different sample size calculators and
formulas depending on what you want to achieve with
statistical analysis.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
This means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in
quantitative research. If you want to produce results
that are representative of the whole population,
probability sampling techniques are the most valid
choice.
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
In a simple random sample, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. Your
sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely
on chance.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
TYPES
OF
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES FOR
SUBJECTS
In research, subjects are individuals or units
that are being studied. Sampling techniques
are methods used to select a representative
subset of subjects from a larger population.
Here are some common types of sampling
techniques for subjects:
Random Sampling:
This is the simplest and most widely used
sampling technique, where each subject in the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
It eliminates the possibility of bias and ensures
the sample is representative of the population.
Stratified Sampling:
In this technique, the population is divided into
strata or subgroups based on a characteristic, such as
age, gender, or socioeconomic status. A sample is then
selected from each stratum in proportion to its size.
This technique ensures that the sample accurately
represents the diversity of the population.
Cluster Sampling:
In this technique, the population is divided into
clusters, such as geographical regions or schools. A
sample of clusters is selected, and then all individuals
within those clusters are included in the sample. This
technique is useful when it is difficult or impractical to
obtain a complete list of individuals in the population.
Systematic Sampling:
In this technique, a sample is selected by
choosing every nth individual in the population. The
starting point is chosen randomly, and the interval is
calculated by dividing the population size by the
sample size. This technique is efficient and easy to
implement.
Convenience Sampling:
In this technique, subjects are selected based on
convenience or availability. This technique is often
used in pilot studies or exploratory research, but it is
subject to bias and may not be representative of the
population.
The sampling technique is appropriate
for the research question and the population
being studied. A combination of different
sampling techniques can also be used to
improve
the
representativeness
accuracy of the sample.
and
-EndThis Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
PARTS
OF
THE RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
Jayme and Jonna fee
WHAT IS RESEARCH/THESIS?
Research is the systematic approach to
obtaining and confirming new and reliable
knowledge
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal's purpose is to capture the evaluator's
attention, demonstrate the study's potential benefits, and prove
that it is a logical and consistent approach (Van Ekelenburg,
2010). To ensure that your research proposal contains these
elements, there are several aspects to include in your proposal
(Al-Riyami, 2008):
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND
A THESIS?
A thesis is a report that a student writes as part of their degree studies that
describes a research project that they have carried out. It can be at Bachelor,
Master, or Ph.D. level.
Thesis proposal or research proposal is a document that a student presents to their
university in order to be allowed to start working on a thesis. It describes the
question to be answered by the research, the methods to be used, why the
question is important and other information to demonstrate that it will be a
worthwhile research project.
THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH
The process is initiated with a question or problem
The next step is to formulate goals or objectives to deal with the
problem
The third step in the process is research design
The fourth step that is generating research results
Additionally, the last step is to interpret results and draw conclusions
PART OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Objective(s)
Variables (independent and dependent)
Research Question and/or hypothesis
Methodology
PROSANA MODEL
Van Ekelenburg (2010) uses the PROSANA Model to guide
researchers in developing rationale and justification for their research
projects.
It is an acronym that connects the problem, solution, and
benefits of a particular research project. It is an easy way to remember
the critical parts of a research proposal and how they relate to one
another. It includes the following letters (Van Ekelenburg, 2010):
• PROBLEM: Describing the main problem that the researcher is trying to solve.
• ROOT CAUSES: Describing what is causing the problem. Why is the topic an issue?
• FOCUS: Narrowing down one of the underlying causes on which the researcher will focus
for their research project.
• SOLUTIONS: List potential solutions or approaches to fix the problem. There could be
more than one.
• APPROACH: Select the solution that the researcher will want to focus on.
• NOVELTY: Describing how the solution will address or solve the problem.
• ARGUMENTS: Explaining how the proposed solution will benefit the problem.
TITLE OF YOUR PROPOSAL
a) Have the most important words appear toward the beginning
of your title
b) Limit the use of ambiguous or confusing words.
c) Breaking your title up into a title and subtitle when you have
too many words. d) Include keywords that will help you in the
future find your work.
Research proposal titles should be concise and to the point, but informative. The title of your
proposal may be different from the title of your final research project, but that is completely
normal!
Your findings may help you come up with a title that is more fitting for the final
project. Characteristics of good proposal titles are (Al-Riyami, 2008):
• Catchy: It catches the reader's attention by piquing their interest.
• Positive: It spins your project in a positive way toward the reader.
• Transparent: It identifies the independent and dependent variables.
It is also common for proposal titles to be very similar to your research question, hypothesis,
or thesis statement (Locke et al., 2007).
ABSTRACT
An abstract is a brief summary (about 300 words) of the study you
are proposing. It includes the following elements (Al-Riyami, 2008):
Your primary research question(s).
Hypothesis or main argument.
Method you will use to complete the study.
This may include the
design, sample population, or measuring instruments that you plan to
use.
INTRODUCTION:
a) Statement of the problem should be accompanied by a
presentation of the background of the problem (information
required for an understanding of the problem) including a
justification for the study ( in terms of its contribution to theory
or practice).
The purpose of the introduction is to give readers background
information about your topic. it gives the readers a basic understanding
of your topic so that they can further understand the significance of your
proposal. A good introduction will explain (Al-Riyami, 2008):
How it relates to other research done on the topic
Why your research is significant to the field
The relevance of your study
OBJECTIVES
Your research objectives are the desired outcomes that you will achieve from
the research project. Depending on your research design, these may be generic or
very specific. You may also have more than one objective (Al-Riyami, 2008).
General objectives are what the research project will accomplish
Specific objectives relate to the research questions that the researcher aims to
answer through the study.
Be careful not to have too many objectives in your proposal, as having too
many can make your project lose focus. Plus, it may not be possible to achieve
several objectives in one study.
VARIABLES
This section describes the different types of variables that you plan to have in your study and how you will
measure them. According to Al-Riyami (2008), there are four types of research variables:
 Independent: The person, object, or idea that is manipulated by the researcher.
 Dependent: The person, object, or idea whose changes are dependent upon the independent
variable. Typically, it is the item that the researcher is measuring for the study.
 Confounding/Intervening: Factors that may influence the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable. These include physical and mental barriers. Not every study will have intervening variables, but they
should be studied if applicable.
 Background: Factors that are relevant to the study's data and how it can be generalized. Examples include
demographic information such as age, sex, and ethnicity.
Your research proposal should describe each of
your
variables
and
how
they
relate
to
one
another. Depending on your study, you may not have
all four types of variables present. However, there will
always be an independent and dependent variables.
RESEARCH QUESTION
A research question is the main piece of your research project because
it explains what your study will discover to the reader. It is the question that
fuels the study, so it is important for it to be precise and unique. You do not
want it to be too broad, and it should identify a relationship between two
variables (an independent and a dependent) (Al-Riyami, 2008). There are six
types of research questions (Academic Writer, n.d.):
Existence questions: Refers to a phenomenon, concept, behavior, action, or
condition.
 Example: "Do people get nervous before speaking in front of an audience?"
Description and classification questions: Aims to find out how much a particular
concept, phenomenon, or condition applies to a specific population or group.
 Example: "What are the study habits of college freshmen at Tiffin University?"
Composition questions: Ask about the specific elements that make up a concept,
behavior, action, or condition.
 Example: "What primary traits create a successful romantic relationship?"
Relationship questions: Asks whether there is a relationship or association between two
concepts or objects.
 Example: "Is there a relationship between a child's performance in school and their parent’s
socioeconomic status?"
Descriptive-Comparative questions: Asks whether one object or idea is different from
another. Typically, each group has a characteristic that distinguishes it from the other
group, such as age, sex, or socioeconomic status.
 Example: "Are high school seniors more motivated than high school freshmen?"
Causality questions: Asks whether one thing impacts or causes another thing.
 Example: "Do news media outlets impact a person's political opinions?"
HYPOTHESES VS. THEORIES
Hypotheses are different from theories in that theories represent
general
principles
and
sets
of
rules
that
explain
different
phenomena. They typically represent large areas of study because they
are applicable to anything in a particular field. Hypotheses focus on
specific areas within a field and are educated guesses, meaning that they
have the potential to be proven wrong (Academic Writer, n.d.). Because
of this, hypotheses can also be formed from theories.
METHODOLOGY
In a research proposal, you must thoroughly explain how you will conduct your
study. This includes things such as (Al-Riyami, 2008):
• Research design: What research approach will your study take? Will it be
quantitative or qualitative?
• Research subjects/participants: Who will be participating in your study? Does
your study require human participants? How will you determine who to study?
• Sample size: How many participants will your study require? If you are not using
human participants, how much of the sample will you be studying?
• Timeline: A proposed list of the general tasks and events that you plan to
complete the study. This will include a time frame for each task/event and
the order in which they will be completed.
• Interventions: If you plan on using anything on human participants for the
study, you must include information here. This is especially important if you
plan on using any substances on human subjects.
• Ethical issues: Are there any potential ethical issues surrounding this study?
• Potential limitations: Are there any limitations that could skew the data and findings from your
study?
• Appendixes: If you need to present any consent forms, interview questions, surveys, questionnaires,
or other items that will be used in your study, you should include samples of each item with an
appendix to reference them. If you are using a copyrighted document, you may need written
permission from the original creator to use it in your study. A copy of the written permission should
be included in your proposal.
• Setting: Where will you be conducting the study?
• Study instruments: What measuring tools or computer software will you be using to collect
data? How will you collect the data?
• How you will analyze the data: What strategies or tools will you use to analyze the data you
collect?
• Quality control: Will you have precautions in place to ensure that the study
is conducted consistently and that outside factors will not skew the data?
• Budget: What type of funding will you need for your study? This will include
the funds needed to afford to measure tools, software, etc.
• How you will share the study's findings: What will you plan to do with the
findings?
• Significance of the study: How will your study expand on existing
knowledge of the subject area?
-EndThis Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
FORMAT I N WRITING A
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
GUYO & CAHILIG
here are some guide questions for format in
writinga research proposal
A) Title page
Agusan Colleges Inc.
M.H Del Pilar Street, Butuan City
Agusan del Norte, Philippines
Effects o f Blended Learning o f College Students in
Agusan Colleges Incorporated
(Author's
name)
The title,
author, and
institution
are centered
in the upper
half of the
page
All pages in the paper, including the title page, are numbered
consecutively in the upper right hand corner of the header, 0.5”
from the top and flush with the right margin
1
Recent e f f o r t s t o co n d u ct comprehensive herpetological surveys o f t h e various
islands o f t h e Philippines have provi ded a near-complete estimation o f t h e amphibian
and reptile diversity and endemism o f several islands, mountain ranges, o r o t h e r
conspicuous geographical subcenters o f diversity in t h e n o r t h e r n reaches o f t h e
archipelago (Brown e t al. 2013a).
APA-style citations should have all of the
authors, publication date,
All margins – top, bottom, left,
and right are set to 1” throughout
the paper.
Font:
Acceptable fonts are
either 12 font size, Times
New Roman
Spacing:
The paper is double-spaced
throughout, including the title page,
all quotes, notes, and reference
pages.
Should have the following in order format:
or 12font size, Courier New
The proposal should be
around 3 pages long
I. Title page
I I . I n t r o d u c t i o n and Background
III. Significance o f t h e s t udy
IV. Review o f related literature
V. Research Methodology
VI. Bibliography o r References
A) Title page
Should include:
i. Title
- Should be a reflection of the contents of the document
- Fully explanatory when standing alone
- Should not contain redundancies such as a
study of…..or ‘an
-investigation of...
- Abbreviations should n o t appear in the title
- Scientific names should be in italics
- Should contain n o more than 20 words
ii. Author’s name and affiliation
- Preferred order o f names- start with 1st, middle followed by
last name
- Full names should be used, initials should be avoided
• - Titles like Dr. should n o t appear in the names
B. Introduction and Background
-whatarethe research problem,research question,andpurpose of the study?
-whatisthe rationale of the study? whyisanswering the question important?
-what isyour thesisstatement?
C. Significance of the study
-whyyour research wasneeded?
-howwill others benefit fromyour study?
-whatisthe contribution andimpactof the study to the research field?
D. Reviewof related literature
-list your primaryand secondarysources
-consists of anoverview,asummary,andanevaluation (“critique”)of the current
state of knowledgeabout aspecific areaof research
g
E. Research methodology
Youshould provideanoutlineof:
-theoretical resources
-research approach (theoretical framework)
-researchmethods appropriate for the proposed research
-adiscussion of advantagesaswell aslimitsof particular methods
F. Bibliography
• You should include:
• -alist of references to keyarticles and texts discussed within your research
proposal
• -aselection of sources appropriate to the proposed research
-EndThis Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY