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Theodore Roosevelt
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the president of the United States. For other people with the
same name, see Theodore Roosevelt (disambiguation).
Theodore Roosevelt
Portrait by Pach Bros., c. 1904
26th President of the United States
In office
September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909
Vice President


None (1901–1905)[a]
Charles W. Fairbanks
(1905–1909)
Preceded by
William McKinley
Succeeded by
William Howard Taft
25th Vice President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1901 – September 14, 1901
President
William McKinley
Preceded by
Garret Hobart
Succeeded by
Charles W. Fairbanks
33rd Governor of New York
In office
January 1, 1899 – December 31, 1900
Lieutenant
Timothy L. Woodruff
Preceded by
Frank S. Black
Succeeded by
Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
In office
April 19, 1897 – May 10, 1898
President
William McKinley
Preceded by
William McAdoo
Succeeded by
Charles Herbert Allen
President of the New York City Board of Police Commissioners
In office
May 6, 1895 – April 19, 1897
Appointed by
William Lafayette Strong
Preceded by
James J. Martin
Succeeded by
Frank Moss
Commissioner of the United States Civil Service Commission
In office
May 7, 1889[1] – May 6, 1895
Appointed by
Benjamin Harrison
Preceded by
John H. Oberly[2]
Succeeded by
John B. Harlow[3]
Minority Leader of the New York State Assembly
In office
January 1, 1883 – December 31, 1883
Preceded by
Thomas G. Alvord
Succeeded by
Frank Rice
Member of the New York State Assembly
from the 21st district
In office
January 1, 1882 – December 31, 1884
Preceded by
William J. Trimble
Succeeded by
Henry A. Barnum
Personal details
Born
Theodore Roosevelt Jr.
October 27, 1858
New York City, U.S.
Died
January 6, 1919 (aged 60)
Oyster Bay, New York, U.S.
Resting place
Youngs Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay
Political party
Republican (1880–1912, 1916–1919)
Other political
Progressive "Bull Moose" (1912–1916)
affiliations
Spouses

Alice Lee
(m. 1880; died 1884)

Edith Carow
(m. 1886)
Children
Parents
Relatives
Education

Alice

Theodore III

Kermit

Ethel

Archibald

Quentin

Theodore Roosevelt Sr.

Martha Bulloch Roosevelt
Roosevelt family

Harvard University (AB)

Columbia Law School
(no degree)
Occupation

Author

conservationist

explorer

historian

naturalist

police commissioner

politician

soldier

sportsman
Civilian awards Nobel Peace Prize (1906)
Signature
Military service
Branch/service
United States Army
 1882–1886 (New York National Guard)
Years of service
 1898
Rank
Colonel
Commands
1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry
Battles/wars

Spanish–American War
o
Battle of Las
Guasimas
o
Battle of San Juan
Hill
Military awards Medal of Honor (posthumous, 2001)
Theodore Roosevelt's voice
Roosevelt giving a speech during his third presidential campaign
Recorded 1912
This article is part of
a series about
Theodore Roosevelt

Political positions

Electoral history

Early life


The Naval War of 1812

Rough Riders
o

Family
Battle of San Juan Hill
1886 New York City mayoral election
33rd Governor of New York


Governorship
"The Strenuous Life"
25th Vice President of the United States

1900 McKinley-Roosevelt campaign

"Speak softly and carry a big stick"
26th President of the United States

Presidency
o
Timeline
First term

McKinley assassination


1st inauguration

Square Deal

West Wing

Coal strike
Booker T. Washington dinner

Venezuela crisis
o
Roosevelt Corollary
Second term

1904 campaign
o

2nd inauguration


Election
Conservation

Antiquities Act

Forest Service
Pure Food and Drug Act


FDA
Swift & Co. v. United States

Meat Inspection Act

Treaty of Portsmouth

Nobel Prize


Panama Canal

Great White Fleet


FBI
1912 election
Republican Convention

Progressive Party
o


Convention
New Nationalism
Assassination attempt
Post Presidency

African Expedition

River of Doubt Expedition

"Citizenship in a Republic"

WWI volunteers

Legacy

Memorials

Depictions

v

t

e
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (/ˈroʊzəvɛlt/ ROH-zə-velt;[b] October 27, 1858 – January 6,
1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician,
statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as
the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. He previously served as
the 25th vice president under President William McKinley from March to September
1901 and as the 33rd governor of New York from 1899 to 1900. Assuming the
presidency after McKinley's assassination, Roosevelt emerged as a leader of
the Republican Party and became a driving force for antitrust and Progressive policies.
A sickly child with debilitating asthma, he overcame his health problems as he grew
by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. Roosevelt integrated his exuberant personality
and a vast range of interests and achievements into a "cowboy" persona defined by
robust masculinity. He was home-schooled and began a lifelong naturalist avocation
before attending Harvard College. His book The Naval War of 1812 (1882)
established his reputation as a learned historian and popular writer. Upon entering
politics, Roosevelt became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New
York's state legislature. His first wife and mother died on the same night, devastating
him psychologically. He recuperated by buying and operating a cattle ranch in the
Dakotas. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President
McKinley, and in 1898 helped plan the highly successful naval war against Spain. He
resigned to help form and lead the Rough Riders, a unit that fought the Spanish
army in Cuba to great publicity. Returning a war hero, Roosevelt was elected
governor of New York in 1898. The New York state party leadership disliked his
ambitious agenda and convinced McKinley to choose him as his running mate in
the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously and the McKinley–Roosevelt
ticket won a landslide victory based on a platform of victory, peace, and prosperity.
Roosevelt assumed the presidency at age 42, and remains the youngest person to
become president of the United States. As a leader of the progressive movement he
championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies. It called for fairness for all citizens,
breaking of bad trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Roosevelt
prioritized conservation and established national parks, forests, and monuments to
preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central
America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt expanded
the Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project American naval
power. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him
the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt was elected to a full term in 1904 and
promoted policies more to the left, despite growing opposition from Republican
leaders. During his presidency, he groomed his close ally William Howard Taft to
succeed him in the 1908 presidential election.
Roosevelt grew frustrated with Taft's conservatism and belatedly tried to win
the 1912 Republican nomination for president. He failed, walked out, and founded
the new Progressive Party. He ran in the 1912 presidential election and the split
allowed the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the election. Following the
defeat, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition to the Amazon basin where he nearly
died of tropical disease. During World War I, he criticized Wilson for keeping the
country out of the war, and his offer to lead volunteers to France was rejected.
Roosevelt considered running for president again in 1920, but his health continued to
deteriorate and he died in 1919. Polls of historians and political scientists rank him
as one of the greatest presidents in American history.
Early life and family
Theodore Roosevelt at age 11
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at 28 East 20th
Street in Manhattan, New York City.[5] He was the second of four children born to
socialite Martha Stewart Bulloch and businessman and philanthropist Theodore
Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister (Anna), a younger brother (Elliott) and a
younger sister (Corinne).[6] Elliott was later the father of Anna Eleanor Roosevelt who
married Theodore's distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal
grandfather was of Dutch descent;[7] his other ancestry included primarily Scottish
and Scots-Irish, English[8] and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and
French.[9] Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack
"C. V. S." Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill as well as a brother of Robert
Roosevelt and James A. Roosevelt. Theodore's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I,
who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt. Martha was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and
Martha P. "Patsy" Stewart.[10] Through the Van Schaacks, Roosevelt was a
descendant of the Schuyler family.[11]
Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He
repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience
of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors
had no cure.[12] Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive.[13] His
lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local
market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they
called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Having learned the rudiments
of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he
then studied the animals and prepared them for exhibition. At age nine, he recorded
his observation of insects in a paper entitled "The Natural History of Insects".[14]
Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father was a prominent leader in
New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and
had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union during the American
Civil War, even though his in-laws included Confederate leaders. Roosevelt said,
"My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined
strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He
would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or
untruthfulness."
6-year-old Theodore and 5-year-old Elliott watch Lincoln's funeral procession from the second-floor window
of their grandfather's mansion (at top left, facing the camera), Manhattan, April 25, 1865.
Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872,
shaped his cosmopolitan perspective.[15] Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869,
Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the
significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his
spirits.[16] Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by
two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and
strengthen his body.[17][18]
A 6-year-old Roosevelt witnessed the funeral procession of Abraham Lincoln from
his grandfather Cornelius's mansion in Union Square, New York City, where he was
photographed in the window along with his brother Elliott, as confirmed by his
second wife, Edith, who was also present.[19]
Education
Roosevelt was homeschooled, mostly by tutors and his parents.[20] Biographer H. W.
Brands argued that "The most obvious drawback to his home schooling was uneven
coverage of the various areas of human knowledge."[21] He was solid in geography
and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in
mathematics and the classical languages. When he entered Harvard College on
September 27, 1876, his father advised: "Take care of your morals first, your health
next, and finally your studies."[22] His father's sudden death on February 9, 1878,
devastated Roosevelt, but he eventually recovered and doubled his activities. [23]
His father, a devout Presbyterian, regularly led the family in prayers. While at
Harvard, young Theodore emulated him by teaching Sunday School for more than
three years at Christ Church in Cambridge. When the minister at Christ Church,
which was an Episcopal church, eventually insisted he become an Episcopalian to
continue teaching in the Sunday School, Roosevelt declined, and instead began
teaching a mission class in a poor section of Cambridge.[24]
He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in
Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished
naturalist and a published ornithologist. He read prodigiously with an almost
photographic memory.[25] While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing
and boxing; he was once runner-up in an intramural boxing tournament.[26] Roosevelt
was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society (later the Fly Club), the Delta
Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club; he was also an editor
of The Harvard Advocate. In 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of
177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude. Biographer Henry F.
Pringle states:
Roosevelt, attempting to analyze his college career and weigh the benefits he had
received, felt that he had obtained little from Harvard. He had been depressed by the
formalistic treatment of many subjects, by the rigidity, the attention to minutiae that
were important in themselves, but which somehow were never linked up with the
whole.[27]
Roosevelt's birthplace at 28 East 20th Street in Manhattan, New York City
After his father's death, Roosevelt had inherited $65,000 (equivalent to $1,825,155 in
2021), enough wealth on which he could live comfortably for the rest of his
life.[28] Roosevelt gave up his earlier plan of studying natural science and decided to
attend Columbia Law School instead, moving back into his family's home in New
York City. Although Roosevelt was an able law student, he often found law to be
irrational. He spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812.[29]
Determined to enter politics, Roosevelt began attending meetings at Morton Hall, the
59th Street headquarters of New York's 21st District Republican Association. Though
Roosevelt's father had been a prominent member of the Republican Party, the
younger Roosevelt made an unorthodox career choice for someone of his class, as
most of Roosevelt's peers refrained from becoming too closely involved in politics.
Roosevelt found allies in the local Republican Party and defeated an incumbent
Republican state assemblyman tied to the political machine of Senator Roscoe
Conkling closely. After his election victory, Roosevelt decided to drop out of law
school, later saying, "I intended to be one of the governing class." [30]
Naval history and strategy
While at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by
the United States Navy in the War of 1812.[31][32] Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized
original source materials and official U.S. Navy records, ultimately publishing The
Naval War of 1812 in 1882. The book contained drawings of individual and combined
ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon
shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences and similarities between
British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Upon release, The
Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style and it remains a
standard study of the war.[33]
With the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History in 1890, Navy
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was hailed as the world's outstanding naval theorist by
the leaders of Europe immediately. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's
emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the
world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. [34][35] He
incorporated Mahan's ideas into his views on naval strategy for the remainder of his
career.[36][37]
First marriage and widowerhood
In 1880, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee.[38][39] Their daughter, Alice
Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Two days later, the new mother died
of undiagnosed kidney failure that the pregnancy masked. In his diary, Roosevelt
wrote a large "X" on the page and then, "The light has gone out of my life." His
mother, Martha, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the
same house on 57th Street in Manhattan. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the
care of his sister Bamie while he grieved; he assumed custody of Alice when she
was three.[40]
After the deaths of his wife and mother, Roosevelt focused on his work, specifically
by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City
government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized
in the mayor's office.[41] For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice
and did not write about her in his autobiography.[42]
Early political career
State Assemblyman
Roosevelt as New York State Assemblyman, 1883
Roosevelt was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.)
in 1882, 1883, and 1884.[43] He began making his mark immediately and in handling
in corporate corruption issues specifically.[43] He blocked a corrupt effort of
financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt also exposed the suspected
collusion of Gould and Judge Theodore Westbrook and argued for and received
approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the judge to be impeached.
Although the investigation committee rejected the proposed impeachment, Roosevelt
had exposed the potential corruption in Albany and assumed a high and positive
political profile in multiple New York publications.[44]
Roosevelt's anti-corruption efforts helped him win re-election in 1882 by a margin
greater than two-to-one, an achievement made even more impressive by the victory
that Democratic gubernatorial candidate Grover Cleveland won in Roosevelt's
district.[45] With Conkling's Stalwart faction of the Republican Party in disarray
following the assassination of President James Garfield, Roosevelt won election as
the Republican party leader in the state assembly. He allied with Governor Cleveland
to win passage of a civil service reform bill.[46] Roosevelt won re-election a second
time and sought the office of Speaker of the New York State Assembly, but Titus
Sheard obtained the position in a 41 to 29 vote of the GOP caucus instead. [47][48] In his
final term, Roosevelt served as Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities,
during which he wrote more bills than any other legislator.[49]
Presidential election of 1884
See also: 1884 United States presidential election
With numerous presidential hopefuls from whom to choose, Roosevelt supported
Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP
preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, known for
passing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. Roosevelt fought for and succeeded
in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took
control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the
supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; consequently, he gained a national
reputation as a key politician in his state.[50]
Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and gave a
speech convincing delegates to nominate African American John R. Lynch, an
Edmunds supporter, to be the temporary chair. Roosevelt fought alongside
the Mugwump reformers against Blaine. However Blaine gained support from
Arthur's and Edmunds's delegates, and won the nomination on the fourth ballot. In a
crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of his
fellow Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success:
"We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for
temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to
get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe." [51] He was also
impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest
crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics,
Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his
new "Chimney Butte Ranch" on the Little Missouri River.[52] Roosevelt refused to join
other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and
the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of
staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the
nomination, Roosevelt had said carelessly that he would give "hearty support to any
decent Democrat". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not
been meant "for publication".[53] When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine,
Roosevelt replied, "That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to
talk about."[54] In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his
role in the GOP and he did so in a press release on July 19.[55] Having lost the
support of many reformers, Roosevelt decided to retire from politics and move
to North Dakota.[56]
Cattle rancher in Dakota
Theodore Roosevelt as Badlands hunter in 1885. New York studio photo.
Roosevelt first visited the Dakota Territory in 1883 to hunt bison.[57] Exhilarated by
the western lifestyle and with the cattle business booming in the territory, Roosevelt
invested $14,000 in hopes of becoming a prosperous cattle rancher. For the next
several years, he shuttled between his home in New York and his ranch in Dakota. [58]
Following the 1884 United States presidential election, Roosevelt built a ranch
named Elkhorn, which was 35 mi (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North
Dakota. Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope, and hunt on the banks of
the Little Missouri. Though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they
were not overly impressed.[59] However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a
man he said possesses "few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired
by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern,
manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation".[60][61] He reoriented and began writing
about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books: Hunting
Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness
Hunter.[62]
Roosevelt successfully led efforts to organize ranchers there to address the
problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns, which resulted in the formation
of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He felt compelled to promote
conservation and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal
was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats. [63] In 1886, Roosevelt
served as a deputy sheriff in Billings County, North Dakota. During this time he and
two ranch hands hunted down three boat thieves.[64]
The uniquely severe U.S. winter of 1886–1887 wiped out his herd of cattle and those
of his competitors and over half of his $80,000 investment.[65][66] He ended his
ranching life and returned to New York, where he escaped the damaging label of an
ineffectual intellectual.[67]
Second marriage
On December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood friend, Edith Kermit
Carow.[68] Roosevelt felt deeply troubled that his second marriage had taken place
very quickly after the death of his first wife and he also faced resistance from his
sisters.[69] Nonetheless, the couple married at St George's, Hanover Square, in
London, England.[70] The couple had five children: Theodore "Ted" III in
1887, Kermit in 1889, Ethel in 1891, Archibald in 1894, and Quentin in 1897. They
also raised Roosevelt's daughter from his first marriage, Alice, who often clashed
with her stepmother.[71]
Reentering public life
Upon Roosevelt's return to New York in 1886, Republican leaders quickly
approached him about running for mayor of New York City in the 1886
election.[72] Roosevelt accepted the nomination despite having little hope of winning
the race against United Labor Party candidate Henry George and Democratic
candidate Abram Hewitt. Roosevelt campaigned hard for the position, but Hewitt won
with 41% (90,552 votes), taking the votes of many Republicans who feared George's
radical policies.[73][74] George was held to 31% (68,110 votes), and Roosevelt took third
place with 27% (60,435 votes). Fearing that his political career might never recover,
Roosevelt turned his attention to writing The Winning of the West, a historical work
tracking the westward movement of Americans; the book was a great success for
Roosevelt, earning favorable reviews and selling numerous[clarification needed] copies.[75]
Civil Service Commission
After Benjamin Harrison unexpectedly defeated Blaine for the presidential
nomination at the 1888 Republican National Convention, Roosevelt gave stump
speeches in the Midwest in support of Harrison.[76] On the insistence of Henry Cabot
Lodge, President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service
Commission, where he served until 1895.[77] While many of his predecessors had
approached the office as a sinecure,[78] Roosevelt vigorously fought
the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws.[79] The Sun then
described Roosevelt as "irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic".[80] Roosevelt
frequently clashed with Postmaster General John Wanamaker, who handed out
numerous patronage positions to Harrison supporters, and Roosevelt's attempt to
force out several postal workers damaged Harrison politically.[81] Despite Roosevelt's
support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual
winner, Grover Cleveland, reappointed him to the same post.[82] Roosevelt's close
friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils
system:
The very citadel of spoils politics, the hitherto impregnable fortress that had existed
unshaken since it was erected on the foundation laid by Andrew Jackson, was
tottering to its fall under the assaults of this audacious and irrepressible young man...
Whatever may have been the feelings of the (fellow Republican party) President
(Harrison)—and there is little doubt that he had no idea when he appointed
Roosevelt that he would prove to be so veritable a bull in a china shop—he refused
to remove him and stood by him firmly till the end of his term.[80]
New York City Police Commissioner
In 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for
Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being
removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he
had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to
the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed
that there would be no repeat of it.[83]
William Lafayette Strong, a reform-minded Republican, won the 1894 mayoral
election and offered Roosevelt a position on the board of the New York City Police
Commissioners.[76][84] Roosevelt became president of the board of commissioners and
radically reformed the police force. Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of
firearms and annual physical exams, appointed recruits based on their physical and
mental qualifications rather than political affiliation, established Meritorious Service
Medals, and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging
House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to
register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses.[85]
In 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper
journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the
city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives. Riis
described how his book affected Roosevelt:
When Roosevelt read [my] book, he came... No one ever helped as he did. For two
years we were brothers in (New York City's crime-ridden) Mulberry Street. When he
left I had seen its golden age... There is very little ease where Theodore Roosevelt
leads, as we all of us found out. The lawbreaker found it out who predicted scornfully
that he would "knuckle down to politics the way they all did", and lived to respect
him, though he swore at him, as the one of them all who was stronger than pull...
that was what made the age golden, that for the first time a moral purpose came into
the street. In the light of it everything was transformed.[86]
Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the
morning to make sure that they were on duty.[87] He made a concerted effort to
uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against
boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police
Commission was being legislated out of existence. His crackdowns led to protests
and demonstrations. Invited to one large demonstration, not only did he surprisingly
accept, he delighted in the insults, caricatures, and lampoons directed at him, and
earned some surprising good will.[88] Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with
his party.[89] As Governor of New York State, he would later sign an act replacing the
Police Commission with a single Police Commissioner.[90]
Emergence as a national figure
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
The Asiatic Squadron destroying the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898
In the 1896 presidential election, Roosevelt backed Speaker of the House Thomas
Brackett Reed for the Republican nomination, but William McKinley won the
nomination and defeated William Jennings Bryan in the general election.[91] Roosevelt
strongly opposed Bryan's free silver platform, viewing many of Bryan's followers as
dangerous fanatics. He gave scores of campaign speeches for McKinley. [92] Urged by
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, President McKinley appointed Roosevelt as
the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897.[93] Secretary of the Navy John D.
Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and
left many major decisions to Roosevelt. Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan,
Roosevelt called for a build-up in the country's naval strength, particularly the
construction of battleships.[94] Roosevelt also began pressing his national security
views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley, and was particularly
adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba.[95] He explained his priorities to one of the
Navy's planners in late 1897:
I would regard war with Spain from two viewpoints: first, the advisability on the
grounds both of humanity and self-interest of interfering on behalf of the Cubans,
and of taking one more step toward the complete freeing of America from European
dominion; second, the benefit done our people by giving them something to think of
which is not material gain, and especially the benefit done our military forces by
trying both the Navy and Army in actual practice.[96]
On February 15, 1898, USS Maine, an armored cruiser, exploded in the harbor
of Havana, Cuba, killing hundreds of crew members. While Roosevelt and many
other Americans blamed Spain for the explosion, McKinley sought a diplomatic
solution.[97] Without approval from Long or McKinley, Roosevelt sent out orders to
several naval vessels, directing them to prepare for war.[97][98] George Dewey, who had
received an appointment to lead the Asiatic Squadron with the backing of Roosevelt,
later credited his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay to Roosevelt's orders.[99] After
finally giving up hope of a peaceful solution, McKinley asked Congress to declare
war upon Spain, beginning the Spanish–American War.[100]
War in Cuba
Main article: Rough Riders
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt
With the beginning of the Spanish–American War in late April 1898, Roosevelt
resigned from his post as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Along with Army
Colonel Leonard Wood, he formed the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment.[101] His
wife and many of his friends begged Roosevelt to remain in his post in Washington,
but Roosevelt was determined to see battle. When the newspapers reported the
formation of the new regiment, Roosevelt and Wood were flooded with applications
from all over the country.[102] Referred to by the press as the "Rough Riders", the
regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war. [103]
The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his
autobiography, Roosevelt wrote that his prior experience with the New York National
Guard had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his
men basic soldiering skills.[104] The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and
some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the
regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale
gentlemen, cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors,
former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry
division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler, which itself
was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus
Shafter. Roosevelt and his men landed in Daiquirí, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and
marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the
lower road northwest and sent the "Rough Riders" on the parallel road running along
a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of
his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north
was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to
colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the
brigade. The Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las
Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the
Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions.[105]
Colonel Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing Kettle Hill in Cuba in July 1898, along with
members of the 3rd Volunteers and the regular Army black 10th Cavalry
Under Roosevelt's leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge
up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only
horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up
Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from
superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill because his horse had
been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1,000
wounded.[106]
In August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned
home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan
Heights) as "the great day of my life" and "my crowded hour". In 2001, Roosevelt
was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions;[107] he had been
nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines,
blocked it.[108] After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as
"Colonel Roosevelt" or "The Colonel", though "Teddy" remained much more popular
with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised that moniker. Men working
closely with Roosevelt customarily called him "Colonel" or
"Theodore".[109][page needed] Henceforth, political cartoons of Roosevelt usually depicted him
in his Rough Rider garb.[citation needed]
Governor of New York
After leaving Cuba in August 1898, the Rough Riders were transported to a camp
at Montauk Point, Long Island, where Roosevelt and his men were briefly
quarantined due to the War Department's fear of spreading yellow fever.[110] Shortly
after Roosevelt's return to the United States, Republican Congressman Lemuel E.
Quigg, a lieutenant of party boss Tom Platt, asked Roosevelt to run in the 1898
gubernatorial election. Prospering politically from the Platt machine, Roosevelt's
gradual rise to power was marked by the pragmatic decisions of New York machine
boss T. C. "Tom" Platt, who served as a U.S. senator from the state.[111][112] The
demonstrated willingness of Platt to compromise with the GOP progressive wing led
by Roosevelt and Benjamin B. Odell, Jr., resulted, over time, in their growth of
political strength at the expense of the "easy boss," whose machine faced collapse in
1903 at the hands of Odell.[113] Platt disliked Roosevelt personally, feared that
Roosevelt would oppose Platt's interests in office, and was reluctant to propel
Roosevelt to the forefront of national politics. However, Platt also needed a strong
candidate due to the unpopularity of the incumbent Republican governor, Frank S.
Black. Roosevelt agreed to become the nominee and to try not to "make war" with
the Republican establishment once in office. Roosevelt defeated Black in the
Republican caucus by a vote of 753 to 218, and faced Democrat Augustus Van
Wyck, a well-respected judge, in the general election.[114] Roosevelt campaigned
vigorously on his war record, winning the election by a margin of just one percent. [115]
As governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political
techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He studied the problems of
trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that
Roosevelt's program "rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral
state". The rules for the Square Deal were "honesty in public affairs, an equitable
sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns
to the interests of the state at large".[116]
By holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt
remained connected with his middle-class political base.[117] Roosevelt successfully
pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the
state and controlled by corporations, declaring that "a corporation which derives its
powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a
return for the privileges it enjoys".[118] He rejected "boss" Thomas C. Platt's worries
that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters
might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises. [119]
The New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make
appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt
insisted that he be consulted on major appointments; Roosevelt appeared to comply,
but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to
appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in
securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators
to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform
Association called "superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in
America".[120]
G. Wallace Chessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles
that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of
large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates,
mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and
protection of the less fortunate members of society.[116] Roosevelt sought to position
himself against the excesses of large corporations on the one hand and radical
movements on the other.[121]
As the chief executive of the most populous state in the union, Roosevelt was widely
considered a potential future presidential candidate, and supporters such as William
Allen White encouraged him to run for president.[122] Roosevelt had no interest in
challenging McKinley for the Republican nomination in 1900, and was denied his
preferred post of Secretary of War. As his term progressed, Roosevelt pondered a
1904 presidential run, but was uncertain about whether he should seek re-election
as governor in 1900.[123]
Vice presidency (1901)
Main article: 1900 United States presidential election
In November 1899, Vice President Garret Hobart died of heart failure, leaving an
open spot on the 1900 Republican national ticket. Though Henry Cabot Lodge and
others urged him to run for vice president in 1900, Roosevelt was reluctant to take
the powerless position and issued a public statement saying that he would not
accept the nomination.[124] Additionally, Roosevelt was informed by President
McKinley and campaign manager Mark Hanna that he was not being considered for
the role of vice president due to his actions prior to the Spanish–American War[clarification
needed]
. Eager to be rid of Roosevelt, Platt nonetheless began a newspaper campaign in
favor of Roosevelt's nomination for the vice presidency.[125] Roosevelt attended
the 1900 Republican National Convention as a state delegate and struck a bargain
with Platt: Roosevelt would accept the nomination for vice president if the convention
offered it to him, but would otherwise serve another term as governor. Platt asked
Pennsylvania party boss Matthew Quay to lead the campaign for Roosevelt's
nomination, and Quay outmaneuvered Hanna at the convention to put Roosevelt on
the ticket.[126] Roosevelt won the nomination unanimously.[127]
Roosevelt's vice-presidential campaigning proved highly energetic and an equal
match for Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan's famous
barnstorming style of campaigning. In a whirlwind campaign that displayed his
energy to the public, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. He denounced the
radicalism of Bryan, contrasting it with the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who
fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself,
but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would
spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to
have stability and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation
basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave McKinley an even larger victory
than that which he had achieved in 1896.[128][129]
After the campaign, Roosevelt took office as vice president in March 1901. The office
of vice president was a powerless sinecure and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive
temperament.[130] Roosevelt's six months as vice president were uneventful and
boring for a man of action. He had no power; he presided over the Senate for a mere
four days before it adjourned.[131] On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized
an aphorism that thrilled his supporters: "Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you
will go far."[132]
Presidency (1901–1909)
Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt
Official White House Portrait by John Singer Sargent
On September 6, 1901, President McKinley was attending the Pan-American
Exposition in Buffalo, New York when he was shot by anarchist Leon Czolgosz.
Roosevelt was vacationing in Isle La Motte, Vermont,[133] and traveled to Buffalo to
visit McKinley in the hospital. It appeared that McKinley would recover, so Roosevelt
resumed his vacation in the Adirondack Mountains.[134] When McKinley's condition
worsened, Roosevelt again rushed back to Buffalo. McKinley died on September 14,
and Roosevelt was informed while he was in North Creek; he continued on to Buffalo
and was sworn in as the nation's 26th president at the Ansley Wilcox House.[135]
McKinley's supporters were nervous about the new president, and Ohio
Senator Mark Hanna was particularly bitter that the man he had opposed so
vigorously at the convention had succeeded McKinley. Roosevelt assured party
leaders that he intended to adhere to McKinley's policies, and he retained McKinley's
Cabinet. Nonetheless, Roosevelt sought to position himself as the party's undisputed
leader, seeking to bolster the role of the president and position himself for the 1904
election.[136] The vice presidency remained vacant, as there was no constitutional
provision for filling an intra-term vacancy in that office (prior to the 25th
Amendment in 1967).
Shortly after taking office, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at
the White House. This sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction among whites
across the heavily segregated South.[137] Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and
protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon
further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political
support in the white South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were
avoided;[138] their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00 a.m.
instead.[139]
Domestic policies: The Square Deal
Further information: Square Deal
Trust busting and regulation
For his aggressive use of the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, compared to his
predecessors, Roosevelt was hailed as the "trust-buster"; but in reality he was more
of a trust regulator.[140] Roosevelt viewed big business as a necessary part of the
American economy, and sought only to prosecute the "bad trusts" that restrained
trade and charged unfair prices.[141] He brought 44 antitrust suits, breaking up
the Northern Securities Company, the largest railroad monopoly; and
regulating Standard Oil, the largest oil company.[142][140] Presidents Benjamin Harrison,
Grover Cleveland, and William McKinley combined had prosecuted only 18 antitrust
violations under the Sherman Antitrust Act.[140]
Bolstered by his party's winning large majorities in the 1902 elections, Roosevelt
proposed the creation of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor,
which would include the Bureau of Corporations. While Congress was receptive to
the Department of Commerce and Labor, it was more skeptical of the antitrust
powers that Roosevelt sought to endow within the Bureau of Corporations.
Roosevelt successfully appealed to the public to pressure Congress, and Congress
overwhelmingly voted to pass Roosevelt's version of the bill.[143]
In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on
Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: "That
fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the
death of the devil." Biographer Brands states, "Even his friends occasionally
wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to
regulate, update or otherwise improve."[144] In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise
his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the U.S. Naval
Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise
disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose
design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified
spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified
Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the
press and a resolution of protest from the U.S. House of Representatives.[145]
Coal strike
Main article: Coal strike of 1902
In May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy
shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops,
Roosevelt won their agreement to dispute arbitration by a commission, which
succeeded in stopping the strike. The accord with J. P. Morgan resulted in the
miners getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union
recognition.[146][147] Roosevelt said, "My action on labor should always be considered in
connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite
formula—a square deal for every man."[148] Roosevelt was the first president to help
settle a labor dispute.[149]
Prosecuted misconduct
During Roosevelt's second year in office it was discovered there was corruption in
the Indian Service, the Land Office, and the Post Office Department. Roosevelt
investigated and prosecuted corrupt Indian agents who had cheated the Creeks and
various Native American tribes out of land parcels. Land fraud and speculation were
found involving Oregon federal timberlands. In November 1902, Roosevelt and
Secretary Ethan A. Hitchcock forced Binger Hermann, the General Land Office
Commissioner, to resign from office. On November 6, 1903 Francis J. Heney was
appointed special prosecutor and obtained 146 indictments involving
an Oregon Land Office bribery ring. U.S. Senator John H. Mitchell was indicted for
bribery to expedite illegal land patents, found guilty in July 1905, and sentenced to
six months in prison.[150] More corruption was found in the Postal Department, that
brought on the indictments of 44 government employees on charges of bribery and
fraud.[151] Historians generally agree that Roosevelt moved "quickly and decisively" to
prosecute misconduct in his administration.[152]
Railroads
Main article: Hepburn Act
Merchants complained that some railroad rates were too high. In the 1906 Hepburn
Act, Roosevelt sought to give the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to
regulate rates, but the Senate, led by conservative Nelson Aldrich, fought back.
Roosevelt worked with the Democratic Senator Benjamin Tillman to pass the bill.
Roosevelt and Aldrich ultimately reached a compromise that gave the ICC the power
to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, but allowed
railroads to appeal to the federal courts on what was "reasonable". [153][154] In addition to
rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline
fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations. [155]
Pure food and drugs
Roosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by
pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and
Drug Act. Though conservatives initially opposed the bill, Upton Sinclair's The
Jungle, published in 1906, helped galvanize support for reform.[156] The Meat
Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained
harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were
impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served
as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to
1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of
Dependent Children.[157]
Conservation
Main article: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt § Conservation
Roosevelt driving through a sequoia tree tunnel
Of all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in the conservation of
natural resources and extending federal protection to land and wildlife. [158] Roosevelt
worked closely with Interior Secretary James Rudolph Garfield and Chief of the
United States Forest Service Gifford Pinchot to enact a series of conservation
programs that often met with resistance from Western members of Congress, such
as Charles William Fulton.[159] Nonetheless, Roosevelt established the United States
Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the
1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments.
He also established the first 51 bird reserves, four game preserves, and 150 National
Forests. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals
approximately 230 million acres (930,000 square kilometers).[160] In part due to his
dedication to conservation, Roosevelt was voted in as the first honorary member of
the Camp-Fire Club of America.[161]
Roosevelt extensively used executive orders on a number of occasions to protect
forest and wildlife lands during his tenure as president.[162] By the end of his second
term in office, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 150 million acres
(600,000 square kilometers) of reserved forestry land.[163] Roosevelt was unapologetic
about his extensive use of executive orders to protect the environment, despite the
perception in Congress that he was encroaching on too many lands.[163] Eventually,
Senator Charles Fulton (R-OR) attached an amendment to an agricultural
appropriations bill that effectively prevented the president from reserving any further
land.[163] Before signing that bill into law, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish
an additional 21 forest reserves, waiting until the last minute to sign the bill into
law.[164] In total, Roosevelt used executive orders to establish 121 forest reserves in
31 states.[164] Prior to Roosevelt, only one president had issued over 200 executive
orders, Grover Cleveland (253). The first 25 presidents issued a total of 1,262
executive orders; Roosevelt issued 1,081.[165]
Business panic of 1907
Further information: Panic of 1907
In 1907, Roosevelt faced the greatest domestic economic crisis since the Panic of
1893. Wall Street's stock market entered a slump in early 1907, and many investors
blamed Roosevelt's regulatory policies for the decline in stock prices.[166] Roosevelt
helped calm the crisis by meeting on November 4, 1907, with the leaders of U.S.
Steel and approving their plan to purchase a Tennessee steel company near
bankruptcy—its failure would ruin a major New York bank. He thus approved the
growth of one of the largest and most hated trusts, while the public announcement
calmed the markets.[167]
Roosevelt exploded in anger at the super-rich for the economic malfeasance, calling
them "malefactors of great wealth." in a major speech in August entitled, "The
Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations." Trying to restore confidence, he
blamed the crisis primarily on Europe, but then, after saluting the unbending
rectitude of the Puritans, he went on:[168]
It may well be that the determination of the government...to punish certain
malefactors of great wealth, has been responsible for something of the trouble; at
least to the extent of having caused these men to combine to bring about as much
financial stress as possible, in order to discredit the policy of the government and
thereby secure a reversal of that policy, so that they may enjoy unmolested the fruits
of their own evil-doing.
Regarding the very wealthy, Roosevelt privately scorned. "their entire unfitness to
govern the country, and ... the lasting damage they do by much of what they think
are the legitimate big business operations of the day."[169]
Foreign policy
Main article: Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration
Japan
The American annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that
otherwise Japan would dominate or seize the Hawaiian Republic. [170] Similarly,
Germany was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900, and
Tokyo strongly preferred the U.S. to take over. As the U.S. became a naval world
power, it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with
Japan.[171]
In the 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist and vigorously defended the
permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 campaign. After the local
insurrection ended in 1902, Roosevelt wished to have a strong U.S. presence in the
region as a symbol of democratic values, but he did not envision any new
acquisitions. One of Roosevelt's priorities during his presidency and afterwards, was
the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan.[172][173] From 1904 to 1905 Japan and
Russia were at war. Both sides asked Roosevelt to mediate a peace conference,
held successfully in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace
Prize for his efforts.[174]
Though he proclaimed that the United States would be neutral during the RussoJapanese War, Roosevelt secretly favored the Imperial Japan to emerge victorious
against the Russian Empire. He wanted the influence of the Russians to weaken in
order to take them out in the Pacific diplomatic equation, with the Japanese
emerging to their spot as the Russian replacement.[175]
In California, anti-Japanese hostility was growing, and Tokyo protested.
Roosevelt negotiated a "Gentleman's Agreement" in 1907. It ended explicit
discrimination against the Japanese, and Japan agreed not to allow unskilled
immigrants into the United States.[176] The Great White Fleet of American battleships
visited Japan in 1908 during its round-the-world tour. Roosevelt intended to
emphasize the superiority of the American fleet over the smaller Japanese navy, but
instead of resentment the visitors arrived to a joyous welcome by Japanese elite as
well as the general public. This good-will facilitated the Root–Takahira Agreement of
November 1908 which reaffirmed the status quo of Japanese control of Korea and
American control of the Philippines.[177] [178]
Europe
Success in the war against Spain and the new empire, plus having the largest
economy in the world, meant that the United States had emerged as a world
power.[179] Roosevelt searched for ways to win recognition for the position abroad. [180]
Roosevelt also played a major role in mediating the First Moroccan Crisis by calling
the Algeciras Conference, which averted war between France and Germany.[181]
Roosevelt's presidency saw the strengthening of ties with Great Britain. The Great
Rapprochement had begun with British support of the United States during the
Spanish–American War, and it continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the
Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising German naval threat.[182] In 1901, Britain
and the United States signed the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty, abrogating the Clayton–
Bulwer Treaty, which had prevented the United States from constructing a canal
connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean.[183] The long-standing Alaska boundary
dispute was settled on terms favorable to the United States, as Great Britain was
unwilling to alienate the United States over what it considered to be a secondary
issue. As Roosevelt later put it, the resolution of the Alaskan boundary dispute
"settled the last serious trouble between the British Empire and ourselves." [184]
Latin America and Panama Canal
As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean,
especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama
Canal.[185] Roosevelt also increased the size of the navy, and by the end of his second
term the United States had more battleships than any other country besides Britain.
The Panama Canal, when it opened in 1914, allowed the U.S. Navy to rapidly move
back and forth from the Pacific to the Caribbean to European waters.[186]
In December 1902, the Germans, British, and Italians blockaded the ports
of Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was
particularly concerned with the motives of German Emperor Wilhelm II. He
succeeded in getting the three nations to agree to arbitration by tribunal at The
Hague, and successfully defused the crisis.[187] The latitude granted to the Europeans
by the arbiters was in part responsible for the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe
Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: "Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence
which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America,
as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the
Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine
may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such
wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power." [188]
The U.S.'s intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to
the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903.
The pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two
possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district
within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian
alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian
government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was
supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government
for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903.[189] Roosevelt received
criticism for paying the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama
Canal Company $40,000,000 (equivalent to $12.06 billion in 2021) for the rights and
equipment to build the canal.[152] Critics charged that an American investor syndicate
allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy
over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the
Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of
corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906, message to Congress. In
January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought criminal libel charges
against the New York World and the Indianapolis News known as the "RooseveltPanama Libel Cases".[190] Both cases were dismissed by U.S. District Courts, and on
January 3, 1911, the U.S. Supreme Court, upon federal appeal, upheld the lower
courts' rulings.[191] Historians are sharply critical of Roosevelt's criminal prosecutions
of the World and the News, but are divided on whether actual corruption in acquiring
and building the Panama Canal took place.[192]
In 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt
sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he
had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without
congressional approval.[193]
Examining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:
The most striking evolution in the twenty-first-century historiography of Theodore
Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasiunanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Recent works] have underlined
cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent
twentieth-century "special relationship". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as
a brilliant diplomatist and real politician has undeniably reached new heights in the
twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism.[194]
On November 6, 1906, Roosevelt was the first president to depart the continental
United States on an official diplomatic trip. Roosevelt made a 17-day trip to Panama
and Puerto Rico. Roosevelt checked on the progress of the Canal's construction and
talked to workers about the importance of the project. In Puerto Rico, he
recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.[195][196]
Media
1903 cartoon: "Go Away, Little Man, and Don't Bother Me". Roosevelt intimidating Colombia to acquire
the Panama Canal Zone.
Building on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House
the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After
noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave
them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The
grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt
with ample coverage.[197]
Roosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to
keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living
as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and
writers. He drew the line, however, at exposé-oriented scandal-mongering journalists
who, during his term, sent magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt
politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but
a speech of his from 1906 coined the term "muckraker" for unscrupulous journalists
making wild charges. "The liar", he said, "is no whit better than the thief, and if his
mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves."[198]
The press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. After 1904, he was
periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the construction of
the Panama Canal. According to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his
term, demanded that the U.S. Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel
against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of
"deliberate misstatements of fact" in defense of family members who were criticized
as a result of the Panama affair. Though an indictment was obtained, the case was
ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one
enforceable in state courts. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and
had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.[199]
Election of 1904
Main article: 1904 United States presidential election
1904 election results
The control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of Ohio
Senator and Republican Party chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death.
Roosevelt and Hanna frequently cooperated during Roosevelt's first term, but Hanna
left open the possibility of a challenge to Roosevelt for the 1904 Republican
nomination. Roosevelt and Ohio's other Senator, Joseph B. Foraker, forced Hanna's
hand by calling for Ohio's state Republican convention to endorse Roosevelt for the
1904 nomination.[200] Unwilling to break with the president, Hanna was forced to
publicly endorse Roosevelt. Hanna and Pennsylvania Senator Matthew Quay both
died in early 1904, and with the waning of Thomas Platt's power, Roosevelt faced
little effective opposition for the 1904 nomination.[201] In deference to Hanna's
conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius
Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of
New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the
party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would
be considered to be opposing the President.[202] The President secured his own
nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not
nominated.[203] Senator Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana, a favorite of
conservatives, gained the nomination.[201]
While Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on
the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific
instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White
House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a
statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of
further access.[204]
The Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Democratic
newspapers charged that Republicans were extorting large campaign contributions
from corporations, putting ultimate responsibility on Roosevelt, himself.[205] Roosevelt
denied corruption while at the same time he ordered Cortelyou to return $100,000
(equivalent to $3 million in 2021) of a campaign contribution from Standard
Oil.[206] Parker said that Roosevelt was accepting corporate donations to keep
damaging information from the Bureau of Corporations from going
public.[206] Roosevelt strongly denied Parker's charge and responded that he would
"go into the Presidency unhampered by any pledge, promise, or understanding of
any kind, sort, or description...".[207] Allegations from Parker and the Democrats,
however, had little impact on the election, as Roosevelt promised to give every
American a "square deal".[207] Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker
received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his
inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another
term.[208] Democrats afterwards would continue to charge Roosevelt and the
Republicans of being influenced by corporate donations during Roosevelt's second
term.[209]
Second term
As his second term progressed, Roosevelt moved to the left of his Republican Party
base and called for a series of reforms, most of which Congress failed to pass. [210] In
his last year in office, he was assisted by his friend Archibald Butt (who later
perished in the sinking of RMS Titanic).[211] Roosevelt's influence waned as he
approached the end of his second term, as his promise to forego a third term made
him a lame duck and his concentration of power provoked a backlash from many
Congressmen.[212] He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all
corporations had state charters), called for a federal income tax (despite the
Supreme Court's ruling in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.), and an inheritance
tax. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court
injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon
that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial
injuries (pre-empting state laws) and an eight-hour work day for federal employees.
In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for
local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws.[213]
The election of 1904 continued to be a source of contention between Republicans
and Democrats. A Congressional investigation in 1905 revealed that corporate
executives donated tens of thousands of dollars in 1904 to the Republican National
Committee. In 1908, a month before the general presidential election,
Governor Charles N. Haskell of Oklahoma, former Democratic Treasurer, said that
Senators beholden to Standard Oil lobbied Roosevelt, in the summer of 1904, to
authorize the leasing of Indian oil lands by Standard Oil subsidiaries. He said
Roosevelt overruled his Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock and granted a
pipeline franchise to run through the Osage lands to the Prairie Oil and Gas
Company. The New York Sun made a similar accusation and said that Standard Oil,
a refinery who financially benefited from the pipeline, had contributed $150,000 to
the Republicans in 1904 (equivalent to $4.5 million in 2021) after Roosevelt's alleged
reversal allowing the pipeline franchise. Roosevelt branded Haskell's allegation as "a
lie, pure and simple" and obtained a denial from Treasury Secretary Shaw that
Roosevelt had neither coerced Shaw nor overruled him.[214]
Rhetoric of righteousness
Roosevelt's rhetoric was characterized by an intense moralism of personal
righteousness.[215][216][217] The tone was typified by his denunciation of "predatory
wealth" in a message he sent Congress in January 1908 calling for passage of new
labor laws:
Predatory wealth--of the wealth accumulated on a giant scale by all forms of iniquity,
ranging from the oppression of wageworkers to unfair and unwholesome methods of
crushing out competition, and to defrauding the public by stock jobbing and the
manipulation of securities. Certain wealthy men of this stamp, whose conduct should
be abhorrent to every man of ordinarily decent conscience, and who commit the
hideous wrong of teaching our young men that phenomenal business success must
ordinarily be based on dishonesty, have during the last few months made it apparent
that they have banded together to work for a reaction. Their endeavor is to overthrow
and discredit all who honestly administer the law, to prevent any additional legislation
which would check and restrain them, and to secure if possible a freedom from all
restraint which will permit every unscrupulous wrongdoer to do what he wishes
unchecked provided he has enough money....The methods by which the Standard
Oil people and those engaged in the other combinations of which I have spoken
above have achieved great fortunes can only be justified by the advocacy of a
system of morality which would also justify every form of criminality on the part of a
labor union, and every form of violence, corruption, and fraud, from murder to bribery
and ballot box stuffing in politics.[218]
Post-presidency (1909–1919)
Election of 1908
Main article: 1908 United States presidential election
Roosevelt shortly after leaving office, October 1910
Roosevelt enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a
limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately
decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term. He personally favored
Secretary of State Elihu Root as his successor, but Root's ill health made him an
unsuitable candidate. New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes loomed as a
potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt
disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled
on his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, who had ably served under Presidents
Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been
friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's
policies.[219] Roosevelt was determined to install the successor of his choice, and
wrote the following to Taft: "Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal
officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!".
Just weeks later he branded as "false and malicious" the charge that he was using
the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.[220] At the 1908 Republican convention, many
chanted for "four years more" of a Roosevelt presidency, but Taft won the
nomination after Henry Cabot Lodge made it clear that Roosevelt was not interested
in a third term.[221]
In the 1908 election, Taft easily defeated the Democratic nominee, three-time
candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the
rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make
the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician
than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the
publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that
made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff
would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers
(manufacturers, industrial workers, and farmers) against merchants and consumers,
he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly,
encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with
conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of
1909, signed into law early in President Taft's tenure, was too high for most
reformers, and Taft's handling of the tariff alienated all sides. While the crisis was
building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft
space to be his own man.[222]
Africa and Europe (1909–1910)
Roosevelt standing next to the elephant he shot on safari
In March 1909, the ex-president left the country for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt
African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa.[223] Roosevelt's party landed
in Mombasa, East Africa (now Kenya) and traveled to the Belgian
Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) before following the Nile River
to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Well-financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own
writings, Roosevelt's large party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian
Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York.[224] The
group, led by the hunter-tracker R.J. Cunninghame, included scientists from the
Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big
game hunter and explorer. Participants on the expedition included Kermit
Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring.[225]
The team killed or trapped 11,400 animals,[224] from insects and moles to
hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1,000 large animals included 512 big
game animals, including six rare white rhinos. Tons of salted carcases and skins
were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian
shared duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of
animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of
the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar
zoological institutions are to be condemned".[226] He wrote a detailed account of the
safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the
people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.[227]
After his safari, Roosevelt traveled north to embark on a tour of Europe. Stopping
first in Egypt, he commented favorably on British rule of the region, giving his opinion
that Egypt was not yet ready for independence.[228] He refused a meeting with
the Pope due to a dispute over a group of Methodists active in Rome. He met with
Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany,
King George V of Great Britain, and other European leaders. In Oslo, Norway,
Roosevelt delivered a speech calling for limitations on naval armaments, a
strengthening of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the creation of a "League of
Peace" among the world powers.[229] He also delivered the Romanes Lecture at
Oxford, in which he denounced those who sought parallels between the evolution of
animal life and the development of society.[230] Though Roosevelt attempted to avoid
domestic politics, he quietly met with Gifford Pinchot, who related his own
disappointment with the Taft Administration.[231] Pinchot had been forced to resign as
head of the forest service after clashing with Taft's Interior Secretary, Richard
Ballinger, who had prioritized development over conservation. Roosevelt returned to
the United States in June 1910[232] where he was shortly thereafter honored with a
reception luncheon on the roof of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City hosted
by the Camp-Fire Club of America, of which he was a member.[233]
In October 1910, Roosevelt became the first U.S. president to fly in an airplane,
staying aloft for four minutes in a Wright Brothers-designed craft near St. Louis.[234]
Republican Party schism
Roosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a copy of himself, but he recoiled as
Taft began to display his individuality. He was offended on election night when Taft
indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of
Roosevelt, but also Taft's half-brother Charles. Roosevelt was further alienated when
Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet
appointments.[235] Roosevelt and other progressives were ideologically dissatisfied
over Taft's conservation policies and his handling of the tariff when he concentrated
more power in the hands of conservative party leaders in Congress. [236] Stanley
Solvick argues that as president Taft abided by the goals and procedures of the
"Square Deal" promoted by Roosevelt in his first term. The problem was that
Roosevelt and the more radical progressives had moved on to more aggressive
goals, such as curbing the judiciary, which Taft rejected.[237] Regarding radicalism and
liberalism, Roosevelt wrote a British friend in 1911:
Fundamentally it is the radical liberal with whom I sympathize. He is at least
working toward the end for which I think we should all of us strive; and when
he adds sanity in moderation to courage and enthusiasm for high ideals he
develops into the kind of statesman whom alone I can wholeheartedly
support.[238]
Roosevelt urged progressives to take control of the Republican Party at the state
and local level and to avoid splitting the party in a way that would hand the
presidency to the Democrats in 1912. To that end Roosevelt publicly expressed
optimism about the Taft Administration after meeting with the president in June
1910.[239]
In August 1910, Roosevelt escalated the rivalry with a speech at Osawatomie,
Kansas, which was the most radical of his career. It marked his public break with
Taft and the conservative Republicans. Advocating a program he called the "New
Nationalism", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests,
and the need to control corporate creation and combination. He called for a ban
on corporate political contributions.[240] Returning to New York, Roosevelt began a
battle to take control of the state Republican party from William Barnes Jr., Tom
Platt's successor as the state party boss. Taft had pledged his support to
Roosevelt in this endeavor, and Roosevelt was outraged when Taft's support
failed to materialize at the 1910 state convention.[241] Roosevelt campaigned for
the Republicans in the 1910 elections, in which the Democrats gained control of
the House for the first time since 1892. Among the newly elected Democrats was
New York state senator Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who argued that he
represented his distant cousin's policies better than his Republican opponent. [242]
The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as a compelling
argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911. [243] Senator Robert
M. La Follette of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White, and California
Governor Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League;
their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level
and to replace Taft at the national level.[244] Despite his skepticism of La Follette's
new league, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles.
Between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The
Outlook, defending what he called "the great movement of our day, the
progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an
honest and efficient political and industrial democracy".[245] With Roosevelt
apparently uninterested in running in 1912, La Follette declared his own
candidacy in June 1911.[244] Roosevelt continually criticized Taft after the 1910
elections, and the break between the two men became final after the Justice
Department filed an antitrust lawsuit against US Steel in September 1911;
Roosevelt was humiliated by this suit because he had personally approved of an
acquisition that the Justice Department was now challenging. However,
Roosevelt was still unwilling to run against Taft in 1912; he instead hoped to run
in 1916 against whichever Democrat beat Taft in 1912.[246]
Battling Taft over arbitration treaties
Taft was world leader for arbitration as a guarantee of world peace. In 1911 he
and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox negotiated major treaties with Great
Britain and France providing that differences be arbitrated. Disputes had to be
submitted to the Hague Court or other tribunal. These were signed in August
1911 but had to be ratified by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Neither Taft or
Knox consulted with leaders of the Senate during the negotiating process. By
then many Republicans were opposed to Taft, and the president felt that lobbying
too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches
supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could
not accept, killing the agreements.[247]
The arbitration issue revealed a deep philosophical dispute among American
progressives. One faction, led by Taft looked to legal arbitration as the best
alternative to warfare. Taft was a constitutional lawyer with a deep understanding
of the legal issues.[248] Taft's political base was the conservative business
community that largely supported peace movements before 1914. However, he
failed to mobilize that base. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries
were the cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world
that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism.[249]
However, an opposing faction of progressives, led by Roosevelt, ridiculed
arbitration as foolhardy idealism, and insisted on the realism of warfare as the
only solution to serious international disputes. Roosevelt worked with his close
friend Senator Henry Cabot Lodge to impose those amendments that ruined the
goals of the treaties. Lodge's motivation was that he complained the treaties
impinged too much on senatorial prerogatives.[250] Roosevelt, however, was acting
to sabotage Taft's campaign promises.[251] At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly
believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be
decided by warfare. The Rooseveltian approach incorporated a near-mystical
faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed
to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.[252][253]
Election of 1912
Main articles: 1912 United States presidential election and Progressive Party
(United States, 1912)
Republican primaries and convention
In November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the
party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and
Dan Hanna. This endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home
state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement—requested by
Garfield—that he would flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt
said, "I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well
feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a
time when we need leadership." In January 1912, Roosevelt declared "if the
people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve".[254] Later that year,
Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying
as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular
review of state judicial decisions.[255] In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for
popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, "Such extremists are not
progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics".[256]
Punch in May 1912 depicts no-holds-barred fight between Taft and Roosevelt.
Roosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican Party from
defeat in the upcoming presidential election. In February 1912, Roosevelt
announced in Boston, "I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered
to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through
direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee.[257][258] Elihu Root and Henry
Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next
election, while Taft believed that he would be defeated either in the Republican
primary or in the general election.[259]
The 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential
primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement.[260] The Republican
primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did
results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, and Massachusetts.
Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota,
California, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The greatest primary fight came in Ohio,
Taft's base. Both the Taft and Roosevelt campaigns worked furiously, and La
Follette joined in. Each team sent in big name speakers. Roosevelt's train went
1,800 miles back and forth in the one state, where he made 75 speeches. Taft's
train went 3,000 miles criss-crossing Ohio and he made over 100
speeches.Roosevelt swept the state, convincing Roosevelt that he should
intensify his campaigning, and letting Taft know he should work from the White
House not the stump.[261] Only a third of the states held primaries; elsewhere the
state organization chose the delegations to the national convention and they
favored Taft. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national
convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by
Taft men.[262][263]
Prior to the 1912 Republican National Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt
expressed doubt about his prospects for victory, noting that Taft had more
delegates and control of the credentials committee. His only hope was to
convince party leaders that the nomination of Taft would hand the election to the
Democrats, but party leaders were determined not to cede their leadership to
Roosevelt.[264] The credentials committee awarded 235 contested delegates to
Taft and 19 to Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination on the first ballot with 561
votes against 107 for Roosevelt and 41 for La Follette. Of the Roosevelt
delegates, 344 refused to vote so they would not be committed to the Republican
ticket.[265][266] Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily
for Taft and put him over the top.[267] La Follette hoped that a deadlocked
convention would result in his own nomination, and refused to release his
delegates to support Roosevelt.[265]
Roosevelt denounces the election
According to Lewis L. Gould, in 1912
Roosevelt saw Taft as the agent of "the forces of reaction and of political
crookedness".... Roosevelt had become the most dangerous man in American
history, said Taft, "because of his hold upon the less intelligent voters and the
discontented." The Republican National Committee, dominated by the Taft
forces, awarded 235 delegates to the president and 19 to Roosevelt, thereby
ensuring Taft's renomination. Roosevelt believed himself entitled to 72 delegates
from Arizona, California, Texas and Washington that had been given to Taft. Firm
in his conviction that the nomination was being stolen from him, Roosevelt ....told
cheering supporters that there was "a great moral issue" at stake and he should
have "sixty to eighty lawfully elected delegates" added to his total....Roosevelt
ended his speech declaring: "Fearless of the future; unheeding of our individual
fates; with unflinching hearts and undimmed eyes; we stand at Armageddon, and
we battle for the Lord!"[268]
The Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
See also: New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt) and Progressive Party (United
States, 1912)
"The right of the people to rule"
Excerpts from a speech given by Theodore Roosevelt at Carnegie Hall, March 12, 1912. Recorded
August 1912 by Thomas Edison. Duration 4:07.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Once his defeat at the Republican convention appeared probable, Roosevelt
announced that he would "accept the progressive nomination on a progressive
platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose". At the same time, Roosevelt
prophetically said, "My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they
nominate a progressive".[269]
Roosevelt left the Republican Party and created the Progressive Party,
structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the
presidential and state level. The new party included many reformers,
including Jane Addams. Although many Republican politicians had announced
for Roosevelt before Taft won the nomination, he was stunned to discover that
very few incumbent politicians followed him into the new party. The main
exception was California, where the Progressive faction took control of the
Republican Party. Loyalty to the old party was a powerful factor for incumbents;
only five senators now supported Roosevelt.[270][271] Roosevelt's daughter Alice had
a White House marriage to Congressman Nicholas Longworth, who represented
Taft's base in Cincinnati. Roosevelt reassured him in 1912 that of course he had
to endorse Taft. However, Alice was her father's biggest cheerleader—the public
conflict between spouses ruined the marriage.[272]
1912 editorial cartoon showing George Perkins (left, with checkbook symbolizing control of money)
and Amos Pinchot (wielding an endorsement from Roosevelt campaign manager, Senator Joseph
M. Dixon) in battle for Progressive party control
The leadership of the new party included a wide range of reformers. Jane
Addams campaigned vigorously for the new party as a breakthrough in social
reform.[273] Gifford Pinchot represented the environmentalists and anti-trust
crusaders. Publisher Frank Munsey provided much of the cash.[274] George W.
Perkins, a leading Wall Street financier and senior partner of J.P. Morgan
bank came from the efficiency movement. He handled the new party's finances
efficiently, but was deeply distrusted by many reformers.[275]
The new party was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party" after Roosevelt
told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose".[276] At the 1912 Progressive National
Convention, Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the
Lord." Governor Hiram Johnson controlled the California party, forcing out the
Taft supporters. He was nominated as Roosevelt's running mate.[277]
Roosevelt's platform echoed his radical 1907–1908 proposals, calling for
vigorous government intervention to protect the people from selfish interests:
To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between
corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the
day.[278][279] This country belongs to the people. Its resources, its business, its laws,
its institutions, should be utilized, maintained, or altered in whatever manner will
best promote the general interest. This assertion is explicit... Mr. Wilson must
know that every monopoly in the United States opposes the Progressive party... I
challenge him... to name the monopoly that did support the Progressive party,
whether... the Sugar Trust, the US Steel Trust, the Harvester Trust, the Standard
Oil Trust, the Tobacco Trust, or any other... Ours was the only program to which
they objected, and they supported either Mr. Wilson or Mr. Taft.[280]
Though many Progressive party activists in the North opposed the steady loss of
civil rights for blacks, Roosevelt ran a "lily-white" campaign in the South. Rival allwhite and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the
Progressive national convention, and Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white
delegations.[281][282][283] Nevertheless, he won few votes outside a few traditional
Republican strongholds. Out of 1,100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two
counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia,
17 in Tennessee, two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana,
Mississippi, or South Carolina.[284]
Assassination attempt
Main article: Attempted assassination of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt's medical x-ray on October 14, 1912, after the assassination attempt, showing the
bullet that would remain inside his body for life
The bullet-damaged speech and eyeglass case on display at the Theodore Roosevelt
Birthplace in Manhattan, New York City
On October 14, 1912, while arriving at a campaign event in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot from seven feet away in front of the Gilpatrick
Hotel by a delusional saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank, who
believed that the ghost of assassinated president William McKinley had directed
him to kill Roosevelt.[285][286] The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel
eyeglass case and passing through a 50-page-thick single-folded copy of the
speech titled "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual", which he was
carrying in his jacket.[287] Schrank was immediately disarmed (by Czech immigrant
Frank Bukovsky), captured, and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not
shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed.[288][289] Roosevelt assured the crowd he
was all right, then ordered police to take charge of Schrank and to make sure no
violence was done to him.[290]
As an experienced hunter and anatomist, Roosevelt correctly concluded that
since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung. He
declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately and instead delivered a 90
minute speech with blood seeping into his shirt.[291][unreliable source?] His opening
comments to the gathered crowd were, "Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know
whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than
that to kill a Bull Moose."[292][unreliable source?] Only after finishing his address did he
accept medical attention.
Subsequent probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in
Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura. Doctors concluded
that it would be less dangerous to leave it in place than to attempt to remove it,
and Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. [293][294] Both Taft and
Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson suspended their own campaigning until
Roosevelt recovered and resumed his. When asked if the shooting would affect
his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm fit as a bull moose." The bull
moose became a symbol of both Roosevelt and the Progressive Party, and it
often was referred to as simply the Bull Moose Party. He spent two weeks
recuperating before returning to the campaign trail. He later wrote a friend about
the bullet inside him, "I do not mind it any more than if it were in my waistcoat
pocket."[295]
Democratic victory
After the Democrats nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey,
Roosevelt did not expect to win the general election, as Wilson had compiled a
record attractive to many progressive Democrats who might have otherwise
considered voting for Roosevelt.[296] Roosevelt still campaigned vigorously, and
the election developed into a two-person contest despite Taft's quiet presence in
the race. Roosevelt respected Wilson, but the two differed on various issues;
Wilson opposed any federal intervention regarding women's suffrage or child
labor (he viewed these as state issues), and attacked Roosevelt's tolerance of
large businesses.[297]
Roosevelt won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%) and
Wilson's gained 6.3 million (42%). Wilson scored a massive landslide in
the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes,
while Taft won 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in
the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West,
California, and Washington.[298] Wilson's victory was the first for a Democrat since
Cleveland in 1892. It was the party's best performance in the Electoral
College since 1852. Roosevelt, meanwhile, garnered a higher share of the
popular vote than any other third-party presidential candidate in history and won
the most states of any third-party candidate after the Civil War.[299]
South American expedition (1913–1914)
Main article: Roosevelt–Rondon Scientific Expedition
In 1907 a friend of Roosevelt's, John Augustine Zahm, a professor at the
University of Notre Dame, invited Roosevelt to help plan a research expedition to
South America. Now was the time to escape politics. To finance it, Roosevelt
obtained support from the American Museum of Natural History in return for
promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular
book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness[300] describes his expedition into the
Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific
Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon.
From left to right (seated): fr. John Augustine Zahm, Cândido Rondon, Kermit Roosevelt, Cherrie,
Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon, and the Brazilians
traveled down the River of Doubt.
Once in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the
headwaters of the Rio da Duvida (Portuguese for "River of Doubt"), and trace it
north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later
renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former president. Roosevelt's crew
consisted of his son Kermit, Colonel Rondon, naturalist George Kruck
Cherrie (sent by the American Museum of Natural History), Brazilian Lieutenant
João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers
and porters. Roosevelt also identified Leo Miller (another AMNH
recommendation), Anthony Fiala, Frank Harper, and Jacob Sigg as crew
members.[301] The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9,
1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started
on February 27, 1914.[302]
During the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he
jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the
rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that
resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years
before.[303] Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt
in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection.[304] This
weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be
attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By
then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity
in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was
riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at
times made him delirious, at one point constantly reciting the first two lines
of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan": "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan / A
stately pleasure dome decree". Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival
of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned
expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could, preparing to commit suicide with an
overdose of morphine. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue.[302]
Despite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (23 kg),
Colonel Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's
mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the
expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York,
friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue.
Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life
short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued
by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require
surgery.[305] Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics
raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted
river over 625 miles (1,006 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he
addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by
the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims.[302][page needed]
Final years
See also: Roosevelt's World War I volunteers
Former President Theodore Roosevelt in Allentown, Pennsylvania, 1914
Roosevelt returned to the United States in May 1914. Though he was outraged
by the Wilson Administration's conclusion of a treaty that expressed "sincere
regret" for the way in which the United States had acquired the Panama Canal
Zone, he was impressed by many of the reforms passed under Wilson.
Roosevelt made several campaign appearances for the Progressives, but
the 1914 elections were a disaster for the fledgling third party.[306] Roosevelt
began to envision another campaign for president, this time with himself at the
head of the Republican Party, but conservative party leaders remained opposed
to Roosevelt.[307] In hopes of engineering a joint nomination, the Progressives
scheduled the 1916 Progressive National Convention at the same time as
the 1916 Republican National Convention. When the Republicans nominated
Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt declined the Progressive nomination and
urged his Progressive followers to support the Republican candidate.[308] Though
Roosevelt had long disliked Hughes, he disliked Wilson even more, and he
campaigned energetically for the Republican nominee. However, Wilson won
the 1916 election by a narrow margin.[309] The Progressives disappeared as a
party following the 1916 election, and Roosevelt and many of his followers
permanently re-joined the Republican Party.[310]
World War I
When the First World War began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported
the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding
submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President
Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of
American rights.[311] In 1916, while campaigning for Hughes, Roosevelt repeatedly
denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as
unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of
America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100%
American, not a "hyphenated American" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March
1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four
divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was
put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment.[312][313] However,
President Wilson announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and
his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary
Force under the command of General John J. Pershing.[314] Roosevelt never
forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes of Our Own Household, an
indictment of the sitting president.[315][316][317] Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a
pilot with the American forces in France, was killed when shot down behind
German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death
distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss. [318]
League of Nations
Further information: League to Enforce Peace
Roosevelt was an early supporter of the modern view that there needs to be a
global order. In his Nobel prize address of 1910, he said, "it would be a master
stroke if those great Powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of
Peace, not only to keep the peace among themselves, but to prevent, by force if
necessary, its being broken by others."[319] It would have executive power such as
the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 lacked. He called for American
participation.
When World War I broke out, Roosevelt proposed "a World League for the Peace
of Righteousness", in September 1914, which would preserve sovereignty but
limit armaments and require arbitration. He added that it should be "solemnly
covenanted that if any nations refused to abide by the decisions of such a court,
then others draw the sword in behalf of peace and justice." [320][321] In 1915 he
outlined this plan more specifically, urging that nations guarantee their entire
military force, if necessary, against any nation that refused to carry out arbitration
decrees or violated rights of other nations. Though Roosevelt had some
concerns about the impact on United States sovereignty, he insisted that such a
league would only work if the United States participated as one of the "joint
guarantors".[322] Roosevelt referred to this plan in a 1918 speech as "the most
feasible for...a league of nations."[323][324] By this time Wilson was strongly hostile to
Roosevelt and Lodge, and developed his own plans for a rather different League
of Nations. It became reality along Wilson's lines at the Paris Peace
Conference in 1919. Roosevelt denounced Wilson's approach but died before it
was adopted at Paris. However, Lodge was willing to accept it with serious
reservations. In the end, on March 19, 1920, Wilson had Democratic Senators
vote against the League with the Lodge Reservations and the United States
never joined the League of Nations.[325]
Final political activities
Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in
the midterm elections of 1918. He declined a request from New York
Republicans to run for another gubernatorial term, but attacked
Wilson's Fourteen Points, calling instead for the unconditional surrender of
Germany. Though his health was uncertain, he was seen as a leading contender
for the 1920 Republican nomination, but insisted that, "If they take me, they'll
have to take me without a single modification of the things that I have always
stood for! [326] He wrote William Allen White, "I wish to do everything in my power
to make the Republican Party the Party of sane, constructive radicalism, just as it
was under Lincoln." Accordingly, he told the 1918 state convention of the Maine
Republican Party that he stood for old-age pensions, insurance for sickness and
unemployment, construction of public housing for low-income families, the
reduction of working hours, aid to farmers, and more regulation of large
corporations.[326]
While his political profile remained high, Roosevelt's physical condition continued
to deteriorate throughout 1918 due to the long-term effects of jungle diseases.
He was hospitalized for seven weeks late in the year and never fully
recovered.[327]
Death
Theodore and Edith Roosevelt's Grave at Youngs Memorial Cemetery
On the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. After
receiving treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, he felt better and
went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were "Please put out that light, James" to his
family servant James E. Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning,
Roosevelt, at the age of 60, died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill after a blood clot
detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs.[304]
Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings:
"The old lion is dead."[318] Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall,
said that "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there
would have been a fight."[328] Following a private farewell service in the North
Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in
Oyster Bay.[329] Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans
Hughes, Warren G. Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were
among the mourners.[329] The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial
Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had
ridden from New York City.[330] Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking
Oyster Bay.[331]
Writer
Main article: Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
Address to the Boys Progressive League
A speech by Roosevelt as a former President
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Part of the Works of Theodore Roosevelt
Roosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from
foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also
an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt "was our kind. He
quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry."[332]
As an editor of The Outlook, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated
national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several
editions), including his autobiography,[333] The Rough Riders,[334] History of the
Naval War of 1812,[335] and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and
wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of
the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
Roosevelt said that the American character—indeed a new "American race"
(ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian
fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help.[336] Roosevelt also
published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game
Trails.
In 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate
known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John
Burroughs had published an article entitled "Real and Sham Natural History" in
the Atlantic Monthly, attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest
Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical
representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs's criticisms, and
published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of
"naturalistic" animal stories as "yellow journalism of the woods". It was the
President himself who popularized the negative term "nature faker" to describe
writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive
anthropomorphism.[337]
Character and beliefs
Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's Long Island estate
Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy", despite the widespread public
association with said moniker, and was quick to point out this to those who
referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers
during his political career.
He was an active Freemason[338] and member of the Sons of the American
Revolution.[339]
British scholar Marcus Cunliffe evaluates the liberal argument that Roosevelt was
an opportunist, exhibitionist, and imperialist. Cunliffe praises TR's versatility, his
respect for law, and his sincerity. He argues that Roosevelt's foreign policy was
better than his detractors allege. Cunliffe calls him "a big man in several
respects," ranking him below Washington, Lincoln, and Jefferson, and on the
same level as Franklin D. Roosevelt.[340]
Strenuous life
Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech,
"The Strenuous Life". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing,
tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. He also continued his habit
of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter.[341][342] As governor of
New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice
he regularly continued as president until being hit so hard in the face he became
blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). As president,
he practiced judo for two 2-month periods in 1902 and 1904, not attaining any
rank.[343] Roosevelt began to believe in the utility of jiu-jitsu training after training
with Yoshitsugu Yamashita. Concerned that the United States would lose its
military supremacy to rising powers like Japan, Roosevelt began to advocate for
jiu-jitsu training for American soldiers.[344] Feminists annoyed by the posturing of
men like Roosevelt, insisted that women were just as capable of learning jiu-jitsu.
To prove their point, Martha Blow Wadsworth and Maria Louise ("Hallie") Davis
Elkins hired Fude Yamashita, a highly skilled jiu-jitsu instructor and the wife of
Yoshitsugu Yamashita, to teach a jiu-jitsu class for women and girls in
Washington, DC in 1904. Women had already begun training in boxing in the
United States as a means of personal and political empowerment. Jiu-jitsu
training thus soon also became popular with American women, coinciding with
the origins of a women's self-defense movement.[345]
Roosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's
Weekly, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a
bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905.[346] Roosevelt was an avid reader,
reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple
languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all
American presidents.[347]
Warrior
"The Man of the Hour" Roosevelt as Warrior in 1898 and Peacemaker in 1905 settling war
between Russia and Japan
Historians have often emphasized Roosevelt's warrior persona.[348] He took
aggressive positions regarding war with Spain in 1898, Colombia in 1903,[349] and
especially with Germany, from 1915 to 1917. As a demonstration of American
naval might, he sent the "Great White Fleet" around the world in 1907–
1909.[350] The implicit threat of the "big stick" of military power provided leverage to
"speak softly" and quietly resolve conflict in numerous cases.[351] He boasted in his
autobiography:
When I left the Presidency I finished seven and a half years of administration,
during which not one shot had been fired against a foreign foe. We were at
absolute peace, and there was no nation in the world with whom a war cloud
threatened, no nation in the world whom we had wronged, or from whom we had
anything to fear. The cruise of the battle fleet was not the least of the causes
which ensured so peaceful an outlook.[352]
Richard D. White Jr states, "Roosevelt's warrior spirit framed his views of national
politics, [and] international relations."[353]
Historian Howard K. Beale has argued:
He and his associates came close to seeking war for its own sake. Ignorant of
modern war, Roosevelt romanticized war. ... Like many young men tamed by
civilization into law-abiding but adventurous living, he needed an outlet for the
pent-up primordial man in him and found it in fighting and killing, vicariously or
directly, in hunting or in war. Indeed he had a fairly good time in war when war
came. ... There was something dull and effeminate about peace. ... He gloried in
war, was thrilled by military history, and placed warlike qualities high in his scale
of values. Without consciously desiring it, he thought a little war now and then
stimulated admirable qualities in men. Certainly preparedness for war did. [354]
Religion
Roosevelt attended church regularly and was a lifelong adherent of the Reformed
Church in America, the American affiliate of the Dutch Reformed Church. He
often praised moral behavior but apparently never made a spiritual confession of
his own faith. After the 1885 death of his wife, he almost never mentioned Jesus
Christ in public or private. Dr. Benjamin J. Wetzel says, "There is little in
Roosevelt suggestive of grace, mercy, or redemption."[355][356] His rejection of
dogma and spirituality, says biographer William Harbaugh, led to a broad
tolerance. He campaigned among Protestants, Catholics and Jews, and
appointed them to office. He was suspicious of Mormons until they renounced
polygamy.[357]
In 1907, concerning the proposed motto "In God We Trust" on money, he wrote,
"It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just
as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements."
Roosevelt talked a great deal about religion. Biographer Edmund Morris states:
When consoling bereaved people, he would awkwardly invoke 'unseen and
unknown powers.' Aside from a few clichés of Protestant rhetoric, the gospel he
preached had always been political and pragmatic. He was inspired less by
the Passion of Christ than by the Golden Rule—that appeal to reason amounting,
in his mind, to a worldly rather than heavenly law.[358]
Roosevelt publicly encouraged church attendance and was a conscientious
churchgoer himself. When gas rationing was introduced during the First World
War, he walked the three miles from his home at Sagamore Hill to the local
church and back, even after a serious operation had made it difficult for him to
travel by foot.[359] It was said that Roosevelt "allowed no engagement to keep him
from going to church," and he remained a fervent advocate of the Bible
throughout his adult life.[360] According to Christian F. Reisner, "Religion was as
natural to Mr. Roosevelt as breathing,"[361] and when the travel library for
Roosevelt's famous Smithsonian-sponsored African expedition was being
assembled, the Bible was, according to his sister, "the first book selected."[362] In
an address delivered to the Long Island Bible Society in 1901, Roosevelt
declared that:
Every thinking man, when he thinks, realizes what a very large number of people
tend to forget, that the teachings of the Bible are so interwoven and entwined
with our whole civic and social life that it would be literally—I do not mean
figuratively, I mean literally—impossible for us to figure to ourselves what that life
would be if these teachings were removed. We would lose almost all the
standards by which we now judge both public and private morals; all the
standards toward which we, with more or less of resolution, strive to raise
ourselves. Almost every man who has by his lifework added to the sum of human
achievement of which the race is proud, has based his lifework largely upon the
teachings of the Bible ... Among the greatest men a disproportionately large
number have been diligent and close students of the Bible at first hand. [362]
Political positions
Main article: Political positions of Theodore Roosevelt
When he assumed the presidency, Roosevelt reassured many conservatives,
stating that "the mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care
must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or ignorance." [363] The
following year, Roosevelt asserted the president's independence from business
interests by opposing the merger which created the Northern Securities
Company, and many were surprised that any president, much less an unelected
one, would challenge powerful banker J.P. Morgan.[364] In his last two years as
president, Roosevelt became increasingly distrustful of big business, despite its
close ties to the Republican Party.[365] Roosevelt sought to replace the 19thcentury laissez-faire economic environment with a new economic model which
included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that
19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new
businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he
believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge
and, given the lack of risk, unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of
wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn
to radicals or fall to revolution.[366] His Square Deal domestic program had three
main goals: conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and
consumer protection.[367] The Square Deal evolved into his program of "New
Nationalism", which emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests and a
need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and
proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.[240]
Foreign policy beliefs
In the analysis by Henry Kissinger, Roosevelt was the first president to develop
the guideline that it was the duty of the United States to make its enormous
power and potential influence felt globally. The idea of being a passive "city on
the hill" model that others could look up to, he rejected. Roosevelt, trained in
biology, was a social Darwinist who believed in survival of the fittest. The
international world in his view was a realm of violence and conflict. The United
States had all the economic and geographical potential to be the fittest nation on
the globe.[368] The United States had a duty to act decisively. For example, in
terms of the Monroe Doctrine, America had to prevent European incursions in the
Western Hemisphere. But there was more, as he expressed in his
famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: the U.S. had to be the
policeman of the region because unruly, corrupt smaller nations had to be
controlled, and if United States did not do it, European powers would in fact
intervene and develop their own base of power in the hemisphere in
contravention to the Monroe Doctrine.[369]
Roosevelt was a realist and a conservative.[370] He deplored many of the
increasingly popular idealistic liberal themes, such as were promoted by William
Jennings Bryan, the anti-imperialists, and Woodrow Wilson. Kissinger says he
rejected the efficacy of international law. Roosevelt argued that if a country could
not protect its own interests, the international community could not help very
much. He ridiculed disarmament proposals that were increasingly common. He
saw no likelihood of an international power capable of checking wrongdoing on a
major scale. As for world government:
I regard the Wilson–Bryan attitude of trusting to fantastic peace treaties, too
impossible promises, to all kinds of scraps of paper without any backing in
efficient force, as abhorrent. It is infinitely better for a nation and for the world to
have the Frederick the Great and Bismarck tradition as regards foreign policy
than to have the Bryan or Bryan–Wilson attitude as a permanent national
attitude.... A milk-and-water righteousness unbacked by force is...as wicked as
and even more mischievous than force divorced from righteousness. [371]
On his international outlook, Roosevelt favored spheres of influence, whereby
one great power would generally prevail, such as the United States in the
Western Hemisphere or Great Britain in the Indian subcontinent. Japan fit that
role and he approved. However he had deep distrust of both Germany and
Russia.[372]
Legacy
Historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by
permanently placing the "bully pulpit" of the presidency at center stage and
making character as important as the issues. His accomplishments include trust
busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals and progressives for his
proposals in 1907–1912 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New
Deal Era, including direct federal taxation, labor reforms, and more direct
democracy, while conservationists admire Roosevelt for putting
the environment and selflessness towards future generations on the national
agenda, and conservatives and nationalists respect his commitment to law and
order, civic duty, and military values, as well as his personality of individual selfresponsibility and hardiness. Dalton says, "Today he is heralded as the architect
of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to
meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the
world."[373]
Liberals and socialists have also criticized him for
his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered "uncivilized".
Conservatives and libertarians reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis
on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically
rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents in American history. [374][375]
Persona and masculinity
1910 cartoon showing Roosevelt's many roles from 1899 to 1910
Dalton says Roosevelt is remembered as "one of the most picturesque
personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape".[376] His friend,
historian Henry Adams, proclaimed: "Roosevelt, more than any other man...
showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality
that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act."[377]
Roosevelt's biographers have stressed his personality. Henry F. Pringle, who
won the Pulitzer Prize in biography for his Theodore Roosevelt (1931) stated:
"The Theodore Roosevelt of later years was the most adolescent of men...
Failure to receive the Medal of Honor for his exploits [in Cuba] had been a grief
as real as any of those which swamp childhood in despair. 'You must always
remember,' wrote Cecil Spring Rice in 1904, 'that the President is about six.'"[378]
Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson and argued that both of them
played the roles of warrior and priest.[379] Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous
life.[380] Sarah Watts examined the desires of the "Rough Rider in the White
House".[381] Brands calls Roosevelt "the last romantic", arguing that his romantic
concept of life emerged from his belief that "physical bravery was the highest
virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery".[382]
Roosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major
theme.[383][384] As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming
too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral
laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine
vigor.[385] French historian Serge Ricard says, "the ebullient apostle of the
Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of
aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era;
McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose". [386] He
promoted competitive sports like boxing and jiu-jitsu for physically strengthening
American men.[344] He also believed that organizations like the Boy Scouts of
America, founded in 1910, could help mold and strengthen the character of
American boys.[387] Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to
Roosevelt's image and mission:
What makes the hero a hero is the romantic notion that he stands above the
tawdry give and take of everyday politics, occupying an ethereal realm where
partisanship gives way to patriotism, and division to unity, and where the nation
regains its lost innocence, and the people their shared sense of purpose. [388]
Relations with Andrew Carnegie
According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war
with Spain, industrialist Andrew Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to
supporting pacifism. He sold his steel company and now had the time and the
dollars to make an impact. Carnegie strongly opposed the war with Spain and the
subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When Roosevelt
became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact.
They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary
of State John Hay, and met in person. Carnegie offered a steady stream of
advice on foreign policy, especially on arbitration. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt
would turn the Philippines free, not realizing he was more of an imperialist and
believer in warrior virtues than President McKinley had been. He saluted
Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with
Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an
end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907–1908. Roosevelt relied on
Carnegie for financing his expedition to Africa in 1909. In return he asked the ex-
president to mediate the growing conflict between the two cousins who ruled
Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when
king Edward VII suddenly died.[389][390] Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically
deceived and manipulated Carnegie, and held the elderly man in contempt.
Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to Whitelaw Reid in 1905:[391]
[I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man
for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a
God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind
of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a
combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and
effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes
far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators
of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that
Carnegie was making his fortune....It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se
as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am
not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.
Memorials and cultural depictions
Main articles: Memorials to Theodore Roosevelt and Cultural depictions of
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt on Mount Rushmore (second from right)
A close-up of Roosevelt's face
Roosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson,
and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with
the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge.[392][393]
For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him
for the Medal of Honor. However, the initial recommendation lacked any
eyewitnesses, and the effort was eventually tainted by Roosevelt's own lobbying
of the War Department.[394] In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again
recommended the award, which was denied by the Secretary of the Army on
basis that the decorations board determined "Roosevelt's bravery in battle did not
rise to the level that would justify the Medal of Honor and, indeed, it did not rise
to the level of men who fought in that engagement."[395] Nevertheless, politicians
apparently convinced the secretary to reconsider the award a third time and
reverse himself, leading to the charge that it was a "politically motivated
award."[396] On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore
Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan
Hill.[107] He is the only president to have received the Medal of Honor.[397]
The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the USS Theodore
Roosevelt (SSBN-600), a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982,
and the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), an aircraft carrier that has been on
active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986.
On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty
Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February
3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.[398] In
2008, Columbia Law School awarded Roosevelt a Juris Doctor degree,
posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882.[399]
Roosevelt's "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick" ideology is still quoted by
politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in
translations to various other languages.[400] Another lasting, popular legacy of
Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an
incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902.[401]
Roosevelt has been portrayed in films and television series such as Brighty of the
Grand Canyon, The Wind and the Lion, Rough Riders, My Friend
Flicka,[402] and Law of the Plainsman.[403] Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the
form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in Night at the Museum and its
sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and Night at the
Museum: Secret of the Tomb.[404][405][406] In 2017, it was announced that Leonardo
DiCaprio will portray Roosevelt in a biopic to be directed by Martin
Scorsese.[407] Additionally, Roosevelt appears as the leader of the American
civilization in the 2016 Firaxis Games-developed video game Civilization VI.[408]
Theodore Roosevelt National Park in the state of North Dakota is named after
him.[409] The America the Beautiful Quarters series features Roosevelt riding a
horse on the national park's quarter.
Asteroid 188693 Roosevelt, discovered by astronomers with the Catalina Sky
Survey in 2005, was named after him.[410] The official naming citation was
published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019
(M.P.C. 118221).[411] Robert Peary named the Roosevelt Range and Roosevelt
Land after him.[412]
For eighty years, an equestrian statue of the former president, sitting above
a Native American and an African American, stood in front of New
York's American Museum of Natural History. In January 2022, after years of
lobbying by activists, the statue was removed. Museum president Ellen V.
Futter said the decision did not reflect a judgment about Roosevelt but was
driven by the sculpture's "hierarchical composition".[413][414]
Audiovisual media

Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was
recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive.[415] A
4.6-minute voice recording,[416] which preserves Roosevelt's lower
timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available
from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording
of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Thomas
Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic
History Center includes his defense[417] of the Progressive Party in
1912, wherein he proclaims it the "party of the people" – in contrast
with the other major parties.
Parade for the school children of San Francisco, down Van Ness Avenue
Collection of film clips of Roosevelt

Roosevelt goes for a ride in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910[418]
Theodore Roosevelt and pilot Hoxsey at St. Louis, October 11, 1910
See also








Electoral history of Theodore Roosevelt
First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
List of famous big game hunters
Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library
Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
Teddy bear
SS President Roosevelt (1921)


SS President Roosevelt (1944)
SS Roosevelt (1905)
Notes
1.
2.
^ He was vice president under William McKinley and became president
upon McKinley's assassination on September 14, 1901. This was prior to the
adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, and a vacancy in the office of vice
president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
^ His last name is, according to Roosevelt himself, "pronounced as if it was spelled
'Rosavelt.' That is in three syllables. The first syllable as if it was 'Rose.'"[4]
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^ Journal of the executive proceedings of the Senate ... v.30 18951897 Archived March 18, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
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Print sources
Main articles: Bibliography of Theodore Roosevelt and Books Written by
Theodore Roosevelt
Full biographies
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Brands, Henry William (1997), TR: The Last Romantic (full biography), New York: Basic
Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06958-3, OCLC 36954615.
Chessman, G Wallace (1965), Governor Theodore Roosevelt: The Albany
Apprenticeship, 1898–1900
Cooper, John Milton (1983), The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore
Roosevelt (dual scholarly biography), ISBN 978-0-674-94751-1.
Dalton, Kathleen (2002), Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (full scholarly
biography), ISBN 0-679-76733-9.
Gould, Lewis L (2012), Theodore Roosevelt, ISBN 978-0-19-979701-1, 105 pp, very short
biography by leading scholar.
Harbaugh, William Henry (1963), The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt (full
scholarly biography), Farrar, Straus And Cudahy.; also titled Power and responsibility; the
life and times of Theodore Roosevelt online
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Miller, Nathan (1992), Theodore Roosevelt: A Life, William Morrow &
Co, ISBN 9780688067847.
Morris, Edmund (1979), The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 1. To
1901, ISBN 9780698107830.
o Morris, Edmund (2001), Theodore Rex, vol. 2. To 1909
o Morris, Edmund (2010), Colonel Roosevelt, vol. 3, Random
House, ISBN 978-0-679-60415-0, archived from the original on March 13,
2022, retrieved December 12, 2016
Pringle, Henry F (1931), Theodore Roosevelt (full scholarly biography).
Pringle, Henry F (1956), Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.), New York, Harcourt, Brace
Putnam, Carleton (1958), Theodore Roosevelt (biography), vol. I: The Formative Years,
only volume published, to age 28.
Samuels, Peggy (1997), Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President, Texas
A&M UP, ISBN 978-0-89096-771-3, archived from the original on April 7, 2015,
retrieved October 17, 2015.
Thayer, William Roscoe (1919), Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography, Houghton
Mifflin.
Personality and activities
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Bishop, Joseph Bucklin (2007), Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children, Wildside
Press, ISBN 978-1-434-48394-2.
DiSilvestro, Roger (2011), Theodore Roosevelt in the Badlands: A Young Politician's
Quest in the American West, Walker & Co, ISBN 978-0-8027-1721-4, archived from the
original on March 26, 2011.
Fehn, Bruce (2005), "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity", Magazine of
History, 19 (2): 52–59, doi:10.1093/maghis/19.2.52, ISSN 0882-228X Provides a lesson
plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.
Gluck, Sherwin (1999), TR's Summer White House, Oyster Bay. Chronicles the events of
TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.
Greenberg, David (2011), "Beyond the Bully Pulpit", Wilson Quarterly, 35 (3): 22–29. The
president's use of publicity, rhetoric and force of personality.
Millard, Candice (2005), The River of Doubt: Theodore Roosevelt's Darkest Journey; his
deadly 1913–14 trip to the Amazon.
McCullough, David (1981), Mornings on Horseback: The Story of an Extraordinary
Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt,
Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-7432-1830-6, archived from the original on April 7, 2015,
retrieved October 17, 2015, best seller; to 1886.
——— (2001) [1981], Mornings on Horseback, The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a
Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt (popular
biography), to 1884.
O'Toole, Patricia (2005), When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White
House, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86477-0. 494 pp.
Reisner, Christian F. (1922), Roosevelt's Religion, The Abingdon Press
Renehan, Edward J (1998), The Lion's Pride: Theodore Roosevelt and His Family in
Peace and War, Oxford University Press, examines TR and his family during the World
War I period.
Testi, Arnaldo (1995), "The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the
Culture of Masculinity", Journal of American History, 81 (4): 1509–
1533, doi:10.2307/2081647, JSTOR 2081647.
Thompson, J Lee (2010), Theodore Roosevelt Abroad: Nature, Empire, and the Journey
of an American President, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-10277-4, 240 pp. TR in
Africa & Europe, 1909–10
Wagenknecht, Edward. The seven worlds of Theodore Roosevelt (1958) The seven
worlds are those of action, thought, human relations, family, spiritual values, public
affairs, and war and peace. online
Watts, Sarah (2003), Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the
Politics of Desire. 289 pp.
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Yarbrough, Jean M (2012), Theodore Roosevelt and the American Political Tradition,
University Press of Kansas, 337 pp; TR's political thought and its significance for
republican self-government.
Domestic policies
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Brinkley, Douglas (2009). The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade
for America. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060565282.online review; another
online review Archived March 3, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
Cutright, P.R. (1985) Theodore Roosevelt: The making of a Modern Conservationist (U of
Illinois Press.)
Dorsey, Leroy G (1997), "The Frontier Myth and Teddy Roosevelt's Fight for
Conservation", in Gerster, Patrick; Cords, Nicholas (eds.), Myth America: A Historical
Anthology, vol. II, St. James, NY: Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5.
Gould, Lewis L (2011), The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (2nd ed.), standard history
of his domestic and foreign policy as president. online
Keller, Morton, ed. (1967), Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile (excerpts from TR and from
historians).
Murphey, William (March 2013), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Bureau of Corporation:
Executive-Corporate Cooperation and the Advancement of the Regulatory
State", American Nineteenth Century History, 14 (1): 73–
111, doi:10.1080/14664658.2013.774983, S2CID 146629376.
Redekop, Benjamin. (2015). "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of
Theodore Roosevelt". Leadership (2015) DOI:10.1177/1742715014546875 online
Swanson, Ryan A (2011), "'I Never Was a Champion at Anything': Theodore Roosevelt's
Complex and Contradictory Record as America's 'Sports President'", Journal of Sport
History, 38 (3): 425–446, doi:10.5406/jsporthistory.38.3.425, S2CID 159307371.
Zacks, Richard (2012), Island of Vice: Theodore Roosevelt's Doomed Quest to Clean Up
Sin-Loving New York.
Politics
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Blum, John Morton (1954), The Republican Roosevelt, Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, OCLC 310975. How TR did politics.
Chace, James (2004), 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs: The Election That
Changed the Country, ISBN 978-0-7432-0394-4, 323 pp.
Chambers, John W. (1974), Woodward, C. Vann (ed.), Responses of the Presidents to
Charges of Misconduct, New York, New York: Delacorte Press, pp. 207–237, ISBN 0440-05923-2
Cowan, Geoffrey. Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the
Presidential Primary (WW Norton, 2016).
Gable, John A. The Bull Moose Years (Kennikat Press Corp., 1978) 300pp on Roosevelt.
Gould, Lewis L (2008), Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern
American Politics (by a leading scholar), ISBN 978-0-7006-1564-3.
Haverkamp, Michael (2001), "Rossevelt and Taft: How the Republican Vote Split in Ohio
in 1912", Ohio History, 110 (1): 121–135, archived from the original on March 5, 2008.
Kohn, Edward P (Spring 2006), "A Necessary Defeat: Theodore Roosevelt and the New
York Mayoral Election of 1886", New York History, 87: 205–227.
——— (2006), "Crossing the Rubicon: Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and the
1884 Republican National Convention", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive
Era, 5 (1): 18–
45, doi:10.1017/s1537781400002851, hdl:11693/48372, S2CID 163282993.
Leuchtenburg, William E. (2015), The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill
Clinton, Oxford University Press
Milkis, Sidney M (2009), Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the
Transformation of American Democracy, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. 361 pp.
Mowry, George E (1939), "Theodore Roosevelt and the Election of 1910", The
Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 25 (4): 523–
534, doi:10.2307/1892499, JSTOR 1892499.
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——— (1946), Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Movement. Focus on
1912; online free
——— (1954), The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America, 1900–
1912 (general survey of era). online free
Powell, Jim (2006), Bully Boy: The Truth About Theodore Roosevelt's Legacy, Crown
Forum, ISBN 0-307-23722-2. Attacks TR policies from conservative/libertarian
perspective.
Ruddy, Daniel (2016), Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader, Washington, D.C.:
Regnery History, ISBN 978-1-62157-441-5
Foreign policy, military and naval issues
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Beale, Howard K (1956), Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World
Power (standard history of his foreign policy). online
Hattendorf, John B., and William P. Leeman (2020), Forging the Trident: Theodore
Roosevelt and the United States Navy. excerpt Archived October 23, 2021, at
the Wayback Machine
Hendrix, Henry J (2009), Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The US Navy & the
Birth of the American Century.
Holmes, James R (2006), Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in
International Relations. 328 pp.
Jones, Gregg (2012), Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and
the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream, archived from the original on March 8,
2021, retrieved September 16, 2017
Kuehn, John T. "Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of
the American Century," Naval War College Review (2010) 53#3 online Archived October
24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Livermore, Seward W. "Theodore Roosevelt, the American Navy, and the Venezuelan
Crisis of 1902–1903." American Historical Review 51.3 (1946): 452–
471. online Archived October 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Marks III, Frederick W (1979), Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt.
McCullough, David (1977), The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama
Canal, 1870–1914.
Mears, Dwight S. (2018). The Medal of Honor: The Evolution of America's Highest
Military Decoration. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-26656. OCLC 1032014828.
Nester, William R. Theodore Roosevelt and the Art of American Power: An American for
All Time (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019). Archived June 22, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
Neu, Charles E. "Theodore Roosevelt and American Involvement in the Far East, 1901–
1909." Pacific Historical Review 35.4 (1966): 433–449. online Archived October 22, 2021,
at the Wayback Machine
O'Gara, Gordon Carpenter. Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern
Navy. (Princeton UP, 1943). online
Oyos, Matthew (2011), "Courage, Careers, and Comrades: Theodore Roosevelt and the
United States Army Officer Corps", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive
Era, 10 (1): 23–58, doi:10.1017/s1537781410000022, S2CID 155074242.
Oyos, Matthew M. In Command: Theodore Roosevelt and the American
Military (2018) online review Archived January 21, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
Pietrusza, David (2018). TR's Last War: Theodore Roosevelt, the Great War, and a
Journey of Triumph and Tragedy
Ricard, Serge (2006), "The Roosevelt Corollary", Presidential Studies Quarterly, 36 (1):
17–26, doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00283.x.
——— (2008), "Theodore Roosevelt: Imperialist or Global Strategist in the New
Expansionist Age?", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4): 639–
657, doi:10.1080/09592290802564379, S2CID 154317468.
Rofe, J Simon (2008), "'Under the Influence of Mahan': Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt
and their Understanding of American National Interest", Diplomacy and Statecraft, 19 (4):
732–745, doi:10.1080/09592290802564536, S2CID 154454947.
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———; Thompson, John M (2011), "Internationalists in Isolationist times – Theodore and
Franklin Roosevelt and a Rooseveltian Maxim", Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 9 (1):
46–62, doi:10.1080/14794012.2011.550773, S2CID 143650928.
Thompson, John M. Great Power Rising: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of US
Foreign Policy (Oxford UP, 2019).
Tilchin, William N (1997), Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in
Presidential Statecraft
Tilchin, William N; Neu, Charles E, eds. (2006), Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt,
Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on US Foreign Policy, Praeger. 196 pp.
Turk, Richard W. The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer
Mahan (1987) online review Archived October 22, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Historiography and memory
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Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Mapping the 'Anthropocentric-ecocentric'Dualism in the
History of American Presidency: The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent." Journal of
Studies in Social Sciences 14, no. 2 (2016).
Cullinane, M. Patrick, ed. Remembering Theodore Roosevelt: Reminiscences of his
Contemporaries (2021) excerpt
Cullinane, M. Patrick. “The Memory of Theodore Roosevelt through Motion Pictures” in A
Companion to Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Serge Ricard (Wiley Blackwell, 2011), 502-520.
Cullinane, Michael Patrick (2017). Theodore Roosevelt's Ghost: The History and Memory
of an American Icon. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-6672-7.
Cunliffe, Marcus. "Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States 1901–
1908" History Today (Sept 1955) 4#9 pp. 592–601, online.
Dalton, Kathleen (2017). "Changing interpretations of Theodore Roosevelt and the
Progressive era". In Nichols, Christopher M.; Unger, Nancy C. (eds.). A Companion to the
Gilded Age and Progressive Era. pp. 296–307.
Gable, John. “The Man in the Arena of History: The Historiography of Theodore
Roosevelt” in Theodore Roosevelt: Many-Sided American, eds. Natalie Naylor, Douglas
Brinkley and John Gable (Interlaken, NY: Hearts of the Lakes, 1992), 613–643.
Grantham, Dewey W. Jr. (January 1961). "Theodore Roosevelt in American Historical
Writing, 1945–1960". Mid-America. 43 (1): 3–35.
Hull, Katy. "Hero, Champion of Social Justice, Benign Friend: Theodore Roosevelt in
American Memory." European journal of American studies 13.13-2 (2018). online
Ricard, Serge. "The State of Theodore Roosevelt Studies" H-Diplo Essay No. 116 24
October 2014 online Archived October 27, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
Ricard, Serge, ed. (2011). A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt. ISBN 978-1-4443-31400., excerpt and text search, 28 new essays by scholars; focus on historiography.
Tilchin, William (Summer 1989). "The Rising Star of Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy:
Major Studies from Beale to the Present". Theodore Roosevelt Association
Journal. 15 (3): 2–24.
Unpublished PhD dissertations
These are available online at academic libraries.
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Bartley, Shirley. "The Man In The Arena: A Rhetorical Analysis Of
Theodore Roosevelt'S Inventional Stance, 1910-1912" (Temple
University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1984. 8410181.
Collin, Richard H. "The Image Of Theodore Roosevelt In American
History And Thought, 1885-1965" (New York University Proquest
Dissertations Publishing, 1966. 7001489).
Faltyn, Timothy W. "An active-positive leader: Applying James Barber
to Theodore Roosevelt's life" (Oklahoma State University ProQuest
Dissertations Publishing, 1999. 9942434).
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Gable, John Allen. "The Bull Moose Years: Theodore Roosevelt And
The Progressive Party, 1912-1916. (Volumes I And Ii)" (Brown
University Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7302265).
Heth, Jennifer Dawn. "Imagining TR: Commemorations and
representations of Theodore Roosevelt in twentieth-century America"
(Texas A&M University ProQuest Dissertations
Publishing, 2014. 3717739)
Levine, Stephen Lee. "Race, culture, and art: Theodore Roosevelt and
the nationalist aesthetic" (Kent State University ProQuest Dissertations
Publishing, 2001. 3034424).
Mellor, Nathan B. "The leader as mediator: Theodore Roosevelt at
Portsmouth—Ronald Reagan at Reykjavik" (Pepperdine University,
ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2007. 3296771).
Moore, A. Gregory. "The Dilemma Of Stereotypes: Theodore
Roosevelt And China, 1901-1909" (Kent State University; ProQuest
Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7904808).
Reed, Marvin Elijah, Jr. "Theodore Roosevelt: The Search For
Community In The Urban Age" (Tulane University, Graduate Program
In Biomedical Sciences Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1971.
7214199).
Reter, Ronald Francis. "The Real Versus The Rhetorical Theodore
Roosevelt In Foreign Policy-Making" (University Of Georgia Proquest
Dissertations Publishing, 1973. 7331949).
Primary sources
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Auchincloss, Louis, ed. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches (2004)
Brands, H. W. The selected letters of Theodore Roosevelt (2001) online
O'Toole, Patricia ed. In the Words of Theodore Roosevelt : Quotations from the Man in
the Arena (Cornell University Press, 2012)
Hart, Albert Bushnell, and Herbert Ronald Ferleger, Theodore Roosevelt
Cyclopedia (1941) online, short excerpts.
Morison, Elting E. ed. The letters of Theodore Roosevelt (8 vol Harvard UP, 19511954); vol 7 online covers 1909-1912
The Complete Works of Theodore Roosevelt (2017) 4500 pages in Kindle format online
for $1 at Amazon
Kohn, Edward P., ed. A Most Glorious Ride: The Diaries of Theodore Roosevelt, 1877–
1886 (State University of New York Press, 2015), 284 pp.
Bishop, Joseph Bucklin, ed. (1920), Theodore Roosevelt and His Time Shown in His Own
Letters vol. 1, archived from the original on December 22, 2020, retrieved September
5, 2020; vol 2 Archived May 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Roosevelt, Theodore; Roosevelt, Kermit (1926), East of the Sun and West of the Moon,
New York: Scribner
Roosevelt, Theodore (1889), The Winning of the West, vol. I, New York and London: G.
P. Putnam's Sons
——— (1913), Autobiography, New York: Macmillan.
——— (1916), Fear God and Take Your Own Part, New York: George H.
Doran, LCCN 16003624
——— (1917), The Foes of Our Own Household, New York: George H.
Doran, LCCN 17025965
——— (1926), The Works (National ed.), 20 vol.; 18,000 pages containing most of TR's
speeches, books and essays, but not his letters.
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——— (1941), Hart, Albert Bushnell; Ferleger, Herbert Ronald (eds.), Theodore
Roosevelt Cyclopedia, Roosevelt's opinions on many issues; online version at Theodore
Roosevelt Archived May 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.
——— (1951–1954), Morison, Elting E; Blum, John Morton; Chandler, Alfred D
jr (eds.), The Letters (annotated ed.), 8 vols. Very large collection. vol 1 1868–1898
online
——— (1967), Harbaugh, William (ed.), The Writings (one-volume selection of speeches
and essays). online
——— (1968), Roosevelt, Archibald (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt on Race, Riots, Reds,
Crime, Probe
——— (1999) [1882], The Naval War of 1812 Or the History of the United States Navy
during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of
New Orleans, New York: The Modern Library, ISBN 0-375-75419-9.
——— (2001), Brands, HW (ed.), The Selected Letters online
——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders and an
Autobiography, Library of America, ISBN 978-1-931082-65-5.
——— (2004), Auchincloss, Louis (ed.), Letters and Speeches, Library of
America, ISBN 978-1-931082-66-2.
———. "Books and speeches". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on
September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
External links
Theodore Rooseveltat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Definitions from Wiktionary
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Media from Commons
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Quotations from Wikiquote
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Texts from Wikisource
Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Roosevelt, Theodore".
Organizations
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Boone and Crockett Club
Theodore Roosevelt Association
Libraries and collections
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Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University
Theodore Roosevelt Collection, at the Houghton Library, Harvard
University
Julian L. Street Papers on Theodore Roosevelt, at the Seeley G. Mudd
Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Doris A. and Lawrence H. Budner Collection on Theodore Roosevelt at
the DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University
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Theodore Roosevelt's journalism at The Archive of American
Journalism
Theodore Roosevelt American Museum of Natural History
Works by Theodore Roosevelt in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
Works by Theodore Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Theodore Roosevelt at Internet Archive
Works by Theodore Roosevelt at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Roosevelt Papers, at the Library of Congress
Guide to the Herbert R. Strauss Collection of Theodore Roosevelt
Papers 1884–1919 at the University of Chicago Special Collections
Research Center
Media
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Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912,
audio recording
Theodore Roosevelt collected news and commentary at The New York
Times
"Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's American
Presidents: Life Portraits, September 3, 1999
"Writings of Theodore Roosevelt" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A
Journey Through History
Other
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Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide – Library of Congress
Theodore Roosevelt on Nobelprize.org
Theodore Roosevelt at IMDb
Theodore Roosevelt
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26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
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25th Vice President of the United States (1901)
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First inauguration
o
historic site
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Second inauguration
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"Square Deal"
33rd Governor of New York (1899–1900)
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897–1898)
New York City Police Commissioner (1895–1897)
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Booker T. Washington dinner
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Conservation
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Newlands Reclamation Act
o
Transfer Act of 1905
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Antiquities Act
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Pelican Island
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Devils Tower National Monument
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Muir Woods National Monument
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Other National Monuments
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United States Forest Service,
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United States Reclamation Service
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National Wildlife Refuge System
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Roosevelt Arch
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Conference of Governors
Northern Securities Company breakup
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court case
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Coal strike of 1902
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Pure Food and Drug Act
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Food and Drug Administration
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Meat Inspection Act
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Expediting Act
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Elkins Act
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Hepburn Act
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Aldrich–Vreeland Act
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Federal Employers Liability Act
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Kinkaid Act
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Big stick ideology
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Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty
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o
Panama Canal Zone
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Panama Canal
Venezuelan crisis
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Roosevelt Corollary
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Occupation of Cuba
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Russo-Japanese War
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Treaty of Portsmouth
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1906 Nobel Peace Prize
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Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907
Army War College
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Roosevelt Hall
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College football meetings
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Bureau of Investigation
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Department of Commerce and Labor
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Bureau of Corporations
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Keep Commission
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Inland Waterways Commission
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Bureau of the Census
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Great White Fleet
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Perdicaris affair
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Cabinet
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White House West Wing
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State of the Union Address, 1901
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1906
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1908
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White House desk
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Federal judiciary appointments
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Spanish–American War
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o
Rough Riders
o
Battle of Las Guasimas
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Battle of San Juan Hill
"Bull Moose" Progressive Party
o
New Nationalism
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Assassination attempt
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Boone and Crockett Club
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Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition
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"River of Doubt" Amazonian expedition
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Birthplace, boyhood home replica
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Sagamore Hill Home and Museum
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Oyster Bay
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Maltese Cross Cabin
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Elkhorn Ranch
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Pine Knot cabin
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Gravesite
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Theodore Roosevelt bibliography
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The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book)
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"The Strenuous Life" (1899 speech)
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League to Enforce Peace
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"Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech)
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"Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech)
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Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book)
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The Forum magazine articles
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Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia
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Archival collections
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1898 New York state election
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Republican National Convention: 1900
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1904
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1912
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1916
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United States presidential elections: 1900
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1904
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1912
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Bibliography
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Mount Rushmore
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Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library
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White House Roosevelt Room
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Theodore Roosevelt National Park
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Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness
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Theodore Roosevelt Island
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Roosevelt National Forest
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Roosevelt Study Center
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Theodore Roosevelt Association
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Statues
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New York City
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Portland, Oregon
Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park
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Monument Assemblage
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Theodore Roosevelt Monument
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Roosevelt Memorial, Portland, Oregon
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Proposed presidential library
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Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse
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Roosevelt River
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Theodore Roosevelt Bridge
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Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge
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Theodore Roosevelt Award
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USS Theodore Roosevelt (1906, 1961, 1984)
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Roosevelt Road
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U.S. postage stamps
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Teddy bear
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"Speak softly, and carry a big stick"
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Books
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Films
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Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, 1901 film
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Roosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary
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The Rough Riders, 1927 film
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Teddy, the Rough Rider, 1940 film
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Rough Riders, 1997 miniseries
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The Roosevelts, 2014 documentary
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Theodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries
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Political positions
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"Bully pulpit"
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Ananias Club
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"Nature fakers"
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League to Enforce Peace
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A Guest of Honor
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"Muckraker"
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"Roosevelt Republican"
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Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial
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Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife)
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Edith Kermit Carow (second wife)
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Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter)
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Theodore Roosevelt III (son)
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Kermit Roosevelt (son)
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Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter)
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Archibald Roosevelt (son)
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Quentin Roosevelt (son)
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Theodore Roosevelt IV (grandson)
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Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt III (grandson)
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Quentin Roosevelt II (grandson)
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Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson)
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Joseph Willard Roosevelt (grandson)
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Edith Roosevelt Derby (granddaughter)
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Theodora Roosevelt (granddaughter)
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Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father)
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Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother)
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Anna Bamie Roosevelt (sister)
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Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother)
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Corinne Roosevelt (sister)
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Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather)
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James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather)
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James Alfred Roosevelt (uncle)
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Robert Barnhill Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece)
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Gracie Hall Roosevelt (nephew)
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Pete (dog)
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← William McKinley
William Howard Taft →
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← Garret Hobart
Charles W. Fairbanks →
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Category
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This page was last edited on 28 February 2023, at 18:56 (UTC).
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