23/09/2021
Slide 9
Large metropolitan areas show the contradictory aspects of the globalization, negative and positive effects
of globalization.
We can focus on some elements that contribute to define the geographical origin of globalization.
What is a discourse? = the way in which we try to understand how things change
Competing discourses about the geographical nature of Globalization
Pro-globalization
Globalization is a progressive trend. Spreading of market economy, increasing competition (increasing
efficiency in reserve allocations). Globalization means free trade and development, the spreading of Western
values, in particular democracy, liberal-democracy, free international markets, rights. It’s a process without
negative elements. Capitalism is considered as a moral good, based on economic growth, greater efficiency
in allocation and resources, leading everywhere. Global welfare games everywhere. World Bank, WTO,
media, rating agencies. The idea of enlightenment. TINA = there is no alternatives. The only thing we can do
is to promote globalization according to the preview’s aspect.
Anti-globalization
Globalization is regarded as to threat to local communities. Here the debate is very often focused on the
problem of multinational global firms. Also, from the culture’s point of view. Homogenization is considered
negative. Globalization is considered a threat for labour rights and environment equality. Globalization =
colonialism of the past. It’s regarded by that perspective the new form of the never-ending colonialist
attitude of Western economies. -> this perspective is too much focused on western countries point of view
De-westernalization
Globalization creates uneven geographies. Inequality is increasing both at international and domestic scales.
Alter-globalization
They consider globalization as a political agenda (discourse), a way of framing, in the interest of the few, at
the expenses of the many.
Human agencies are the concept: we can and have to choose. We have to understand the pros and cons.
Adopt the most relevant measures in order to reduce the negative impacts of globalization. The issue at steak
is who decides and for who. Some domains run very fast, other run very slowly (cultural exchange, tourism
flows run very fast. They’re dramatic processes. On the other hand, human rights, environment rights, ecc
the capacity of these domains run very slow.)
Why are global processes are running so fast? How to regulate in a better way these aspects of globalization?
Citizens of national states have a role in regulating the globalization.
Why should we reform globalization? For example environmental problems
Slide 10
Dialectical = they interact in both ways, in order to produce processes. This process creates local-local,
person-person networks of inclusion and exclusion that transcend territorial/national borders and tend to
become global in proportion.
Slide 11
The way in which globalization manifests itself is completely different.
The resource curse. There are many countries in Africa that are very rich talking about natural resources, but
they are very poor. Because on neo-colonialism/never-ending colonialism.
Quality of institutions: it plays a key role in explaining why some areas are more developed or less developed
than other areas.
Dialectical natural of globalization that means to understand how globalizing and localizing forces are
simultaneously working in politics, culture, and the economy.
Slide 12
Chapter 2
Kenichi Ohmae: he describes a new age of history. Completely new. Globalization = technology.
Dramatic growth of ICT are the most important drivers to globalization. It is not simply an exogenous force.
It’s a dynamic process.
We can say capitalism has won. It doesn’t exist only one type of capitalism. There is a form of mixed
capitalism, protectionist measures, we have witnessed the spreading of capitalism and liberal values. But the
spreading hasn’t followed the western way of seeing them.
Communism failed. The idea was that the spreading of the liberalism in economics would have contributed
to the spreading of liberal values of politics. When capitalism from a political point of view spreads, then also
liberalism in politics (human rights, democracy etc) will follow. The real answer is NO.
There is a relevant crisis of liberalism even in the countries in which liberalism was born.
THE END OF HISTORY AND THE LAST MAN – Francis Fukuyama
Sceptics – they question everything about globalization. Many of these scholars, the economy is no more
interconnected than the one in the past. They very often refer to the GOLD STANDARD PERIOD.
At the end of the gold standard period, it showed a very important level of integration. What is really
important is the quality of integration, the speed of changes, the different dimension that contribute to the
globalization process. Globalization of capital flows  a matter of spreading culture, global environmental
problem, of the flow’s capitals.
There were important levels of economic integration, today the situation is much complex and there are
different domains and dimensions.
Flows ARE NOT free and unrestricted, they are viscous. The idea that there’s a free movement of the
productive factors can’t be supported by the sceptical because the international system is viscous, there are
many regulations, the labour factor can’t move so freely, only some sectors or people can move (With some
limits) all the rest not.
 Flows are not so free as was supposed by hyper globalists. National government are the main drivers
that make the economic system change.
They continue to argue for them the most important trend is the spreading of regional blocks. These are
the distinguishing feature/character of (association of the South East nation etc, NAFTA, association of
the African countries etc). Globalization is regarded also as a narrative (way of explaining, of
communicating). It’s not something that is happening itself. It’s a political agenda. Established by the few
/most powerful characters. End state of the West historic process.
Globalization has to be tested empirically, and also has to be tested for its ideological mindset.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Globalization is real. Globalization had different stages and the stage that we are experiencing today has
dramatic impacts. Glob isn’t completely new since it has evolved from historical transition. Glob is
historically and geographically contingent, it is constructed by human actions and therefore there is no
pre-determined outcome. Altered, but still important. Glob is eroding national sovereignty -> for
example, Italy is not free to take economic decisions. However, the role of the national state is really
important even if some aspects are changing. From the economic point of view, trade, financial and
productive organization transcend more and more on national borders. The state as a container, where
the boarder is very clear. Able to contain in itself a financial, legal, product ecc system.
State as container is just a simple metaphor just to explain how states in the past were more
independent.
From a cultural point of view, cultural exchanges are more extensive. In the political fear the links
between the power of national states and the territory of these states …there’s a diffraction. Sovereignty
and the power are questioned. It means that there is a sort of political struggles (i.e. WTO and East Asia,
political struggle between some capital cities and national government). Political power in glob is
questioned because governance is polycentric. What we are witnessing is the organization or a very
difficult process of organization on multi-level governance.
Larger and larger political power in a low level: cities, single regions (Catalonia), Vallonia and Fiandre;
when we talk about governance below and above, we have to also consider cities, movements, NGOs,
regions. We have to remember that we have many different actors and different levels.