Advanced Pharmaceutical Analysis
2nd Semester, Year 5 (2023)
Lecture 1
Advanced Pharmaceutical Analysis
“Introduction”
Prof. Dr. Asim A. Balakit
Pharmaceutical Chemistry Dept.,
College of Pharmacy,
Babylon University
1
Introduction to Spectrochemical Methods
 How can we determine the structure of certain molecule?
 How can we determine the concentrations?
 What are the ingredients of these formulations?
 What is the concentration of the active compound in each of them?
2
Spectroscopy: is the study of the interaction between matter
and radiant energy.
Spectroscopic analytical methods are based on measuring the
amount of radiation absorbed (absorption spectroscopy) or
produced (emission spectroscopy) by molecular or atomic
species of interest.
Spectrochemical methods provide the most widely used tools
for the elucidation of molecular structure as well as the
quantitative and qualitative determination of both inorganic
and organic compounds.
3
Electromagnetic radiation is radiant energy having the properties of both
particles and waves.
A particle of electromagnetic radiation is called a photon.
Because electromagnetic radiation has both particle-like and wave-like
properties, it can be characterized by either:
Wavelength (Greek lambda; 𝜆): the distance from one wave maximum to
the next, it is generally measured in micrometers (μm; 10-6 m) or
nanometers (nm; 10-9 m).
or
Frequency (Greek nu; 𝝂): the number of waves that pass by a fixed point per
unit time, usually given in reciprocal seconds (s-1), or hertz (Hz), 1 Hz = 1 s-1
Amplitude: is the height of the wave measured from midpoint to the peak. The
intensity of the radiant energy is proportional to the square of the wave’s
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amplitude.
5
The frequency of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the speed of
light (c) divided by the radiation’s wavelength:
𝜈=
𝑐
𝜆
c = 3 x 1010 cm/s
The relationship between the energy (E) of a photon and the
frequency (or the wavelength) of the electromagnetic radiation is
described by the equation:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆
where ℎ is the proportionality constant called Planck’s constant,
named after the German physicist who discovered the relationship.
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Classification of spectroscopic methods according to region of the electromagnetic
spectrum involved: γ–ray, Xray, ultraviolet (UV), visible, infrared (IR), microwave, and radio
frequency (RF).
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Infrared Spectrophotometry
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Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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Mass spectrometry
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The reference on
which the lectures
are based is:
16
Other references:
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Infrared Spectroscopy
Lecture 1
Based on:
Pharmaceutical Analysis, David G. Watson, 3rd Edition
Organic Chemistry, L. G. Wade, Jr., 6th Edition
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Principles
Electromagnetic radiation ranging between 400 cm-1 and 4000 cm-1 (2500 and
20000 nm) is passed through a sample and is absorbed by the bonds of the
molecules in the sample causing them to stretch or bend. The wavelength of the
radiation absorbed is characteristic of the bond absorbing it.
Applications
 A qualitative fingerprint check for the identity of raw material used in
manufacture and for identifying drugs.
 Used in synthetic chemistry as a preliminary check for compound identity,
particularly for the presence or absence of a carbonyl group, which is difficult to
check by any other method.
 Can be used to characterize samples in the solid and semi-solid states such as
creams and tablets.
 Used as a fingerprint test for films, coatings and packaging plastics.
 Can be used to detect polymorphs of drugs (polymorphs are different crystal
forms of a molecule that have different physical properties such as solubility and
melting point, which may be important in the manufacturing process and
bioavailability).
Strengths
 Provides a complex fingerprint which is unique to the compound being examined.
 Computer control of instruments means that matching of the spectrum of a
compound to its standard fingerprint can now be readily carried out.
Limitations
 Rarely used as a quantitative technique because of relative difficulty in sample
preparation and the complexity of spectra.
 Usually can only detect gross impurities in samples.
 Sample preparation requires a degree of skill, particularly when potassium
bromide (KBr) discs are being prepared.
 The technique is lacking in robustness since sample handling can have an effect on
the spectrum obtained and thus care has to be taken in sample processing.
Vibration Modes:
Covalent bonds are not static and they are constantly vibrating .
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The vibrations are quantized, that means they occur only at
specific frequencies, which correspond to the frequency of IR
light.
During the bombardment of a molecule with IR light, when the
frequency of IR light matches the frequency of a particular
vibrational mode, the molecule will absorb the IR light , causing
the amplitude of the particular bond stretch or bond bend to
increase.
By determining the wave numbers of the energy absorbed by
a compound, we can know the kinds of bonds it has.
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Molecular Vibrations:
Stretching Vibrations
HCl has an absorbance
maximum at ca 2900 cm-1,
which results from the
transition between the
bottom vibrational state V0
and the first excited state V1
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Factors determining intensity and energy level of absorption in
IR spectra:
A- Intensity of absorption
The intensity with which a bond absorbs radiation depends on its dipole
moment. Thus the order of intensity of absorption for the following C–X
bonds is:
The intensity depends on the relative electronegativity of the atoms involved
in the bond.
The intensity of the stretching of carbon–carbon double bonds is increased
when they are conjugated to a polar double bond. The order of intensity is as
follows:
B- Energy level of absorption
The frequency of the stretching vibration depends on two factors:
1- Masses of the Atoms :
Heavier atoms vibrate more slowly than lighter ones which means frequency decreases
with increasing atomic weight.
e.g.
The characteristic frequency of a C-D bond is lower than that of a C-H bond.
2- Stiffness of the Bond: Stronger bonds are generally stiffer, they are requiring more
force to stretch or compress them. Thus, stronger bonds usually vibrate faster than
weaker bonds (assuming the atoms have similar masses).
In a group of bonds having atoms of similar masses, frequency increases with bond
energy.
e.g.
1- O-H bonds are stronger than C-H bonds, and 0-H bonds vibrate at higher
frequencies.
2- Triple bonds are stronger than double bonds, so triple bonds vibrate at higher
frequencies than double bonds.
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In a group of bonds with similar bond energies, the frequency decreases with
increasing atomic weight.
In a group of bonds between similar atoms, the frequency increases with bond
energy.
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Are all the vibrations IR-active?!
The rapidly reversing electric field (E) is one of the components of an
electromagnetic wave. This field alternately stretches and compresses a polar
bond.
If this alternate stretching and compressing of the bond occurs at the frequency of
the molecule's natural rate of vibration, energy may be absorbed.
Vibrations of bonds with dipole moments generally result in IR absorptions and are
said to be IR active.
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So, what is the IR-inactive vibration?!
If a bond is symmetrical and has zero dipole moment, the electric field does not interact
with the bond.
e.g.
The triple bond of the acetylene molecule: H-C≡C-H which has zero dipole moment
(whether the bond is stretched or compressed), so the vibration does not produce any
change in the dipole moment and consequently there is no energy absorption.
This kind of vibrations said to be IR-inactive because it produces no absorption in the IR
spectrum.
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What is the infrared spectrum?
It is a graph of the energy absorbed by a molecule as a function of the
frequency or wavelength of light.
e.g. The IR spectrum of methanol:
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IR Spectrometer:
Dispersive IR Spectrophotometer
A monochromator is used to select each wavenumber in turn in order to monitor its
intensity after the radiation has passed through the sample
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Fourier Transform IR Spectrophotometer
It generates a radiation source in which individual wavenumbers can be monitored within a
ca 1 s pulse of radiation without dispersion being required.
Michelson interferometer
used in FT–IR instruments.
The advantage of this technique is that a full spectral scan can be acquired in about 1 s,
compared with the 2–3 min required for a dispersive instrument to acquire a spectrum.
Also, because the instrument is attached to a computer, several spectral scans can be taken
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and averaged in order to improve the signal : noise ratio for the spectrum.
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Sample preparation:
The sample is run as a film sandwiched between two NaCl or potassium chloride (KCl)
discs. For this method the sample must be a liquid, in which case it can be run without
preparation, or must be ground to a paste in a liquid matrix, usually
liquid paraffin.
In this case the liquid paraffin (Nujol) contributes some peaks to the spectrum at ca 3000
cm1 and ca 1400–1500 cm-1.
However, sample preparation is relatively simple and this procedure is used where a
chemist just wants a quick identification of certain structural features in a molecule.
This procedure is also used to identify different crystal forms (polymorphs) of a drug
because the pressures used to prepare KBr discs can cause polymorph interconversion.
The sample is ground to a powder with KBr or KCl. KBr is usually used unless a
hydrochloride salt is being analysed, in which KCl is used to avoid halogen exchange.
On a weight-for-weight basis, the weight of the sample used is about 1% of the weight of
KBr used. This is the procedure used in pharmacopoeial methods to prepare a drug for
analysis by IR.
IR spectra of liquids or solutions in an organic solvent, commonly chloroform, may be
obtained by putting the liquid into a short pathlength cell with a width of ca 1 mm. Cells
are constructed from sodium or potassium chlorides and obviously aqueous samples
cannot be used.
Diffuse Reflectance Technique:
The diffuse reflectance technique is widely used in near-infrared spectrophotometry and it
can also be used to examine films and coatings if they are put onto a reflective
background.
It is also a useful technique for examining polymorphs since the sample can be prepared
for analysis with minimal grinding and compression, which can cause interconversion of
polymorphs.
Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)
Sample may be run in a gel or cream, and this method may be used to characterise
both formulation matrices and their interactions with the drugs present in them. If
the active ingredient is relatively concentrated and if a blank of the matrix is run using
the same technique it may be subtracted from the sample to yield a spectrum of the
active ingredient.
ATR also provides another technique which can be used for the characterisation of
polymorphs.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Lecture 2
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IR Spectroscopy of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons contain only carbon-carbon bonds and carbon-hydrogen
bonds.
Carbon-Carbon Bond Stretching
C - C single bond absorptions (and most other absorptions in the fingerprint
region) are not very reliable.
An infrared spectrum does not provide enough information to identify a structure
conclusively (unless an authentic spectrum is available to compare "fingerprints").
But, the absorptions of the carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds can
indicate the presence of double and triple bonds.
Carbon-carbon bond stretching frequencies:
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Effect of Conjugation:
Most unsymmetrically substituted double bonds produce observable stretching
absorptions in the region of 1600 to 1680 cm - 1 .
Isolated double bonds absorb around 1640 to 1 680 cm- 1, and conjugated double
bonds absorb around 1620 to 1 640 cm- 1 .
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The aromatic C=C bonds are more like 1.5 bonds than true C=C.
Their reduced π bonding results in less stiff bonds with lower stretching frequencies,
around 1600 cm-1.
Characteristic C=C stretching frequencies:
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Because C≡C bonds are stronger and stiffer than C=C, they absorb IR light at higher
frequencies.
Most alkyne C≡C bonds have stretching frequencies between 2100 and 2200 cm-1.
Terminal alkynes usually give sharp C≡C stretching signals of moderate intensity.
The C≡C stretching absorption of an internal alkyne may be weak or absent,
however, due to the symmetry of the disubstituted triple bond with a very small or
zero dipole moment.
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Carbon-Hydrogen Bond Stretching
The S orbital is closer to the nucleus than the p orbitals, and stronger, stiffer bonds
result from orbitals with more s character.
C-H bond with higher S character absorbs IR light at higher frequency.
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Hydrocarbons stretching frequencies:
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Problem: For each hydrocarbon spectrum, determine whether the compound is an alkane, an
alkene, an alkyne, or an aromatic hydrocarbon. More than one unsaturated group may be
present.
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Characteristic Absorptions of Alcohols and Amines:
The 0-H bonds of alcohols and the N-H bonds of amines are strong and stiff.
The vibration frequencies of 0-H and N-H bonds therefore occur at higher frequencies
than those of most C-H bonds (except for alkynyl ≡C-H bonds).
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The free O-H stretch is a sharp peak at 3650–3600 cm−1. This band appears in combination
with the hydrogen-bonded O-H peak when the alcohol is dissolved in a solvent.
The hydrogen-bonded O-H band is a broad peak at 3400–3300 cm−1. This band is usually the
only one present in an alcohol that has not been dissolved in a solvent (neat liquid). When
the alcohol is dissolved in a solvent, the free O-H and hydrogen-bonded O-H bands are
present together, with the relatively weak free O-H on the left.
(a) Hydrogen-bonded O-H only (neat liquid).
(b) Free and hydrogen-bonded O-H (dilute solution).
(c) Free and hydrogen-bonded O-H (very dilute solution).
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C-O-H Bending appears as a broad and weak peak at 1440–1220 cm−1, often obscured by
the CH3 bendings.
C-O Stretching vibration usually occurs in the range 1260–1000 cm−1. This band can be used
to assign a primary, secondary, or tertiary structure of an alcohols, or to determine whether
a phenolic compound is present.
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Methyl salicylate
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding, present in ortho-carbonyl-substituted phenols,
usually shifts the broad O-H band to a lower frequency. For example, the O-H band is
centered at about 3200 cm−1 in the neat spectrum of methyl salicylate, while O-H bands
from normal phenols are centered at about 3500 cm−1.
The intramolecular hydrogen-bonded band does not change its position significantly
even at high dilution because the internal bonding is not altered by a change in
concentration.
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These numbers should be considered base values. These C-O absorptions are shifted to lower
frequencies when unsaturation is present on adjacent carbon atoms or when the O-H is
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attached to a ring. Shifts of 30 to 40 cm−1 from the base values are common.
 Primary (1°) and secondary (2°) amines give absorptions of moderate strength in the 3300–
3500 cm-1 region.
 Primary amines exhibit two peaks in this region due to symmetric and asymmetric
stretching of the two N-H bonds.
 Secondary amines exhibit a single peak (weak one for aliphatic compounds and a stronger
one for aromatic secondary amines).
 Hydrogen bonding causes N-H stretching peaks of 1° and 2° amines to broaden.
 Tertiary amines show no N-H absorption because they have no such bond.
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 N-H Bend (scissoring) in primary amines results in a broad band in the range 1640–
1560 cm−1.
 In aromatic secondary amines, the band shifts to a lower frequency and appears
near 1500 cm−1. However, in aliphatic secondary amines the N-H bending vibration is
very weak and usually is not observed.
 N-H Out-of-plane bending absorption can sometimes be observed near 800 cm-1.
 C-N Stretch occurs in the range 1350–1000 cm-1. Aliphatic amines absorb from 1250
to 1000 cm−1, whereas aromatic amines absorb from 1350 to 1250 cm−1. (Why?!)
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Characteristic Absorptions of Carbonyl Compounds:
Because it has a large dipole moment, the C=O double bond produces intense infrared
stretching absorptions.
Carbonyl groups absorb at frequencies around 1700 cm-1, but the exact frequency
depends on the specific functional group and the rest of the molecule.
Some carbonyl groups absorb at frequencies higher than 1710 cm-1. For example, simple
carboxylic esters absorb around 1735 cm-1.
These higher-frequency absorptions are also seen in strained cyclic ketones (in a fivemembered ring or smaller). In a small ring, the angle strain on the carbonyl group forces
more electron density into the C=O double bond, resulting in a stronger, stiffer bond.
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The normal base values for the C=O stretching vibrations for the different
carbonyl groups are:
1810
Anhydride 1
1800
Acid chloride
1760
Anhydride2
1735
Ester
1725
Aldehyde
1715
Ketone
1710
Carboxylic acid
1690
Amide
cm-1
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Factors that influence the C=O stretching vibrations:
1- Resonance lowering of Carbonyl Frequencies:
Delocalization of the pi electrons reduces the electron density of the carbonyl double
bond, weakening it and lowering the stretching frequency from about 1710 cm- 1 to about
1685 cm- 1 for conjugated ketones, aldehydes, and acids.
The C=C absorption of a conjugated carbonyl compound may not be apparent in the IR
spectrum because it is so much weaker than the C=O absorption.
The presence of the C=C double bond is often inferred from its effect on the C=0
frequency and the presence of unsaturated =C-H absorptions above 3000 cm-1.
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Often, two closely spaced C=O absorption peaks are observed for these conjugated systems,
resulting from two possible conformations, the s-cis and s-trans.
The s-cis conformation absorbs at a frequency higher than the s-trans conformation. In some
cases, the C=O absorption is broadened rather than split into the doublet.
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2- Ring-Size Effects:
Six-membered rings with carbonyl groups are unstrained. Decreasing the ring size
increases the frequency of the C=O absorption.
For ketones and esters, there is often a 30 cm−1 increase in frequency for each
carbon removed from the unstrained six-membered ring values.
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3- α-Substitution Effects:
When the carbon next to the carbonyl is substituted with a chlorine (or other
halogen) atom, the carbonyl band shifts to a higher frequency.
4- Hydrogen-Bonding Effects:
Hydrogen bonding to a carbonyl group lengthens the C=O bond and lowers
the absorption frequency.
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Simple Ketones, Aldehydes, and Acids:
The C=O stretching vibrations of simple ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids occur
at frequencies around 1710 cm-1.
These frequencies are higher than those for C=C double bonds because the C=0 double
bond is stronger and stiffer.
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Infrared spectra of (a) 2-heptanone and (b) butyraldehyde. Both the ketone and the aldehyde
show intense carbonyl absorptions near 1710 cm-1. In the aldehyde spectrum, there are two
peaks (2720 and 2820 cm-1) characteristic of the aldehyde C-H stretch.
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A carboxylic acid produces a characteristic broad 0-H absorption in addition to the intense
carbonyl stretching absorption.
Because of the unusually strong hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acids, the broad 0-H
stretching frequency is shifted to about 3000 cm-I, centered on top of the usual C-H
absorption. This broad 0-H absorption gives a characteristic overinflated shape to the peaks in
the C-H stretching region.
Participation of the acid carbonyl group in hydrogen bonding frequently results in broadening
of the strong carbonyl absorption as well.
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Problem:
Determine the functional group(s) in the compound whose IR spectrum appears here.
A weak peak around 3400 cm-1, a strong peak about 1720 cm-1, and an unusual C-H
stretching region.
The C-H region has two additional peaks around 2720 and 2820 cm-1.
The strong peak at 1725 cm-1 must be a C=0, and the peaks at 2720 and 2820 cm-1 suggest
an aldehyde.
The weak peak around 3400 cm-1 might be mistaken for an alcohol 0-H.
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Problem:
Spectra are given for three
compounds. Each compound
has one or more of the
following functional groups:
alcohol,
amine,
ketone,
aldehyde, and carboxylic acid.
Determine the functional
group(s) in each compound.
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Amides:
The carbonyl groups of amides absorb at particularly low IR frequencies: about 1640 to
1680 cm-1.
The dipolar resonance structure places part of the pi bond between carbon and
nitrogen, leaving less than a full C=0 double bond.
Like primary amines, most primary amides show two spikes in the N–H stretching region
(about 3300 cm-1)
Secondary amides (like secondary amines) generally show one N–H spike.
The very low frequency of the amide carbonyl might be mistaken for an alkene C=C
stretch.
So, how can we distinguish between C=O and C=C absorptions, even when they appear in
the same region of the spectrum?!
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In the spectra of butyramide (C=O about 1640 cm-1) and 1-methylcyclopentene (C=C at
1658 cm-1) we can see three differences:
1. The amide carbonyl absorption is much stronger than the absorption of the alkene
double bond.
2. There are prominent N-H stretching absorptions in the amide spectrum.
3. There is an unsaturated C-H stretching (just to the left of 3000 cm-1 ) in the alkene
spectrum.
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 Conjugation does not reduce the C=O frequency in amides. The introduction of α,β,
unsaturation causes an increase in frequency from the base value given.
 Apparently, the introduction of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms removes electron
density from the carbonyl group and strengthens the bond instead of interacting by
resonance as in other carbonyl examples.
 Since the parent amide group is already highly stabilized, the introduction of the
C=C unsaturation does not overcome this resonance.
 Cyclic amides (lactams) give the expected increase in C=O frequency for decreasing
ring size.
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Esters:
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Examples:
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Conjugation with a Carbonyl Group (α,β Unsaturation or Aryl Substitution):
The C=O stretching vibrations are shifted by about 15 to 25 cm−1 to lower frequencies
with α,β unsaturation or aryl substitution.
Conjugation with the Ester Single-Bonded Oxygen:
Conjugation involving the single-bonded oxygen shifts the C=O vibrations to higher
frequencies.
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Examples:
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Hydrogen-Bonding Effects:
When intramolecular (internal) hydrogen bonding is present, the C=O is shifted to
a lower frequency.
Cyclic Esters (Lactones):
The C=O vibrations are shifted to higher frequencies with decreasing ring size.
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α-Halo Effects:
Halogenation on the carbon leads to an increase in the C=O frequency.
α-Keto Esters:
In principle, one should see two carbonyl groups for a compound with “ketone” and
“ester” functional groups. Usually, one sees a shoulder on the main absorption band
near 1735 cm−1 or a single broadened absorption band.
β-Keto Esters:
Although this class of compounds exhibits tautomerization less evidence exists for
the enol form because β-keto esters do not enolize to as great an extent.
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β-Keto esters exhibit a strong-intensity doublet for the two carbonyl groups at
about 1720 and 1740 cm−1 in the “keto” tautomer, presumably for the ketone
and ester C=O groups.
Evidence for the weak-intensity C=O band in the “enol” tautomer (often a
doublet) appears at about 1650 cm−1.
Because of the low concentration of the enol tautomer, one generally cannot
observe the broad O-H stretch that was observed in β-diketones
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C-O Stretching Vibrations in Esters:
Two (or more) bands appear for the C-O stretching vibrations in esters in the range
from 1300 to 1000 cm−1.
The C-O stretch next to the carbonyl group (the “acid” side) of the ester appears
between 1300 and 1150 cm−1 for most common esters.
The C-O stretch for the “alcohol” part of the ester may appear as a weaker band in the
range from 1150 to 1000 cm−1.
In analyzing the 1300- to 1000-cm−1 region to confirm an ester functional group, do
not worry about fine details. It is usually sufficient to find at least one very strong and
broad absorption to help identify the compound as an ester.
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Acid Chlorides:
C=O Stretching Vibrations
Acid chlorides show a very strong band for the C=O group that appears in the range
of 1810–1775 cm−1 for aliphatic acid chlorides.
Conjugation lowers the frequency.
The strong carbonyl absorption appears at a characteristically high frequency of
about 1800 cm−1 for saturated acid chlorides.
Conjugated acid chlorides absorb at a lower frequency (1780 to 1760 cm−1).
C-Cl Stretching Vibrations
These bands, which appear in the range from 730 to 550 cm−1, are best observed if
KBr plates or cells are used.
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Anhydrides:
Anhydrides show two strong bands for the C=O groups.
Simple alkyl-substituted anhydrides generally give bands near 1820 and 1750 cm−1.
Conjugation shifts each of the bands to lower frequencies (about 30 cm−1 each).
Simple five-membered ring anhydrides have bands at near 1860 and 1780 cm−1
Anhydrides and acid chlorides are the most common functional groups that have a
C=O peak appearing at such a high frequency.
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The characteristic pattern for noncyclic and saturated anhydrides is the appearance
of two strong bands, not necessarily of equal intensities, in the regions from 1830
to 1800 cm−1 and from 1775 to 1740 cm−1.
The two bands result from asymmetric and symmetric stretch.
Conjugation shifts the absorption to a lower frequency, while cyclization (ring
strain) shifts the absorption to a higher frequency.
The strong and broad C-O stretching vibrations occur in the region from 1300 to
900 cm−1.
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ETHERS
Simple aliphatic ethers can be distinguished from alkanes by the presence of the
C-O band.
The most prominent band is that due to C-O stretch, 1300–1000 cm−1.
Absence of C=O and O-H is required to ensure that C-O stretch is not due to an
ester or an alcohol.
Phenyl alkyl ethers give two strong bands at about 1250 and 1040 cm−1, while
aliphatic ethers give one strong band at about 1120 cm−1.
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Dialkyl Ethers:
The asymmetric C-O-C stretching vibration leads to a single strong absorption that
appears at about 1120 cm−1, as seen in the spectrum of dibutyl ether.
The symmetric stretching band at about 850 cm−1 is usually very weak. The
asymmetric C-O-C absorption also occurs at about 1120 cm−1 for a six-membered
ring containing oxygen.
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Aryl and Vinyl Ethers:
Aryl alkyl ethers give rise to two strong bands: an asymmetric C-O-C stretch near
1250 cm−1 and a symmetric stretch near 1040 cm−1, as seen in the spectrum of
anisole.
Vinyl alkyl ethers also give two bands: one strong band assigned to an asymmetric
stretching vibration at about 1220 cm−1 and one very weak band due to a symmetric
stretch at about 850 cm−1.
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The shift in the asymmetric stretching frequencies in aryl and vinyl ethers to values
higher than were found in dialkyl ethers can be explained through resonance.
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Nitriles:
Stretch is a medium-intensity, sharp absorption near 2250 cm−1. Conjugation with double
bonds or aromatic rings moves the absorption to a lower frequency.
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The C≡N group in a nitrile gives a medium-intensity, sharp band in the
triple-bond region of the spectrum (2270 to 2210 cm−1).
The C≡C bond, which absorbs near this region (2150 cm−1), usually gives a weaker
and broader band unless it is at the end of the chain.
Aliphatic nitriles absorb at about 2250 cm−1, whereas their aromatic counterparts
absorb at lower frequencies, near 2230 cm−1.
C=N:
The C=N bond absorbs in about the same range as a C=C bond.
Although the C=N band varies in intensity from compound to compound, it usually is
more intense than that obtained from the C=C bond.
An oxime (R-CH=N-O-H) gives a C=N absorption in the range from 1690 to 1640 cm−1
and a broad O-H absorption between 3650 and 2600 cm−1.
An imine (R-CH=N-R) gives a C=N absorption in the range from 1690 to 1650 cm−1.
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Infrared Spectroscopy
Lecture 3
101
APPLICATION OF IR SPECTROPHOTOMETRY IN STRUCTURE ELUCIDATION
EXAMPLES OF IR SPECTRA OF DRUG MOLECULES
Infrared spectrum
of paracetamol as
a KBr disc.
The infrared spectrum of
aspirin as a KBr disc.
The infrared spectrum
of
dexamethasone
obtained as a KBr disc.
IR
spectrum
of
Phenoxymethyl penicillin
potassium.
Obtained as a KBr disc.
IR spectrophotometry as a fingerprint technique