i
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE
Employee Social and Cultural Factors on their Work Attitudes
and Job Satisfaction in Commercial Banks of Ethiopia, Harar
Town, Harari People Regional State
MA Research Proposal
Eleni Simeneh
College:
Department:
Program:
Major Advisor:
Co-Advisor:
Social Sciences and Humanities
Sociology
MA in Sociology
Gutema Imana (PhD)
June 2021
Haramaya University, Haramaya
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CBE
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
CSO
Customer Service Officer
FGD
Focus Group Discussion
HR
Human Resource
OB
Organizational Behavior
PDM
Participatory Decision Making
SCSO
Senior Customer Service Officer
SCV
Social and Cultural Values
WWW
World Wide Web
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
Table 1: Population, Sampling Size and Technique
34
Table 2: Work Plan
38
Table 3: Research Budget Breakdown
39
iii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
31
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ii
LIST OF TABLES
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
iv
1. INTRODUCTION
1
1.1.
Background of the Study
1
1.2.
Statement of the Problem
3
1.3.
Research Questions
5
1.4.
Objectives of the Study
5
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
General Objective
5
Specific Objectives
5
1.5.
Significance of the Study
6
1.6.
Delimitation of the Study
6
1.7.
Operational Definition of Key Terms
7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
8
2.1.
Employee Attitudes
8
2.2.
Workplace Attitudes
9
2.2.1.
Positive Effects Workplace Attitude
10
2.2.2.
Negative Effects of Workplace Attitude
11
2.3.
Job Satisfaction
13
2.3.1.
Job Satisfaction as a Positive Employee Attitude
15
2.3.2.
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
16
2.4. The Effects of Social and Culture Values towards Employee Work Attitude and Job
Satisfaction
17
2.4.1.
Employee Religion
17
2.4.2.
Employee Value System
20
2.4.3.
Employee Language
24
2.4.4.
Personality Traits
28
2.5.
Conceptual Framework
31
3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1.
Description of the Study Area
32
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Continues…
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3.2.
Research Design
32
3.3.
Sources of Data
33
3.4.
Population of the Study, Sample Technique, and Sampling Size
33
3.5.
Data Collection Instruments
35
3.5.1. Questionnaire
35
3.5.2. Interview Guides
35
3.6. Data Collection Procedures
36
3.7.
Method of Data Analysis
36
3.8.
Ethical Considerations
37
4. WORK PLAN AND BUDGET
38
4.1.
Work Plan
38
4.2.
Budget Breakdown
39
5. REFERENCES
40
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1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter tries to present the background to the study, statement of the problem, the purpose
of the study, research questions, the objectives of the study, significance of the study, the
limitations and delimitations of the study, and definition of operational terms.
1.1.
Background of the Study
Society and culture have an impact on every aspect of the overseas business of an organization.
Society and culture appear as key elements in shaping how the business is managed, from what
goods are produced, and how and through what means they will be sold, to the establishment
of managerial and operational patterns and the determination of the success or failure of foreign
subsidiaries. Consequently, organizations should be aware of the predominant attitudes,
values, and beliefs of multicultural employees if they do function well and achieve their goals.
Differences in attitudes in workplaces resulted from socio-cultural values among management
of an organization and its employees can contribute to serious functional problems (Ajami, et
al, 2006).
The socio-cultural environment is important for an organization. Various socio-cultural factors
significantly affect the economic activity as well as the performance of an organization. The
key socio-cultural factors that have a major impact on the attitudes of employees in a given
organization are (Trehan & Trehan, 2009): culture; language; religion; level of education, and
customer preferences.
Sociocultural values (SCV) which a society maintains continue to remain strong among
workers despite all its conflicting values with organizational culture. Different values are
transferred to the workplace consciously or unconsciously. It is also expected by any society
that each one should be the other one keeper and care about each one at the workplace as we
are one people. A work environment where these values are not recognized will likely have a
negative effect on employee’s work attitudes and job satisfaction.
According to Pirraglia (2017) when corporate culture meets ethnic culture, there is always an
effect, which could either be positive or harmful to job satisfaction.
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There is strong evidence in the literature that the impact of culture on work attitudes should be
investigated (Wang, Lawler, Walumbwa, & Shi, 2004). Interestingly, a consistent body of
literature has also identified differences in levels of satisfaction among employees and across
cultures (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1985). The basis for this
thinking is that people who, for some reason, their existing organizational culture and policies
prevent them from upholding or practicing their cultural values, are likely to be dissatisfied
with their jobs and also see their work environment to be unfriendly. Thus, employees expect
management to factor their cultural values into the organizational values to make the work
setting more accommodating.
Although every organization has its own common values and codes of conduct that guide
employees’ behavior at the workplace, it is believed that organizations that consider the
societal values in which it is located are more likely to survive. Sagiv and Schwartz (2007) in
their study made this assertion very clear by illustrating a significant relationship between
organizations and the societal culture where cultural values within a society have a direct and
indirect influence on the function of employees within an organization. Given this, the
individual’s own SCV which is embedded in them may also be transferred to the workplace
consciously or unconsciously, hence when the attention not given may influence employees’
work attitude (job satisfaction) level, which generated the researchers’ interest. These effects
could be positive or negative.
The fundamental argument in many pieces of research is that SCV demonstrated at the
workplace, by employees, could influence work attitude either positively or negatively.
Nevertheless, these have not been examined. It is again argued that employees’ cultural values
when not embraced at work may create resistance to the initiative and a feeling of
belongingness, which in turn, leads to negative work attitudes or positive work attitudes.
The history of the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) dates back to its establishment in
Ethiopia in 1942. It was established to perform major banking functions, including accepting
saving, demand, and time deposits; providing short-medium, and long term loans; buying and
selling foreign exchanges; buying and selling negotiable instruments and securities issued by
the government, private, or any other person; and engaging in other banking activities
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customarily carried out by commercial banks. In doing so, it is being operated in every part of
the country where its customers and staff come from different socio-cultural backgrounds. Due
to its broad market focus, CBE has a culturally diverse workforce in all of its areas of operation.
It is, therefore, this study will examine the socio-cultural factors such as religion, language and
value system, and personality traits of employees that affect the work attitude and job
satisfaction of employees Commercial Banks of Ethiopia located in Harar.
1.2.
Statement of the Problem
Employee’s attitude towards work is directly linked to job satisfaction. An employee who is
satisfied with his job performs better and excels at what he does. The work attitudes that
influence the satisfaction level of employees are related to socio-cultural values where an
employee has grown up. It is, therefore, imperative for an organization to understand the
attitude of its employees and measure the job satisfaction of its employees.
In the past, social-cultural factors were viewed with less importance since many organizations
focused more on maximizing profits and ignored the value of human resources. Over the years,
organizations have realized the need for social-cultural diversity due to the emerging
organizational challenges (Armstrong, 2009). Managing diversity recognizes that people can
bring fresh ideas and perceptions, which can make the way work is done more efficiently (Foot
& Hook, 2008). Many organizations handle employees and clients of different social-cultural
backgrounds, which is taken with consideration would be a base of tapping knowledge and
skills from different social-cultural groups and if not handled with attention would affect
attitude/satisfaction and therefore performance. As identified by Opoku (2016) SCV is the
cardinal cultural values at the workplace suggest that the work environment should be flexible
enough to embed these cultural values in the organizational values. Opoku emphasized
employees who value their families should be allowed to attend to family matters during
working hours when urgent matters arise.
Some researchers have also attributed employees’ satisfaction to their cultural values (Dorfman
& Howell, 1988). Although some studies have linked cultural values to some employees’ work
attitudes, they do not explain specifically which of the cultural values affect employees’ work
attitudes the most (Sommer, Bae, & Luthans, 1996).
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Anafarta (2011) revealed that this construct (SCV) has again received little or no attention
which needs much attention. Studies done on cultural values have mainly relied on Hofstede’s
(1980) cultural values. Hofstede revealed, for example, that Africans are said to be high on
dimensions’ power distance, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity,
which he described as cultural values. This he identified as cultural values in the existing
literature, which may not necessarily apply to this current generation of employees. Opoku’s
(2016) study has recently identified specific SCV, which influence employees’ work attitudes
(moral values/personality, language, cultural values, religious values, and communalism) and
are considered to be the cardinal values that are transferred to the workplace by employees.
Findings from Adams (2008) showed that incorporating religious values into work, for
example, allowing employees to say prayers at work, leads to employee’s perception of justice
at the workplace and increases their satisfaction. Another study by Ellison (1991) also showed
that people with higher religious attitudes have higher rates of life satisfaction and the totality
of all socio-cultural values influence the way individuals behave at the workplace. The
literature and conclusions from the scholars, however, fail to answer specific questions related
to the socio-cultural factors that negatively or positively affect the work attitude and job
satisfaction of employees. Most of the studies were focused on the performance of employees
giving much focus on motivation/satisfaction. This study will therefore focus on the social and
cultural factors that affect the work attitude of employees and job satisfaction.
The past studies have left gaps that the researcher would like to fill. To start with, many past
pieces of research have dealt more with the motivation/satisfaction of employees. This study
takes to notice that motivation is because of employee welfare. The welfare issue is directly
related to the socio-cultural makeup of the employees. Moreover, it seems that the previous
researches focusing exclusively on the effect of culture on organizational performance. While
much attention has been devoted to the impact of organizational cultural diversity in the
workforce, less attention has been given to issues associated with the socio-cultural
backgrounds of employees and its effect on work attitude and job satisfaction. More especially,
as far as the researcher’s knowledge is concerned, it seems that no studies have been carried
out on the effect of employee socio-cultural values on work attitude and job satisfaction in a
multicultural institution like CBE.
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This study is therefore to fill the knowledge gap by investigating how employee socio-cultural
values on work attitude and job satisfaction and to relate CBE more closely with their employee
socio-cultural background to retain his staff and enhance its optimal performance. It is,
therefore, this study will examine the socio-cultural factors such as religion, language value
system, and personality traits that affect the work attitude and job satisfaction of employees of
Commercial Banks of Ethiopia located in Harari Region, Harari Town.
1.3.
Research Questions
1.To what extent does language affect employee work attitude and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch?
2.In what ways does religion affect the work attitude of employees and their job
satisfaction in Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch?
3.What is the effect of the value system on employee work attitude and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch?
4.How do personality traits affect employee work attitude and their job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch?
1.4.
Objectives of the Study
1.4.1. General Objective
The main objective of this study is to assess the socio-cultural factors that affect the employees’
work attitude and job satisfaction in the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch.
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are to:
 establish how language affects employee work attitude and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch.
 determine how religion affects the work attitude of employees and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch
 find out how value systems the work attitude of employees and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch
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 establish how personality traits affect employee work attitude and job satisfaction in
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch.
1.5.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this research will be a major contribution that will provide a deeper
understanding of the relationships between SCV and work attitude, which will help manage,
understand and appreciate the specific values that influence job satisfaction to promote a
cordial working environment that increases job satisfaction. It is anticipated that the findings
will also provide baseline information on how SCV and work attitudes are related upon which
other researchers can build on. This report is useful to the management of CBE, Harar Branch
to know the satisfaction levels of its employees and it can take measures to increase
productivity. It will also be an input for policy and theory developers.
Additionally, the findings of the study would help to form a basis for formulating new
strategies to complement an organization’s efforts in the area of socio-cultural factors that
affect employees' work attitudes and job satisfaction. Finally, the findings will be used as input
for other professionals who are interested to make a further study in this area.
1.6.
Delimitation of the Study
To carry out any research work it is necessary to delimit the scope of the study to a manageable
size. To assess the socio-cultural factors that affect the employees’ work attitude and job
satisfaction, geographically, the study will be delimited in the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia,
Harar Main Branch. Although there is numerous literature on the socio-cultural factors that
affect the work attitude and job satisfaction of an employee, this research focuses on the
conceptual framework that consists of socio-cultural factors such as religion, culture, language,
and personality of employees. In terms of coverage, the study is delimited to the Commercial
Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch. Methodologically, this research is delimited to a
qualitative case study that consists of only qualitative approaches. The participants of this study
will also be managers, accountants, cashiers, auditors, and customer service officers who work
in the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, Harar Main Branch.
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1.7.
Operational Definition of Key Terms
Attitudes: Positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or events.
Culture: is a man’s medium that forms the human life of an individual.
Cultural Diversity: cultural diversity is the existence of diverse individuals from different
cultures or societies whose differences arise from language, religion, race, sexual orientation,
gender, age, and ethnicity.
Diversity: is the differences in race, gender, culture, class, ethnicity, physical ability, sexual
orientation, religion, and educational level of individuals.
Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its
characteristics.
Religion: an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to worship a god.
Value System: a coherent set of values adopted and/or evolved by a person, organization, or
society as a standard to guide its behavior in preferences in all situations.
.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.
Employee Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements either positive or negative about objects, people, or events.
They reflect how we feel about something. Specific attitudes tend to predict specific behaviors,
whereas general attitudes tend to predict general behaviors. For instance, asking an employee
about his/her intention to stay with an organization for the next six months is likely to better
predict turnover for that person than asking his/her how satisfied s/he is with his/her job. On
the other hand, overall job satisfaction would better predict a general behavior, such as whether
the employee is engaged in his/her work or motivated to contribute to his/her organization
(Hagedorn, 2000). In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior.
Employees may believe, for example, those supervisors, auditors, managers, and time andmotion engineers are all conspiring to make them work harder for the same or less money. This
may then lead to a negative attitude toward management when an employee is asked to stay
late and help on a special project.
On the other hand, Robbins (2003) defined attitudes as evaluative statements and they can be
either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or events. Therefore they reflect
how one feels about something. The favorable statements may provide positive effects
regarding the concerned object, person, or event whereas unfavorable statements may provide
negative effects. An attitude is a positive or negative feeling or mental state of readiness,
learned and organized through experience that exerts a specific influence on a person’s
response to people, objects, and situations.
This definition of attitude has certain implications for managers. First, attitudes are learned.
Second, attitudes define one’s predispositions toward given aspects of the world. Third,
attitudes provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identification with
others. Fourth, attitudes are organized and are closed to the core of personality.
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2.2.
Workplace Attitudes
Workplace attitudes can seriously jeopardize our capacity to complete our day-to-day tasks
and hamper our ability to cope with the complex nature of our position (Moran, 2006). The
main elements of culture that may have an impact on the operation of multicultural companies
are (Vasudeva, 2007).
A. Attitude and beliefs: In every place, there are norms of behavior based on attitudes and
beliefs that constitute a part of its culture. The attitudes and beliefs vary from place to place.
Multicultural companies face a different set of attitudes and beliefs of the culture in each
employee separately, and it influences all aspects of human behavior, providing organization
and directions to a society and its individuals. Identifying the difference in attitudes and beliefs
among various employees from different socio-cultural backgrounds helps multicultural
managers more easily understand people's behavior.
B. Attitude toward time: It refers to people’s behavior about punctuality, responses to
business communication, responses to deadlines, and the amount of time that they spent
waiting for an appointment. For instance, Americans are known to be punctual and the phrase
time is money exactly explains their attitude towards time. In contrast, people from other
countries may show more flexibility towards time. Analogically, multicultural operating in
various parts of the country should take into consideration these differences in attitudes
towards time.
C. Attitude toward work and leisure: There are differences in attitude towards work and
leisure among various countries. In some countries, people work much more hours than is
necessary to satisfy their basic needs of living. This attitude is indicative of their views towards
wealth and material gains.
D. Attitude toward achievement: Cultural diversity in the general attitudes towards work is
related to people's achievement motivation.
E. Attitude toward change: Multicultural organizations should anticipate a difference in
attitudes toward change between separate places. They should take into consideration some
key cultural issues, such as what aspects of a culture resist change, how the process of change
takes place in different parts of the country, how the areas of resistance differ among them,
and how long it takes time for implementing the same change.
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G. Attitude toward job: The importance of a certain profession in a country significantly
determines the number and quality of people who want and seek to join that profession.
Consequently, if the business is considered a prestigious occupation in some parts of the
country, multicultural organizations will have at their disposal a broader pool of nearby
professionals.
According to Moran (2006), workplace attitudes can have positive and/or negative effects on
employees’ job satisfaction.
2.2.1. Positive Effects Workplace Attitude
A. It reduces daily stress
Workplace stress is a genuine and growing problem. To find a resolution, it starts by
understanding what is causing the stress in the first place. Before we think that we need to
spend a huge sum of our HR budget on this matter, all we need to do is monitor the workplace
for a few days.
If we compare the stress levels between someone who is always looking at the bright side of
life and someone who only sees darkness at the end of the tunnel, we notice a significant chasm.
It makes sense because we do not allow the small stuff to eat away at our soul and cause us to
fall victim to the regime of trepidation. Positivity can ensure that even the slightest of hiccups,
the very ones that can metastasize our workstation neighbor’s day into a personal hell, fall off
our back. Put simply: positivity can allow us to experience greater success and perseverance.
B. It improves your leadership skills
Positivity is key to leadership. When you want to lead, or if it is in the purview of your new
position, you need to be positive. Studies have consistently found that alacrity can lead to
organizational success. In addition, what is wrong with being ebullient, anyway? It seems like
currently, where being an existentialist is all the rage, anyone is considered a leper if they emit
a hint of eagerness.
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C. It enhances interpersonal relations
You have heard the expression ‘misery loves company, and it is true. However, it is also true
that we need to avoid these people like the plague. Nevertheless, who needs that in their life,
personally and professionally? As the meme goes: are not anybody got time for that! Therefore,
if you wish to bump up your interpersonal relations and skills, then it is imperative that you
take the advice of legendary philosopher Charlie Brown: ‘Keep looking up. That’s the secret
of life. With this new outlook on your career development, you will see many benefits,
particularly an improvement in teamwork.
D. It cuts back on ‘sick’ days
HR experts continually encourage businesses to look for signs of a toxic work environment,
even if everything seems fine. How can you spot toxicity? That is easy: check the number of
‘sick’ days. This is when your personnel is not really sick simply take the day off just so they
don’t have to deal with colleagues’ negative behavior – bullying, gossiping, or misery.
Whether this is office-wide or concentrated on a handful of employees, your company needs
to probe the matter and determine what exactly is going on. When more people in the office
are positive, then it reduces these so-called sick days, because most staff members will not feel
the dread of a couple of bad apples. You can feel confident that your aspirations, achievements,
or ardor will not be frowned upon.
E. It increases confidence in your abilities
There is a direct connection between positivity and confidence. You can likely come up with
a whole host of examples that highlight your zeal leading to courage and determination.
Whether it is leading a team meeting or heading a new project, your spirit and grit can
guarantee tremendous confidence in your abilities to get the job done. If you do not have strong
self-esteem, then how can others have faith in your hard and soft skills?
2.2.2. Negative Effects of Workplace Attitude
A. It demoralizes your colleagues
Just how bad is your negative attitude? There are many signs to know if you are a morose
employee, but one of them is that your disinterest and dismissal of everything related to the
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job is demoralizing your colleagues. They get to work in a cheerful mood and ready to kick off
the week in high gear, but there you are slouched in your chair, with a burrowed frown, and
repeatedly rolling your eyes. Should a colleague be pleased that they got a promotion, and then
you will rain on their parade by shrugging your shoulders and making a snide remark:
Now you can be a higher-paid-wage slave? No, really. Congratulations. I mean it with the
utmost sincerity. You will certainly be a person who will be showered with gifts at the annual
Christmas party. Everybody will want to be your friend!
B. It overshadows your achievements
Let us say that the company is going through a corporate restructuring, which is industry jargon
for firing a bunch of people to save some money. As management goes through the list of
employees who will survive the extinction event and who will not, they come across your name
– with dread. The first thing that springs to mind is your negative behavior, not so much your
accomplishments over the years. Indeed, you might be good at your job, but if managers only
think of the innumerable examples of your apathy, then it will be difficult for the decisionmakers to select you over Billy Bob and Sally Sue. These two individuals are optimistic,
excited, and dedicated to the company.
C. It hurts customer relations
Whether your business handles corporate clients, or it deals with the consuming public, if
patrons can immediately sense that you hate your job (or your life), then it is unlikely they will
be interested in frequenting your firm. Of course, this makes management tolerating your
indifference that much harder if your attitude towards work is turning away business.
D. It decreases productivity levels
It can be nearly impossible for the office to get work done if everyone is collectively ordering
a lifetime supply of razor blades. Seriously, your misery is contagious that your colleagues are
sitting in their seats in a comatose-like state and looking for ways to kick the bucket.
Productivity is key.
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Nevertheless, it is hard to complete your work if you are only spending your shift complaining
about the job or airing your grievances about your supervisor to anyone who will listen. In
addition, at this point, it is unlikely that anybody will want to subject himself or herself to your
disdain.
E. It creates a toxic work environment
Unfortunately, all it can take is just one person who can transform the business into a toxic
work environment. In addition to your perpetual negativity, you are non-stop gossiping,
uncouth attitude and chronic complaining are making everyone dread coming into work. The
toxicity is so rampant in the atmosphere that person needs to wear nuclear radiation suits to
avoid pessimism!
However, others can contract your paucity of enthusiasm – that is putting it politely – and then
the entire workforce is ill with gloom. Sure, there can indeed be such a thing as too much
positivity. You do not want to be so positive that you are not bothered by missing quarterly
sales projections or you dismiss a brewing problem that could influence your company’s
competitiveness in the industry (Wood & Locke, 1990). Therefore, it is important to strike a
fine balance between positivity and negativity. Of course, it is always better to be a more upbeat
individual than an undesirable person, especially in the workplace.
2.3.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is among the important attitudes that influence human behavior in the
workplace. Thus, organizational behavior researchers are interested in accurately measuring
job satisfaction and understanding its consequences for people at work (Wood et. al, 1976).
Some of the well-known definitions of job satisfaction provide clear insight into it and they
were helpful for this research study.
Wood and Locke (1990) defined job satisfaction as the degree to which individuals feel
positively or negatively about their jobs. It is an emotional response to one’s tasks as well as
to the physical and social conditions of the workplace. As a concept, job satisfaction also
indicates the degree to which expectations in someone’s psychological contract are fulfilled.
Job satisfaction is likely to be higher for persons who perceive an inducements-contributions
balance in their relationship with the employing organization.
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Job satisfaction is the amount of pleasure or contentment associated with a job. Workers will
have high job satisfaction when they have positive attitudes toward such job factors as the work
itself, recognition, and opportunity for advancement.
On the other hand, job satisfaction is defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976, p. 1300). The
appraisal process has three elements: (a) the perception of some aspect of the job, (b) an
implicit or explicit value standard by an individual, and (c) a judgment of the relationship
between one’s perception of the job and ones perceived value of the job (Locke, 1976).
This definition suggests that employees are more likely to have higher job satisfaction when
their needs or wants concerning a particular job perspective are satisfied through the appraisal
process (Edwards, 2008). For example, given that an employee wants higher job autonomy but
he or she perceives low autonomy at the job, he or she reflects lower job satisfaction because
this aspect of the job was not satisfactory.
Empirical studies have supported that a positive relationship exists between the value
congruence effect and job satisfaction. For example, higher congruence between employees’
work values and those of their supervisors was associated with higher job satisfaction
(Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Zhang et al., 2012). Higher congruence between
individuals’ values and cultural values of the organization was found to lead to higher job
satisfaction (Ostroff et al., 2005). Therefore, it is expected that when individuals have higher
value congruence than others, they might have higher satisfaction for their jobs than others
might.
According to Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969), job satisfaction is the extent to which a person
is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. Extensive research on job satisfaction shows that
personal factors such as an individual’s needs and aspirations determine this attitude, along
with group and organizational factors such as relationships with coworkers, supervisors,
working conditions, work policies, and compensation. Job satisfaction is referred to an
individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction
holds positive attitudes toward the job; a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds
negative attitudes about the job (Robins, 2003).
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According to Locke (1976) job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences. Implicit in Locke’s definition is the
importance of both effect or feeling, and cognition or thinking. When we think, we have
feelings about what we think. Conversely, when we have feelings, we think about what we
feel. Cognition and effect are thus inextricably linked, in our psychology and even in our
biology (Saari & Judge, 2004).
2.3.1. Job Satisfaction as a Positive Employee Attitude
According to Hagedorn (2000), when a worker feels a high level of achievement, is intensely
involved, and is appropriately compensated by recognition, responsibility, and salary, job
satisfaction is enhanced. Furthermore, the researcher points out how job satisfaction predicts
employee engagement and explains that a worker who is experiencing a high level of job
satisfaction would be likely to appreciate her or his position and be proud of the organization,
resulting in a high likelihood of job engagement. In this case, engagement is perceived as the
final product, evidence, and the result of job satisfaction. Respectively, a disengaged worker
who, due to very low levels of satisfaction, is not excited or desirous to contribute to the
benefits of the organization and therefore is not actively engaged in work (Hagedorn 2000). In
this relation, several studies argue that job dissatisfaction is a consistent predictor of burnout
and turnover (Laschinger et al., 2006; Hellman, 1997; Harter et al., 2002).
It is also generally held that empowered employees have higher levels of job satisfaction,
primarily because of their involvement in goal setting and in making decisions that affect their
work (Blackburn & Rosen 1993; Ugboro & Obeng 2001; Laschinger et al., 2006;).
Additionally, it is claimed that job satisfaction results in higher levels of employee
organizational commitment, that in turn produce desirable organizational citizenship behavior
-the willingness of an individual to engage in extra-role behavior that is not generally
considered a part of an individual‘s job description (Williams & Anderson 1991). Thus, the
authors argue that empowerment positively influences job satisfaction and that job satisfaction
can increase levels of employee engagement.
16
2.3.2. How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
Job dissatisfaction and antagonistic relationships with co-workers predict a variety of
behaviors organizations find undesirable, including unionization attempts, substance abuse,
stealing at work, undue socializing, and tardiness. Researchers argue that these behaviors are
indicators of a broader syndrome called deviant behavior in the workplace (or withdrawal).
If employees do not like their work environment, they will respond somehow, though it is not
always easy to forecast exactly how (Hagedorn, 2000. From this viewpoint, one can infer that
a worker might quit. Another might use work time to surf the internet or take work supplies
home for personal use. In short, workers who don’t like their jobs “get even” in various ways,
and because those ways can be quite creative, controlling only one behavior, such as with an
absence control policy, leaves the root cause untouched.
To control the undesirable consequences of job dissatisfaction, employers should attack the
source of the problem the dissatisfaction rather than try to control the different responses.
Exhibit 3-4 presents a model of the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect framework that can be used to
examine individual responses to dissatisfaction along two dimensions: whether they are
constructive or destructive and whether they are active or passive.
According to Hagedorn (2000), job dissatisfaction resulted in four types of behavioral
outcomes. These are exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. The first one is an exit. It is actively
attempting to leave the organization, including looking for a new position as well as resigning.
This is a destructive action from the point of view of the organization. Secondly, it is voice
when someone actively and constructively trying to improve conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity. The third
one is loyalty that shows a person passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to
improve, including speaking up for the organization in the face of external criticism and
trusting the organization and its management to do the right thing. Finally, there is neglect
when someone passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or
lateness, reduced effort, and increased error rate.
17
Exit and neglect behaviors reflect employee choices of lowered productivity, absenteeism, and
turnover in the face of dissatisfaction. However, this model also presents constructive
behaviors such as voice and loyalty that allow individuals to tolerate unpleasant situations or
to work toward satisfactory working conditions. It helps us understand situations, such as those
we sometimes find among unionized workers, where low job satisfaction is coupled with low
turnover. Union members often express dissatisfaction through the grievance procedure or
formal contract negotiations. These voice mechanisms allow them to continue in their jobs
while convincing themselves that they are acting to improve the situation.
2.4.
The Effects of Social and Culture Values towards Employee
Work Attitude and Job Satisfaction
The socio-cultural environment is important for an organization. Various socio-cultural factors
significantly affect the economic activity as well as the performance of an organization. The
key socio-cultural factors that have a major impact on the attitudes of employees in a given
organization are (Trehan & Trehan, 2009): religion, value system, language, level of education,
and personality traits. However, in this research religion, value system, language, and
personality traits related to socio-cultural factors are used as research variables and discussed
below separately.
2.4.1. Employee Religion
Religion is the high levels of traditional religious belief, frequent involvement in religious
institutions such as churches, synagogues, mosques, and temples, and engagement in religious
practices such as reading scripture, worship, and prayer (McCullough & Willoughby, 2009).
Religion comprises both religious belief and religious behavior. Religious belief, which is also
referred to as internal religiosity, or faith, is defined as the belief in God and a trusting
acceptance of God’s will (Steiner, et al.,2010). Religious behavior, or external religiosity, on
the other hand, includes all observable activities, which are undertaken in a religious context,
in particular going to church (Steiner, et al., 2010 ).
Religion has been identified as one of the critical elements that influence an individual’s value
system and hence in shaping the cultural environment of an organization (Kutcher, et al.,
2010).
18
As mentioned by Abdel-Khalek, (2010) religion affects how people behave through an
individual’s value system. Cash & Gray, (2000) examined that religion and spirituality strongly
influence many American managers’ behaviors’ at work. Religion too was found to contribute
to healthy organizations (Noland, 2003).
For a long time, the relationship between religion and work had been described as that, that
cannot and should not be mixed (Noland, 2003). However, that has drastically changed.
Individuals’ are now increasingly desiring to incorporate their religious perspective into their
work and to express their religious and spiritual beliefs at work, (Barro, & McCleary 2003).
There is a wealth of information that suggests a positive relationship between religiosity and
subjective well-being (Abdel-Khalek, 2010). The positive consequences that studies show
accompany religious belief and practices have made the Americans increasingly want their
religion integrated into all the areas of their lives (Kutcher, et al., 2010). The many benefits
religious beliefs have been found to have on physical and mental health and ethical decision
making has pushed some organizations to support and encourage expressions of religion and
faith in the workplace says Kutcher, et al., (2010).
Employees who are allowed to express their faith, religion, or spirituality improve the quality
of work-life, certainly for themselves, if not for others (Miller 2007). As Elm (2003) states,
there is growing evidence that the line between workplace and religious beliefs is growing thin
by the day. People differ in their religious motivation. Some people hold religious beliefs and
engage in religious practices because they find their primary motivation in religion; their
religious belief is driven by intrinsic factors. Others, however, see religious belief as a means
to their own ends, such as a satisfying social need, a sense of security, and status (Allport &
Ross, 1967). Their religious belief is driven by extrinsic factors. Weaver & Agle (2002) found
that individuals with intrinsic religious orientation are high in determination and self-esteem
thus encouraged and anticipated actual entrepreneurial activity. On the other hand, individuals
with extrinsic religious orientations appear to discourage entrepreneurship.
Morgan (2005) in his research has found that the traditional wall between faith and work
is crumbling at an accelerated rate and that religion can longer seem to be “a hat that can be
removed and forgotten as soon as an employee enters the doorway of an office.”
19
Further, Cash and Gray (2000) found that during the decade spanning 1994 to 2000 the
percentage of workers who felt they needed to experience spiritual growth in their work
increased from 30% to 78%. Because of these dramatic changes, organizational researchers
have begun to examine the influence of religion and spirituality on work outcomes.
Recent researchers have examined the relationship between religious belief and job
satisfaction, job performance, organization-based self-esteem, and organizational frustration.
However, researchers have failed to examine the direct influence of individuals’ religious and
spiritual beliefs on their commitment to their work as well as their performance which
influences the organization's performance. Religious involvement can be defined as, the extent
to which an individual attends religious services and takes part in worship activities, groups,
committees, and worship-related organizations (Day,2005). Researchers have examined the
relationship between religiosity and civic involvement and found out that the more religious
individuals easily took part in civic volunteer activities in the society (Weaver, & Agle, 2002).
Day, (2005) says that individuals with higher levels of religious involvement have lower rates
of alcohol and drug abuse and addiction which have negative impacts on an employee’s
productivity. Noland, (2003) adds that the relationship between religious practices and the
avoidance or moderate use of alcohol is well documented, whether or not denominational
groups specifically prohibit the use of alcohol. Barro and McCleary (2005) indicate that
religion significantly affects the level of an individual's happiness and overall sense of wellbeing. Happy people tend to be productive and law-abiding and also tend to learn well, thus
having a positive impact on an organization’s performance (Elm, 2003). Weaver, & Agle,
(2002) state that employees who frequently attend religious services are less stressed, and have
a greater sense of control which is correlated with decreased distress hence are more productive
at work. They further add that the employees who have a strong religious commitment have
increased self-esteem and social support, as well as enhanced coping skills which positively
contribute to their work performance.
Highly religious individuals often devote a significant amount of their time and resources to
their religious activities leaving little time for secular and civic activities. This then affects the
organization’s commitments and performance (Elm, 2003).
20
Day (2005) states that as an individual’s religiosity increases, they become more devoted to
their religious social networks which then weaken ties to other civic activities and
organizations as well as coworkers. Garcia‐Zamor (2003) explains that as religiosity in an
individual increase, they begin to place more emphasis on their spiritual world and less
emphasis on the material, secular world. The need to engage more in religious good works
surpasses the desire to volunteer in civic activities (King, & Williamson, 2005). Noland, (2003)
adds that individuals who possess high levels of religiosity are more likely to place significant
value on spiritual rewards than material rewards. This then may result in less attachment to
financial or otherwise results offered by one job. When this is the case, an organization faces
a high employee turnover from the highly religious employees than from the non-religious
ones (Cash & Gray, 2000).
2.4.2. Employee Value System
Individuals are part of societies and culture manifests itself through individuals, (Brette &
Weast 2012). Knippenberg (2000) states that human beings have different goals and
expectations about their work depending on the culture they live in. Hofstede (1980) asserts
that the values and beliefs held by members of cultures influence the degree to which the
behaviors of individuals, groups, and institutions within cultures are enacted and the degree to
which they are viewed as legitimate, acceptable, and effective. All individuals possess a moral
compass, defined via values, which direct how they treat others and conduct themselves
(Merrit 2000). Soares, et.al (2007) adds that People who lack strong or ethical values may
participate in negative behavior that can hurt the organization. While a company cannot do
anything about the influences that shape a person's values and behavior before hiring, the
organization can try to influence employee behavior in the workplace (Li, Lam, & Qian, 2001).
Knippenberg (2000) states that a system of punishments and rewards can help foster the type
of values the company wants to see in its employees, essentially filtering behavior through
conditioning. If people see that certain behaviors are rewarded, then they may decide to alter
their behavior and in turn, alter their values. In addition, Soares, et.al (2007) adds that a gap
sometimes exists between a person's values and behavior. This gap can stem from a conscious
decision not to follow a specific value with the corresponding action. This decision can be
influenced by how deeply this value affects the person's character and by the environment.
21
Barret (2005) acknowledges that an employee can deal with a situation in three different ways.
They can use their beliefs to formulate a response, they can use their values to formulate a
response, or they can use their intuition to formulate a response. Barrett continues to explain
that if you use beliefs to make decisions; those decisions will reflect your history in dealing
with similar situations. History is always experienced and context-based, and beliefs are not
equipped to handle complex new situations that have not been experienced previously. Beliefs
are steeped in our past histories, habits, and traditions, and are thus constrained by individual
experiences and not as adaptable to new situations. Alternatively, if you use values to make
decisions, those decisions will align with the future you want to experience. Values transcend
both contexts and experiences. Therefore, they can be used for making tough decisions in
complex situations that have not yet been experienced. As a result, values provide a more
flexible model of decision-making than beliefs.
Knippenberg (2000) indicates that when an individual discovers genuine and meaningful
alignment between his or her values with those of his or her employer, a powerful connection
is created. This connection creates numerous possibilities for both individual growth and
company productivity, manifested in several ways. Ringov et.al (2007) explains that when an
organization and its team members unite around a shared set of values, they become more
flexible, less hierarchical, less bureaucratic, and develop an enhanced capacity for collective
action. When employees not only share similar values – but also a similar vision – the
performance of a company is enhanced. Soares, et.al (2007) adds that shared values build trust.
Trust is the foundation on which relationships are established, both with team members and
customers alike. Value-based leadership is a way of making authentic decisions that build the
trust and commitment of employees and customers (Barret, 2005).
Power Distance is the extent to which people in a society accept the often unequal distribution
of power, (Merrit 2000). Triandis (2004) describes power distance as the extent to which power
differences are expected and accepted by society. A high score on power distance indicates the
belief that there should be a well-defined order in which every individual has a rightful place;
a low score indicates the belief that everyone should have equal rights and the opportunity to
change their position in society, (Merritt 2000). Hofstede (2001) believes that employees are
better judges of power than their superiors.
22
Employees of high power distance prefer the paternalistic style of leadership whereby they
accept and expect to be told what to do. Low power distance employees prefer a consultative
leadership style because they like to be consulted, (Soares, Farhangmehr, & Shoham, 2007).
Triandis (2004) describes Individualism as a cultural attribute that explains a loose-knit social
framework in which people emphasize only the care of themselves and their immediate family.
In cultures that uphold individualism, people are expected to take care of themselves and their
immediate family and remain emotionally independent from the group, (Merritt 2000).
According to Hofstede (2001), individualistic employees prefer self-sufficiency. The
individuals decide and take actions by themselves instead of with others. Independence,
creativity, self-reliance, solitude, and self-actualization are valued in individualistic cultures
(Triandis, 2004).
Collectivism is a national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which
people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them
(Triandis, 2004). People in collectivist cultures are less likely than individualists to emphasize
the significance of the information that is written and codified and are more likely than
individualists to disregard such information (Chrisman et.al 2002). Collectivistic cultures need
face-to-face contact because people depend on context more than do individualists who are
quite satisfied with written communications (Hofstede, 2001).
Employees with a collective culture tend to be more emotionally dependant on their colleagues
and organization than individualistic employees (Ringov, & Zollo, 2007). Ringov & Zollo
(2007) believe that an organization has an obligation of taking care of collectivistic employees’
failure to leads to dissonance in social order and people's values. A collectivistic employee
expects a relationship of trust and loyalty from the employer (Merritt 2000). Knippenberg
(2000) says that these employees don’t expect to be fired for a mistake but rather to be
corrected and given more chances. On the other hand, as Hofstede (2001) puts it, an
individualistic employee does not expect a personal relationship with the employer but rather
a more calculative one.
23
Li, Lam, & Qian, (2001) state that collectivist employees find it natural to treat people closer
to them in a better manner because they expect a relationship of trust to be built before a
business can take place. Individualistic employees on the other hand treat their clients equally.
According to Ringov et.al (2007), individualistic employees expect performance appraisals
that will enable them to improve on their weak areas while collective employees see it as
demining to discuss one's performance. Ringov et.al (2007) further explains that employees
with collective cultures believe it’s important for them to fully use their abilities and learn new
skills on a job than those of individualistic cultures. Li et.al (2001) says that individualistic
employees think it’s more valuable to have exciting work than to earn more money hence their
work performance greatly improves when they are happy with what they do.
Merritt (2000) describes uncertainty avoidance as a cultural attribute describing the extent to
which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
Hofstede (1980) refers to it as the extent to which the society willingly accommodates risk and
ambiguity. Risk-averse employees are characterized with high scores of uncertainty avoidance.
They prefer certainty and security. In contrast, employees characterized by low scores are
motivated by risk-taking and searching for novel solutions (Li et.al, 2001). Li et.al, (2001) also
stated that when employees are characterized by strong uncertainty avoidance, the introduction
of new leadership styles or strategies raises their anxiety level which leads to resistance of
abandonment of the systems and structures that they are acquainted with.
Employees in strong uncertainty avoidance cultures, tend to stay with their organizations for a
long time. In contrast, those from weak uncertainty avoidance cultures are much more mobile,
(Ringov et.al 2007). Employees with strong uncertainty avoidance cultures are likely to be
more resistant to change which makes the transfer of change difficult to administer (Brette &
Weast 2012).
Employees with low uncertainty avoidance feel less in control of external forces than those
with high tolerance. Company loyalty is a virtue for them. However, they expect to have
flexible working hours (Li et.al, 2001). Long-term orientation is a cultural attribute that
emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence while Short-term Orientation is a cultural attribute
that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition (Triandis, 2004).
24
Hofstede (2001) explains long term-orientation as the extent to which a society exhibits a
pragmatic future-oriented perspective rather than a conventional historic or short-term point of
view. Employees scoring low tend to be conventional and pursue instant benefits and
satisfaction in work-related aspects. On the other hand, employees scoring high have thrift for
investment and a long-term orientation both financially and psychologically. They also value
long-term commitment towards organizations and careers, (Li et.al, 2001).
Chrisman et.al (2002) describes masculinity as how people are motivated towards different
types of goal, either concerned with the quality of life (feminine) or money and recognition
(masculinity). Ringov & Zollo (2007) describe the dimension of masculinity/femininity as a
reflection of the degree to which the social gender roles are distinct. In masculine cultures,
males are expected to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, and females are
expected to be tender and focused on quality of life (Li, et.al 2001). Traditional masculine
goals include: earnings, recognition, and advancement, valuing material possessions,
assertiveness, and money. Traditional feminine goals include good relations with supervisors,
peers, and subordinated; good living and working conditions; and employment security
(Hofstede, 1980).
2.4.3. Employee Language
Language is the key to a person’s self-identity. Language allows us to relate and understand
each other (Imberti, 2007). Language is defined as a system of conceptual symbols that allows
individuals to communicate (Imberti, 2007). It is an artifact of how thoughts are formulated as
well as how they are communicated and discussed (Bartel, 2001). Language affects almost
every aspect of life. It not only aids in communication but is also a link to an individual’s
identity (Lauring, 2008). It enables the person to express emotions, share feelings, tell stories,
and convey complex messages and knowledge (Imberti, 2007; Lauring, 2008).
The interplay between corporate language and natural or cultural languages is a critical
challenge to business practice (Welch, Welch, & Piekkari, 2005). The language used by
decision-makers in a company both shapes and bounds what the company focuses on and how
it articulates its strategic options (Brannen & Doz, 2012). In this regard, language can facilitate
and significantly limit the strategic growth and performance of companies.
25
Language barriers can be key factors that prevent information about the target market from
reaching organizational decision-makers (Brannen & Doz, 2012). Language barriers can arise
between individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. These barriers then influence various
aspects of the service experience and become a critical issue during intercultural service
encounters (Imberti, 2007). When one is unable to identify with other cultural groups, they
may have negative attitudes towards such groups (Bartel, 2001). Being ignorant of such
differences can prevent customers who cannot speak the language being used by an employee,
from interacting with them (Baker & Haretl, 2004).
Mambert (2001) observes that a big problem, which is faced by many employees today, is the
language issue. Mambert (2001) illustrates the language barrier through an example that in
some cultures saying ‘no’ is considered discourteous. Instead, they give the signal of ‘yes’ and
in this specific situation, they generally mean ‘I hear you, I understand what you are saying. A
native of American culture would conceive this as a strong response to understanding. Mostly
foreign-born employees say yes even though they don’t understand completely the other’s
meanings to avoid an embarrassing situation.
Communication between people who speak different languages can be difficult (Worman,
2006). Katz & Pesetsky (2011) state that employees who are not fluent in the primary language
used in the workplace may have difficulty expressing their needs or responding to requests
from colleagues and customers. This can lead to providing incorrect or misleading information.
A customer who is unable to clearly understand the worker due to a heavy accent or lack of
command of the language may become frustrated and take his business elsewhere (Levinson
et.al., 2002). Common language barriers can in the end contribute to a work environment in
which employees generally lack knowledge about the company, its products, and their jobs
(Worman, 2006). Levinson et.al, (2002) adds that this can contribute to poor production,
creativity, and results within the organization.
It can also lead to poor communication and ineffective results during interactions with clients
or customers. Verbal and non-verbal language is very important in business. For example,
transferring the linguistic signals alone across cultures does not ensure that the meaning is
transferred as intended.
26
On the contrary, more often than not shifts in meaning occur as the linguistic codes are given
sense in a new cultural context, from the perspective of local interpretive frames and
communicative norms (Brannen, 2004). The significant role of language in knowledge sharing
is described by Baker & Haretl, (2004). Imberti (2007) says that the importance of language
becomes even more vital when a difference in native languages of the partner or employees
increases the ambiguity substantially. The lack of fluency in the corporate language may create
a possible big obstacle that reduces the limits of understanding of each other’s behaviors
(Lauring, 2008). This leads to misunderstandings and communication problems in
multicultural settings and affects the knowledge sharing, transfer, and learning processes
heavily (Mambert 2001). According to Riege (2005), many researchers have noted that the
ability of individuals to share their knowledge depends heavily on their communication skills.
For effective knowledge sharing, effective verbal and written communications are necessary
(Bartel, 2001). Verbal communication is the most common carrier of sharing of tacit
knowledge (Riege, 2005). Cross-cultural communication problems may come in different
forms and sizes but all these result in the fact that the message did not get across. Sometimes
in such situations, the recipient did not understand the meaning of the message but the worst
situation is that when the recipients have understood the meanings of the message differently
from the actual ones (Laroche, 2003).
Effective communication strengthens the connections between a company and all of its
stakeholders (Levinson, Kita, Haun, & Rasch, 2002). Bartel (2001) explains that with an
increase in complexity of an organization’s structure and technology, effective communication
is critical to the success of any organization. Cultural and language differences can hinder
effective communication. Language barriers can directly negatively impact work productivity
costing organizations due to slower information dissemination (Levinson, et.al, 2002).
Levinson et.al, (2002) further states that employees of similar cultural backgrounds or who
speak the same primary language tend to bond together. Individuals may have little social
interaction with that outside of their clique, engaging them only out of business necessity
(Kochan et.al, 2004). In culturally integrated workgroups, some employees may choose to
speak their primary language with each other instead of the primary workplace language,
leaving others to feel excluded from the conversation (Levinson, et.al, 2002).
27
This de-motivates employee who feel excluded. The language which is the vehicle by which
strategic thoughts are formulated, communicated, and discussed plays an essential role in the
functioning of teams (Brannen, 2004). Employees who face daily challenges due to language
barriers may experience frustration and dread when they go to work and interact with nonnative employees, which can lead to morale problems (Katz & Pesetsky, 2011). This is
particularly true if they have already been negative consequences, such as missed deadlines,
creating blame, mistrust, and ill will (Worman, 2006). Frustration can lead to additional
barriers, such as the native speaker communicating in a louder voice in an attempt to be
understood and thus creating more friction throughout the organization (Levinson, et.al, 2002).
Language aids in knowledge sharing. Knowledge is a vital organizational resource due to
which organizations gain a sustainable competitive advantage (Katz & Pesetsky, 2011). If
knowledge sharing is not particularly observed, then the available well-known resources will
remain underutilized (Argote, Cabrera as cited in Lauring & Selmer, 2011). Also, the presence
of language differences has negative effects on knowledge sharing (Welch & Welch, 2008).
Most often it is challenging in multicultural organizations to cope with linguistic and cultural
barriers (Lauring & Selmer, 2011).
Al-Alawi et.al, (2007) has stated that communication among employees of an organization
plays an important role in knowledge sharing which depends on the opportunities and
frequencies of face-to-face meetings. The communication within an organization may flow
horizontally or vertically and encourage the employees to share information and knowledge,
depending on the structure of an organization (Katz & Pesetsky, 2011). In a hierarchical
structure, there are impaired flows of communication and knowledge is being shared based on
the need to know (Riege, 2005). On the other hand, in organizations having flat structures,
there is much collaboration and cooperation among the employees. It develops a conducive
environment for knowledge sharing.
A less hierarchical company tends positive influence on the flow of knowledge sharing as
there are fewer reasons to withheld knowledge and information from their colleagues (Wang
& Noe 2010). According to Riege (2005), many researchers have noted that the ability of
individuals to share their knowledge depends heavily on their communication skills. For
effective knowledge sharing, effective verbal and written communications are necessary.
28
Employees from different cultures display emotions differently. What has considered an
appropriate display of emotions differs from culture to culture (Jehn & Bezrukova, 2004)?
Some cultures encourage open displaying of anger, fear, or frustration in the workplace while
others deem it as being inappropriate and only discuss the factual aspects of the situation (Ang,
et.al 2007). When a workplace becomes overly affected by the emotional state of one, a few,
or several workers, it can significantly affect the ability of people to work together (Jehn &
Bezrukova, 2004). Wang & Noe (2010) state that a supervisor who routinely expresses
negative emotions can overwhelm workers. Co-workers who routinely project emotional
outbursts can create hostile working relationships.
Companies have come to recognize the importance of language when it comes to service
delivery, (Quintas, 2002). They have also understood the importance of an official corporate
language in regards to employees' and investors’ commitment, (Kochan et.al, 2004). In
addition, Laroche, (2003) adds that more companies have begun to put in place language
guidelines for use in virtual communication including e-mail, texting, and video - conferencing
to avoid misinterpretations. So, the interplay between corporate language and natural and
national languages is a critical challenge to international business theory and practice, (Imberti,
2007).
2.4.4. Personality Traits
Personality plays a major impact in human behavior. Psychologist states that there are multiple
psychological factors, which influences employee satisfaction and motivation within an
organization (Furnham, Chamorro, Premuzic, & McDougall, 2002).
To analyze the wellbeing of an employee, researchers have given importance to job
satisfaction and job relating factors, which influence employee level of satisfaction.
Personality traits may drive the utility difference between self-employed and employed
workers (Hundley, 2001; Benz & Frey, 2008).
A. Neuroticism and Job Satisfaction
Neurotic individuals are negative in nature due to which they have more negative life events
experiences as compared to other individuals (Magnus, Diener, Fujita, & Pavot, 1993).
29
These experiences are negative because they select specific situations which result in negative
affect (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Neuroticism arises because an individual
has differences in physiological mechanisms and neurological processes (Eysenck, Eysenck,
& Barrett, 1985; Gray, 1970). It is related to lower well-being, and emotional instability which
promotes negative emotions in such individuals (Costa & McCrae, 1991). According to
Goldberg (1993) individuals who have this trait have nervousness issues, have mood swings,
and are insecure. Such employee interaction at work is less a job as compared to emotionally
stable employees. Neurotic individuals encounter a strong negative influence on unpleasant
events (Rusting & Larsen, 1997).
Neuroticism is also stigmatized as negative emotions (Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000), and
this negative affectivity generates resistance to positive mood-generating events in neurotic
individuals and considers task outcomes more negatively (Brief, Butcher, & Roberson, 1995;
Necowitz & Roznowski, 1994). Judge et al. (2002) found neuroticism has a significant
negative relationship with job satisfaction (-0.29) and can be called a good predictor. Similar
results were analyzed in a meta-analysis study by Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000). This
means that lack of attention in terms of recognizing the effort s and low rewards generates low
job satisfaction. Studies from Israel and Japan depict that neurotics employees with a higher
level of neuroticism results in JS (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998; Piccolo, Judge,
Takahashi, Watanabe, & Locke, 2005).
B. Extraversion and Job Satisfaction
Whereas Neuroticism is associated with negative life events experienced (Magnus et al., 1993),
on the other hand, extraversion is linked with experiencing positive emotions (Costa &
McCrae, 1991). These positive emotions generate job satisfaction (Connolly & Viswesvaran,
2000). Extraverts are highly energetic, confident, active, and social (Goldberg, 1990). They
are more friendly, socially active, and focuses on interpersonal interactions (Watson & Clark,
1997). Extraversion is arisen due to individual differences (Eysenck et al., 1985; Gray, 1970),
and extraverts have more positive feelings and experiences as compared to neurotic individuals
(Rusting & Larsen, 1997). Extroverts have high positive affectivity and experience job
satisfaction (Magnus et al., 1993; Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000).
30
The experimental studies depict that extroverts employees focus on favorable elements of tasks
and their judgments are positive and they focus on the more pleasant thing than unpleasant
things as compared to neurotic individuals (Bower, 1981; Forgas & Bower, 1987).
Extraversion has a significantly positive relationship with job satisfaction (0.25) (Judge et al.,
2002).
C. Openness to Experience and JS
Openness to experience (OPEX) is also known as intellectuality and defined as scientific,
artistic, creative thinking (Goldberg, 1990; Feist, 1998) low level of religiosity, liberalism
(Feist, 1998). Openness to experience induces one to experience good feelings and bad feelings
deeply (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). Openness to experience has been significantly positively
associated with JS (Judge et al., 2002). However, according to Templer (2012), there is no
relationship between openness to experience and job satisfaction.
D. Agreeableness and Job Satisfaction
Agreeableness is associated with trust courtesy, happiness (Goldberg, 1990; 1993; Costa &
McCrae, 1991). Individuals having a high level of agreeableness have the courage to take risks
and have positive satisfaction (Costa & McCrae, 1991; Organ & Lingl, 1995) The study
conducted by Judge et al. (2002) has identified a significant positive association (0.17) among
agreeableness and JS.
Similarly, a positive correlation with job satisfaction (0.30) was observed by Templer (2012).
However, correlations were variable across the studies. The agreeable employee has the values
of benevolence, conformity (Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002). Agreeableness is a true
predictor of job satisfaction (Templer, 2012). Agreeableness varies from society to society.
Collective societies have high agreeableness as compared to individualist societies (Triandis,
1989, Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Organ & Lingl, 1995; Roccas et al., 2002; Triandis & Suh,
2002; Yamagishi, Hashimoto, & Schug, 2008).
31
E. Conscientiousness Agreeableness and Job Satisfaction
It is defined as being thorough, careful, or vigilant. It implies a desire to do a job or task well.
Conscientious employees are organized, reliable, responsible, and hardworking in nature
(Goldberg, 1993). Researchers, academicians, and psychologists consider that overall
performance is predicted by conscientiousness (Barrick & Mount, 2005). If one will show
better performance, it will result in more recognition and rewards (Judge, 2001). Judge et al.
(2002) detected a significant positive association (0.26) between conscientiousness and job
satisfaction. Similar results were analyzed in past by DeNeve and Cooper (1998) and Templer
(2012) have also found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and job satisfaction.
Conscientiousness has a significant effect on job satisfaction (Templer, 2012).
2.5.
Conceptual Framework
In keeping with the dominant thinking at present and its relevance, in this research work, the
social model outlook is used as a model to assess the employee's socio-cultural factors on the
work attitude and job satisfaction of employees. The following conceptual framework,
however, will utilize to show logical links or relationships in the study variables.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
Independent Variables
Religion
Dependent Variable
Value System
Language
Personal Traits
Employee work attitude
towards job satisfaction
32
3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The section emphasizes the research design, study area, participants of the study, sample size
and techniques, instruments for data collection, methods and procedures for data collection
and analysis.
3.1.
Description of the Study Area
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) was legally established and taken its shape as a share
company in 1963. CBE took over the commercial banking activity of the state bank of Ethiopia
that was originally founded in 1942. The State Bank of Ethiopia had been responsibly engaged
in
performing
the
duties
of
both
Commercial
and
Central
Bank
activities
(http://www.combanketh.et/).
CBE has more than 1,665 branches across the country and it still takes the lead contributing
lion share in the country’s economy than other private competitor banks as of May 3, 2021.
With more than 50,000 talented and committed employees. Under Dire Dawa District Harari
Region, there are nine branches namely Harar Main Branch, Gelmeshira Branch, Aboker
Branch, Jugol Branch, Amana Interest-Free Branch, Shenkor Branch, Feres Megala Branch,
Jenila Branch, and Hakim Branch. As of May 2021, in these banks, there is 217 staff which
consists of branch managers (9), function managers (22), Senior Customer Service Officers
(SCSO(19)), Customer Service Officers CSO(75)), accountants (19), cashiers (15), cashier
attendants (20), auditors (17) and bank trainees (21).
3.2.
Research Design
Research design is a detailed outline of how an investigation took place. It entails how data is
collected, the data collection tools used and the mode of analyzing data collected (Cooper &
Schindler, 2006). This study will use a descriptive survey research design that aims to assess
the socio-cultural factors of employees’ work attitudes and job satisfaction. Gill and Johnson
(2002) state that a descriptive design looks at particular characteristics of a specific population
of subjects, at a particular point in time, or at different times for comparative purposes. The
choice of a survey design for this study is deemed appropriate as Mugenda and Mugenda
(2003) attest that it enables the researcher to determine the nature of prevailing conditions
without manipulating the subjects.
33
The qualitative and quantitative approach gives the researcher an insight into various
perspectives on a phenomenon, behaviors, and feelings, thus allowing the researcher a deep
exploration of participants’ experiences. Since the participants are studied in their natural
surroundings, the researcher can foster relationships that enable him or her to see the world
from the perspective of the participants (Silverman, 2006).
3.3.
Sources of Data
The researcher will use primary sources of data. The primary sources of data will be collected
by employing in-depth interviews with branch managers, and questionnaires that will be
distributed to accountants, cash attendants, cashiers, bank trainees, functional managers, senior
CSO, auditors, and customer service officers of all Commercial Banks of Ethiopia found in
Harari Region.
3.4.
Population of the Study, Sample Technique, and Sampling Size
Mugenda & Mugenda (2003) define a population as an entire group of individuals, events, or
objects having common observable characteristics. This study will involve two groups of
participants to generate the required data. The first group of the respondent for this study will
be all branch managers of Commercial Banks of Ethiopia base in Harari Region. The second
group of respondents will be accountants, cash attendants, cashiers, bank trainees, functional
managers, senior CSO, auditors, and customer service officers of all Commercial Banks of
Ethiopia found in the Harari Region.
The sampling technique is the process used in drawing a sample from a population (Cooper and
Schindler, 2006). The sampling techniques to be used in this study will be purposive, stratified
random sampling, and available sampling techniques. Regarding the selection of the study area, the
researcher selects the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia located in the Harari Region using the
purposive sampling method. This method is selected since the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia has
many co-workers from different socio-cultural backgrounds with many years of experience
compared to other private banks. On the other hand, a stratified random sampling technique will be
used for this study to determine the number of participants for the questionnaire. With stratified
sampling, the population is divided into groups based on some characteristics.
34
In stratified sampling, the groups are called strata (Cooper & Schilndler 2006). A random sample
from each stratum is then identified using proportional allocation procedures. In this study, the
employees will be categorized in terms of job description each consisting of a stratum. A
representative sample will be selected randomly from each of the seven functions identified. Every
potential respondent has an equal chance of being selected since the sampling will be done
randomly. Stratification ensures fair representation of all business functions and fairness in the
sample selected.
Finally, considering their job experiences and frequent interactions with their subordinates, all
branch managers will be selected for interviews using the available sampling technique. The sample
size is the group of people whom you select to be in your study (Cooper & Schilndler 2006).
According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2003), an appropriate sample should be between 10-30% of
the population. Owing to the size of the sampling frame, a thirty percent (30%) sample size will be
selected for this study. This sample size will be selected in relative proportions from each of the
branch banks. The sample size will be considered appropriate and representative of the entire
population. Therefore, the sample size for this study will be 70 populations. Of which 9 (3F) will be
branch managers and 61 will be accountants, cash attendants, cashiers, bank trainees, functional
managers, senior CSO, auditors, and customer service officers of all Commercial Banks of
Ethiopia found in Harari Region.
Table 1: Population/Sample Frame, Sample Size and Sampling Technique
No. Population
Category
CSO
1
Sampling Sample
Frame
Size
75
30%
Sample Sampling Technique to be
Taken applied
22
Stratified Random Sampling
2
3
Accountants
Cashiers
19
15
30%
30%
5
4
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
4
5
6
7
Auditors
Bank Trainees
Senior CSO
Cash Attendants
17
21
19
20
30%
30%
30%
30%
5
6
6
6
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
8
Function Managers
22
30%
7
Stratified Random Sampling
9
Branch Managers
Total
9
217
100%
30%
9
70
Available Sampling
Mixed
35
3.5.
Data Collection Instruments
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in
an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and
evaluate outcomes (Cooper & Schilndler, 2006). Questionnaire and interview will be the data
collection instruments to be used in this study. The researcher will use the questionnaire as the
major data collection instrument and the interview will be used as a supportive (triangulation)
data collecting instrument. The researcher selects these data gathering tools purposefully to
collect appropriate data, which help to achieve the intended objectives. The researcher will
prepare the instruments first in English and translate them into the participants’ working
language of the bank i.e. Amharic.
3.5.1. Questionnaire
For this study, the collection of primary data will be done using a five-point Likert scale type
of questionnaire designed to capture aspects of the four research questions. the questionnaire
will have four parts designed with the four socio-cultural factors (language, religion, value
system, and personality traits) that are considered as research variables for this study. The
choice of a questionnaire for this study is considered to be ideal given that questionnaires are
stable consistent and uniform offering a considered and objective view of issues. The
questionnaires that will be used in this study will contain both open and closed-ended
questions.
To validate the research instruments a pilot study will be conducted on a small sample of 5
respondents who will not be included in the final study. The pilot study will be used to identify
items on the questionnaire that are ambiguous to improve the final questionnaire.
3.5.2. Interview Guides
An interview is another data collection instrument to be used in this study. This interview will
be administered to all branch managers of the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia located in the
Harari Region. There are one to two hours of interview sessions with each of the interviewees.
After permission secured from the bank management, the interview will be administered in a
suitable place in the bank compound.
36
The researcher selects interviews to strengthen the data gathered through a questionnaire and
will focus on the effects of employees' socio-cultural values towards work attitude and job
satisfaction.
Since the interview is semi-structured, based on the answer of the interviewees, the researcher
can create or form other interview questions, which are not prepared before (Ranjit, 1999).
This means if the interviewees’ answer is not clear it gives a chance for the researcher to make
the interviewees elaborate the questions more by making the interview questions clear for the
respondents. The researcher will prepare the interview first in English and translates it into
Amharic, the working language of the bank. The researcher will give the interview questions
to two experts to help in correcting and translating the process of the interview.
3.6.
Data Collection Procedures
After the preparation of instruments for the data collection is completed, it will be administered
to the respondents accordingly. All the respondents will be informed well about the purpose of
the study. First, the researcher will dispatch the questionnaire and collect data from
accountants, cashiers, trainees, functional managers, auditors, and customer service officers of
all Commercial Banks of Ethiopia found in the Harari Region.
The questions to be included in the questionnaire will have four parts considering the four
employees' socio-cultural values to be used as variables in this study, into account. Then, the
interview will be administered to all branch managers of the banks. There are many different
ways connected to conducting the interviews. However, in this research work, two ways will
be used; audio recording and note-taking. As a result, the interview will be audio recorded to
make the most use of the data. Besides, notes will be taken during the interviews. An extra
backup recorder will also be prepared just in case anything will go wrong.
3.7.
Method of Data Analysis
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques, to
describe, illustrate and evaluate data (Cooper and Schilndler 2006). Quantitative data obtained
from the questionnaire will be analyzed the descriptive statistics analysis method.
37
Therefore, tabulation, frequency distributions, and percentages analysis will be used to analyze
quantitative data. The data will be coded and analyzed with MS Excel. Then, the data will
then be summarized and presented in tables and figures.
On the other hand, qualitative data analysis methods like narration will be employed to
examine information obtained through interviews. Based on the conceptual frameworks
designed, the researcher identifies broad ideas, concepts, behaviors, or phrases and assigns
codes to them. For example, coding age, gender, socio-economic status, and even concepts
such as the positive or negative response to a question. Coding is helpful in structuring and
labeling the data. Then, once the data is coded, the research can start identifying themes,
looking for the most common responses to questions, identifying data or patterns that can
answer research questions, and finding areas that can be explored further and analyzed and
interpreted thematically.
3.8.
Ethical Considerations
This research will be conducted by taking all ethical issues of research into
consideration. Participants of the study will be briefed about the purpose of the study and
asked for their consent to participate in the study. The participants will be told that all the data
gathered from the questionnaire and interview do not expose their identity. The interview will
be conducted separately and in private. The issue of confidentiality will also be assured to the
participants of the study and implemented accordingly.
38
4. WORK PLAN AND BUDGET
4.1.
Work Plan
Phase
Activities
Duration
1
Identifying the problem and getting approval of the title
March, 2021
2
Finding related literature review
April, 2021
3
Proposal preparation
May, 2021
4
Proposal submission
June, 2021
5
Proposal Defence
July , 2021
6
Further review of related literature
July, 2021
7
Preparation of data collection tools and gets approval
8
Field work: data collection
September, 2021
9
Data coding, editing, entry and analysis and writing first draft
November, 2021
10
Completing and editing the draft, and incorporating feedback
and rewriting
November, 2021
11
Refining and printing the final report and submission
December, 2021
12
Thesis Defence
December, 2021
August, 2021
39
4.2.
Budget Breakdown
Amount
Unit price
of value
Birr
Cent Birr
Cent
Day
10
250
00
2500
00
Per diem for data collectors/enumerators
Day
8
200
00
1600
00
Periderm for the focus group discussants
prs
5
200
00
1000
00
No
Description of the Activity
1
Per-diem and honorarium
1.1
Per diem for Researcher
1.2
1.3
Unit
Total price
and interviewees
2
Researcher Transport
2.1
Questionnaire
2
250
00
500
00
2.2
Interview and FGD
2
500
00
1000
00
3
Advisors’ Field Visit Fee
3.1
Major Advisor
Prs
1
2000
3.2
Co-advisor
Prs
1
2000
4
Miscellaneous expense
4.1
Communication fee
4.2
For interviewer/ Group discussion team tea
1,400
00
-
-
-
-
1000
00
-
-
-
-
2000
00
14,000
00
and coffee
5
Printing, laminating
Total
Contingency (0.7%)
-
-
-
-
1000
00
Grand total
-
-
-
-
15,000
00
Ethiopian MoE is the sponsor of this research work.
40
5. REFERENCES