CHAPTER X:
OBSERVATION
Observation- as a means of gathering
information for research, may be defined
apperceiving data through the senses: sight,
hearing, taste, touch, and smell. The sense of
sight is the most important and most used
among the senses. Observation is the most
direct way and the most widely used in
studying behavior.
PURPOSES OF OBSERVATION
The purposes of observation are the following: (why
observation is necessary)
1. To enable the researcher to gather empirical data
which are difficult to obtain by others means, this
is especially true in anthropological studies in
which the life cycle, social and economic activities,
the motivations and aspirations, and other
practices of a group are to be described in detail.
2. To enable the researcher to gather sufficient
data to supplement or verify information
gathered by other means.
3. To enable the researcher into gather
information or data needed to described the
aspect of a variable being studied which
cannot be described accurately without
observation. In case studies, for example,
especially in clinical and psychiatric cases,
observation of the behavior of the subject is a
vital tool in gathering data for the case.
4. To enable the researcher to gather directly
primary data or first-hand information for his
study for a more accurate description and
interpretation.
5. To enable the researches to gather data from the
laboratory or elsewhere through experimentation.
Observation enables him to collect data through
experimentation. Data gathered through experiment
are more or less accurate, valid, and reliable
because the variables involved are under the rigid
control of the experimenter.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
The types of observation are the following:
1. Participant and nonparticipant observation
2. Structured and unstructured observation.
3. Controlled and uncontrolled observation.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
1. The investigator is able to gather directly,
first-hand information about the subject of his
study. This kind of information is more
accurate, more valid, and more reliable than
any information gathered through other
means.
2. The researcher can observe his subjects
for as long as he needs the time and as
many times as he can for greater accuracy
and validity in description and
interpretation.
3. Observation is a superior technique
of collecting information from nonverbal behavior and Inanimate objects.
The observer is in a good position to
descend the significance of an
inanimate Object or a non-verbal
behavior.
4. The subjects of the injury can be
observed in their natural settings and this
will exclude artificiality true in participant
and uncontrolled and unstructured
observation.
Disadvantages of observation
1.In observation in natural settings, there is a lack
of control upon extraneous variables which may
adversely affect the validity of attributing certain
causes upon certain effects. In farming, for
instance, an increase in production may be
attributed to use of fertilizer, but there are other
factors involved such as water management, weed
control, eradication of pests, and the like.
2. There is a smaller size of sample if the
universe covers a very wide area and the
researcher cannot afford to observe a
substantial area. This makes description
and interpretation less accurate and less
valid
3. It is difficult to quantify data for
standard tabulation especially in
unstructured observation and when
recording is done in the essay form.
4. Sometimes it is hard to gain entry into
the area to be observed. This is true if the
research problem is a sensitive and
controversial one such as a study on
prostitution, graft and corruption, nude
colonies, and the like.
5. Lack of anonymity makes the observed
subjects withdraw or keep secret some
vital but sensitive and controversial
information. In graft and corruption, for
instance, the subjects may become very
secretive.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION FOR
RESEARCH PURPOSES
Characteristics that distinguish observation for systematic investigation
purposes may be differentiated from ordinary” looking around” as follows:
(good and scates,pp.648-649)
1. OBSERVATION IS SPECIFIC.
2. OBSERVATION IS SYSTEMATIC.
3. OBSERVATION IS QUANTITATIVE.
4. OBSERVATION IS RECORDED IMMEDIATELY.
5. OBSERVATION IS DONE AN EXPERT.
6. OBSERVATION RESULTS CAN BE CHECKED AND VERIFIED.
Recording the results of observation
Generally, the results of observation should be recorded
immediately. There are some forms for recording the results of
observation. They are as follows:
1. The checklist. A checklist is a device which contains the items
to be observed and a space for number or checkmarks or short
verbal entries. (Bradfield and Moredock, p. 52) Below are some
samples.
a. Checklist with short verbal entries. Suppose a boy is to be
observed in physical education. The items to be observed are listed
down to be followed by short verbal description of each item.
HOW TO DESIGN A CHECKLIST. THE STEPS IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF A CHECKLIST ARE AS FOLLOWS:
(BRADFIELD AND MOREDOCK, P. 53)
1. Enumerate (list down) the dimensions (factors) to
be observed.
2. Define them very clearly. (What they are exactly)
3. Eliminate those that are vague or repetitive.
4. Arrange them on a sheet of paper in a manner
most convenient for observing and recording.
5. Include space for identifying data.
6. Try out the form. (This is called a dry
run)
7. Revise the form on the basis of the try
out and your experience.
8. Write the checklist in its final form.
Rating Scales - is a checklist with an
evaluation standard. The types of rating
scales are numerous but some may be
given. In observing a pupil’s behavior, the
following may be used:
3. Anecdote Forms
An anecdote record is a checklist that provides for less
breakdown of dimensions or factors and hence, much
space is provided for writing.It minimizes the use of
highly subjective impressions in recording and obtains
instead an objective description of behavior. Following is
an example of an anecdotal record about a case study of
a pupil taking physical education. (Bradfield and
Moredock, p. 52)
Characteristics of proper anecdotal recording. Proper
anecdotal recording is characterized by the following:
(Bradfield and Moredock, p. 54)
1. What is written down is what was seen or heard. Inferences,
guesses, or assumptions are omitted unless they are labeled as
inferences, guesses, or assumptions.
2. The observer has determined what aspects of behavior are
related to the dimension being appraised. He observes these only
and records these only.
3. If the record is to be cumulative, a plan of periodic observation
and recording is established and adhered to.
4. Words and phrases to be used are those with meanings
which are clear, and unequivocal.
5. Words and phrases to be employed are those that are
definable in terms of things rather than other words.
Concrete statements are preferred to abstract ones. For
example, “He became pale and his hands trembled,” not
“He became disturbed.”
6. Words and phrases to be avoided are those which
express the observer’s judgment or his opinion, and not
just his perception. Among the frequently encountered,
“judgmental” terms that should be avoided are these:
a. well-behaved
f. nervous
b. delinquent
g. happy
c. aggressive
d. didn’t try
e. industrious
4. Mechanical Recording
A partial summary of the mechanical aids available for
recording include the following: (Good and Scates, pp,
655-656)
a. Motion and still pictures;
b. Sound recording (tape or video-tape);
c. A one-way vision screen or mirror;
d. An experimental or isolation cabinet for infants;
e. A photographic dome (with a one-way vision screen and
tracks for movement of the camera)
f. An electric-eye “ticker” to count the number of autos passing a given spot;
g. A counting apparatus at the gate or door to keep a current record of
attendance;
h. An observer with a “ticker” device in his hand to count the number of
persons passing a paricular spot;
i. A mechanical recording device attached to the radio at home to indicate to
headquarters that the radio is in use (or to record a vote on questions
presented over the radio, or to register the extent to which the radio is used);
j. A recorder of the number of telephone calls placed per month;
k. An applause meter;
l. And odometer on an auto
5. Stenographic Recording
Some observers resort to stenographic recording
when they want to record the aspects to be observed
as fast as they occur. This is good especially in
anecdotal recording because all the aspects to be
observed and heard can be recorded. However,
transcription has to be as accurate as possible.
Making Observation More Valid and Reliable
The following must be observed to make observation more
valid and reliable:
1. Use observation where and when other data gathering
devices cannot be used.
2. Use appropriate observation forms.
3. Record immediately.
4. Be as objective as possible.
5. Base evaluation on several observations.