Self Disclosure in Social Work & Counselling:
Guidance for Students on Placement
Submitted as capstone research project for Social Work Masters
Introduction
Studies demonstrate that social work students often feel anxious and underprepared
for self-disclosure decisions. Further, students often feel uneasy discussing selfdisclosure in supervision, seeing it as taboo (Bottrill et al., 2010; Knight, 2012). This
paper addresses the question: "How can social workers and other mental health
professionals – particularly students - manage self-disclosure to serve their clients
best?".
The paper begins with background information on self-disclosure. The working
definition provided highlights the broad and pervasive nature of self-disclosure.
Ethical, legal and theoretical debates are then covered.
Research on self-disclosure is critically examined, which is used to inform a
decision-making approach. Reflective practice, supervision and consulting with
peers are highlighted as essential supports. Finally, practical suggestions for selfdisclosing are offered.
Defining Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is the revelation of personal rather than professional information to
clients (Reamer, 2021). This broad definition includes information revealed verbally
or non-verbally, intentionally or unintentionally, and information clients may glean
from sources such as publications, social media and other clients (Bloomgarden &
Mennuti, 2009). Further, this definition incorporates a counselling technique known
as immediacy – discussing here-and-now feelings about the client and the
relationship with the client (Hill et al., 2018). Throughout this essay, the term
immediacy will refer to the counselling technique.
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Reflective Exercise – From a Client's Eyes
Imagine yourself in the place of a client observing you as their social worker.
List all the ways you may be disclosing information about yourself, such as:
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Age, gender, ethnicity, etc.;
Dress, tattoos;
Socioeconomic signals (such as an expensive watch);
Your online presence, such as LinkedIn and Facebook; and
If you work in a communal setting, what other clients may know and
share about you.
The first goal of this exercise is to think laterally about self-disclosure.
Although much research focuses on intentional verbal statements by the
social worker, self-disclosure occurs in many ways (Zur, 2022b).
The second goal is to reflect on whether absolute non-self-disclosure is
possible. Do you think that Freud's statement "the physician should be
impenetrable to the patient, and like a mirror, reflect nothing but what is
shown to him" (Peterson, 2002, p. 21) is achievable in your current
placement/work environment? Or perhaps you agree with Alfi-Yogev et al.
(2021), who states that mental health professionals are "always interacting
with their clients in a way that reveals facets of themselves."
Whilst some disclosures are unavoidable, others may be modified, such as your
online presence. For example, adjusting privacy settings and creating a professional
online profile separate from a private profile (Reamer, 2021). For further guidance
on managing online self-disclosure, see AASW publications (Australian Association
of Social Workers, 2016a, 2016b, 2016c) and the Australian Social Work Journal's
special issue on eProfessionalism and the ethical use of technology in social work
(McAuliffe & Nipperess, 2017).
Self-Disclosure is a Contested and Complex Matter
Self-disclosure is a highly contested and "enormously complicated matter" (Farber,
2006, p. 149). Areas of debate include ethics, risk management, and theoretical
orientation (Bloomgarden & Mennuti, 2009).
Ethics of Self-Disclosure
The AASW Code of Ethics lists self-disclosure as part of professional boundaries
(Australian Association of Social Workers, 2020). The ethical boundary concept is
complex, contested, and subject to definitional disagreements (Zur, 2007). At its
broadest, a boundary can be defined as a limit to acceptable professional behaviour
and in social work usually includes dual/multiple relationships (including sexual
relationships), touch, gift-giving and self-disclosure. Boundaries rest on foundational
ethical principles such as non-maleficence, beneficence, the primacy of client
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interest, confidentiality, and avoiding conflicts of interest (Henretty & Levitt, 2010;
Peterson, 2002; Zur, 2010).
Section 5.7.6 of the AASW code of ethics addresses self-disclosure and highlights
non-maleficence and beneficence: "Social workers will use self-disclosure … only
when it is reasonably believed that it will benefit the service user" (Australian
Association of Social Workers, 2020, p. 21). In a separate guidance piece, the
AASW further states that "it can be difficult to assess whether the intended or
planned impact of self-disclosure will result. Furthermore, it is often not possible to
predict what is in the best interests of the client." (Australian Association of Social
Workers, 2017, p. 5).
The AASW statements above highlight the key challenge with self-disclosure and
boundaries in general. Whilst there is agreement on the ethical imperative to act in
the clients’ best interests, there is disagreement on precisely what the clients' best
interests are, or how to achieve them (Corey et al., 2019; Lonne et al., 2016). The
only boundaries widely agreed to be harmful to clients are sexual relationships (Zur,
2007). On the other hand, practices such as receiving gifts, touch, dual relationships
and self-disclosure are nuanced and debated.
Ethical debates on boundaries have evolved over the last half-century. In the ‘60s,
the psychology profession tightened its ethical codes in response to some
psychologists engaging in exploitative practices (Zur, 2017). The ethical codes of
other disciplines followed suit, requiring firm boundaries, including minimal selfdisclosure. By the turn of the century, ethical codes had a more balanced stance on
self-disclosure, and boundary crossings were distinguished from boundary violations.
Boundary crossings are benign, ethical departures from strict boundaries that may
benefit clients, whilst boundary violations are unethical and potentially harmful
(Australian Association of Social Workers, 2017, 2020; Zur, 2017).
The slippery slope argument contends that minor boundary crossings such as selfdisclosure should be avoided as they inevitably lead to boundary violations (Gottlieb
& Younggren, 2009). Proponents of the slippery slope argument often cite the work
of Simon (1991), who stated that excessive self-disclosure was the most common
precursor to therapist-patient sexual relations.
Zur (2007) refutes the slippery slope argument, stating that it confuses correlation
with causation and uses syllogistic reasoning. Further, he cites studies highlighting
that a small minority of mental health professionals engage in sexual relationships
with clients whilst a significant majority engage in boundary crossings such as selfdisclosure.
The behaviour Simon (1991) observed in unethical medical practitioners parallels the
escalating behaviours of sexual predators, who often begin with seemingly
innocuous behaviours with victims, and then escalate over time into sexual assault
(Gottlieb & Younggren, 2009).
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Reflective Exercise – Boundary Crossings
What are your views on boundary crossings? Given the research on
unethical psychologists and the escalating behaviours of sexual predators,
should we ban boundary crossings and enforce strict boundaries to protect
clients?
Another important ethical consideration for self-disclosure is informed consent.
Knight (2012) and Peterson (2002) argue that self-disclosure in the service of
informed consent is ethically justified, and feminist scholars such as Mahalik et al.
(2000) contend that self-disclosure of matters such as sexual orientation is
necessary for informed consent.
Schank & Skovholt (2006) argue that mental health professionals may need to earn
the trust of members of oppressed groups through self-disclosure. For example,
members of the LGBTIQA+ community may want to know the social worker's
sexuality or, at a minimum, that the social worker is supportive of the community.
Clients with particular life situations may want to know that the social worker has
experience in those situations or at least an understanding of them. Lawson et al.
(2021) surveyed social workers working in oncology wards who have their own
experiences with cancer. Most surveyed social workers believed that judicious selfdisclosure of their own cancer experience helped establish safety and build trust with
clients. Similarly, Archard (2021) surveyed social workers working in child protection
settings and found that social workers who were parents found that disclosing their
parental status can build rapport with clients and help convey an understanding of
the challenges of parenting.
Reflective Exercise – Informed Consent and Self-Disclosure
How much self-disclosure do you think is necessary to achieve informed
consent?
Consider each of the dimensions below. What would you be comfortable
disclosing to a client who may be looking to establish safety and trust?
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Sexuality;
Gender identification;
Ethnicity, race and culture;
Socioeconomic status;
Disability;
Spirituality or religion;
Age;
Physical illness;
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Mental illness;
Drug and alcohol use;
Family characteristics, such as parental status.
Risk Management and Self-Disclosure
Proponents of risk management advocate strict boundaries to reduce the risk of
clients taking successful legal action against the practitioner, sanction from
professional bodies and reputational damage (Danzer, 2019).
Reflective Exercise – Risk Management
Do you think it is prudent to enforce strict boundaries for risk management
purposes? Or perhaps you may think such an approach prioritises your
protection over client needs?
Theoretical Orientation and Self Disclosure
Many theoretical orientations broadly support self-disclosure, but for differing
reasons (Knox & Hill, 2016), with the notable exception of traditional psychoanalytic
approaches. The paragraphs below will briefly cover some theoretical orientation
views on self-disclosure.
Traditional psychoanalytic approaches attempt to achieve Freud's vision of the
analyst as the mirror who only reflects what is shown to them by the client (Peterson,
2002). This approach advocates for strict boundaries and views self-disclosure as a
boundary violation to be avoided. Proponents argue that self-disclosure can
contaminate transference, interfere with countertransference, and be performed for
the therapist's self-serving reasons (Davidson, 2020; Ziv-Beiman, 2013; Ziv-Beiman
et al., 2017).
The relational turn in psychoanalytic theory has seen modern schools acknowledge
self-disclosure as valuable to the therapeutic relationship (Gibson, 2012).
Nevertheless, the traditional Freudian argument for the mirror still exerts
considerable influence in debates over self-disclosure. Bloomgarden and Mennuti
(2009) contend that the Freudian mirror argument is one of the three main
arguments against self-disclosure, along with the slippery slope and risk
management.
The following support for self-disclosure can be found within cognitive behavioural
therapy (CBT): strengthening the therapeutic relationship; normalising client
experiences; challenging automatic thoughts and assumptions; reframing negative
interpretations; building hope for change; positive reinforcement of desired
behaviours; and modelling new strategies and coping techniques (Knox & Hill, 2016;
Ziv-Beiman et al., 2017).
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Humanistic theory supports self-disclosure to foster the therapeutic relationship,
which they contend is the primary catalyst of client change (Dunlop et al., 2021).
Through self-disclosure, the social worker can demonstrate core Rogerian conditions
of congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy (Knight, 2012).
Congruence is not the unfettered self-disclosure of emotions by the social worker.
Self-disclosure is performed thoughtfully in service of the relationship and client
(Yalom & Leszcz, 2020).
Anti-oppressive practices and feminist theory highlight several benefits of selfdisclosure. These include: building egalitarian relationships by reducing power
imbalances between the social worker and clients; nurturing solidarity between social
worker and client; de-shaming and de-isolating clients from their problems;
highlighting structural inequity; and empowering clients (Knox & Hill, 2016; Levitt et
al., 2016; Mahalik et al., 2000; Sunderani & Moodley, 2020; Ziv-Beiman, 2013).
Some authors, such as Zur (2022), argue that feminist approaches provide
significant support for self-disclosure and contrast them with traditional
psychoanalytic theory. While feminist approaches support self-disclosure, they also
require practitioners to use "self-disclosure only with purpose and discretion and in
the interest of the client." (Feminist Therapy Institute, 1999, p. 4).
Some patterns begin to emerge in the brief analysis above. Firstly, aside from strict
psychoanalytic approaches, most theoretical orientations support self-disclosure for
differing reasons. Secondly, no orientation advocates for unfettered self-disclosure –
they all require thoughtful and judicious use. Thirdly, theoretical orientations require
practitioners to disclose with a purpose, and that purpose should support the
therapeutic factors the orientation believes are in the client's best interest.
As mentioned in the ethics discussion earlier, the client's best interests are a
contentious topic. For example, a CBT practitioner may emphasise strategies to
manage unhelpful thoughts, a humanistic practitioner may concentrate on a
therapeutic relationship, whilst a feminist practitioner may highlight structural
inequities (Hepworth et al., 2017).
Reflective Exercise – Your Theoretical Orientation
Do you have a theoretical orientation, and does that influence your views on
self-disclosure?
I resonate with the person-centred approach, existentialism, phenomenology,
post-structuralism, relational social work, feminist approaches, the strengths
perspective, and anti-oppressive practice. I also use some tools from
psychoanalytic, and CBT approaches. I don't subscribe to Freud's mirror
argument from a theoretical or practical point of view.
My theoretical orientation strongly emphasises the importance of the
relationship and an egalitarian approach that shares power and respects the
clients lived experiences, especially their culture. I don't see myself as an
expert who fixes the client; instead, I am a collaborator who walks alongside.
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My theoretical orientation supports prudent self-disclosure in service of the
relationship and client.
Research on Self-Disclosure
Research mainly supports judicious self-disclosure, and there is mounting evidence
that extreme non-disclosure can harm the therapeutic relationship and client
outcomes (Danzer, 2019; Dunlop et al., 2021; Henretty & Levitt, 2010; Lovell et al.,
2020; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2018).
Definitions and methodological issues have produced conflicting research results
(Henretty et al., 2014). Earlier studies used vague or differing definitions of selfdisclosure, in many cases failing to distinguish immediacy from other types of selfdisclosure. Furthermore, they used analog or correlational methodologies,
respectively limiting their applicability to real-world practice and ability to determine
causation (Hill et al., 2018).
Although there have been limitations and challenges in researching self-disclosure,
enough supportive evidence has been generated for the American Psychological
Association to classify self-disclosure as a promising and probably effective
therapeutic technique (Audet, 2011). Furthermore, several literature reviews have
found broad support for self-disclosure and recent research has clarified definitions
and adopted naturalistic methodologies (Alfi-Yogev et al., 2021; Hill et al., 2014; Hill
et al., 2018; Levitt et al., 2016; Ziv-Beiman et al., 2017). The paragraphs below
explore three recent review studies, which will inform the decision-making approach
further below.
Hill et al. (2018) performed a qualitative meta-analysis of twenty-one studies
examining processes following self-disclosure. They excluded analog and
correlational studies and distinguished immediacy from other forms of selfdisclosure. They found that immediacy helped clients open up and talk about their
relationship with the therapist, whilst non-immediacy disclosure helped clients feel
supported. Both immediacy and non-immediacy were associated with an enhanced
therapeutic relationship, gains in client insight, improved client mental health
functioning and overall helpfulness.
Strengths of the Hill et al. (2018) study include using naturalistic studies and
distinguishing immediacy from non-immediacy forms of self-disclosure. Weaknesses
include the small sample size of studies; heterogeneity of the studies; lack of
granularity in the definition of non-immediacy self-disclosure; and the study of verbal
self-disclosure, which may miss crucial non-verbal communication. Also, thirty
percent of the studies found negative processes following self-disclosure, suggesting
that self-disclosure carries risks and benefits.
Henretty et al. (2014) performed a meta-analytic review of fifty-three studies to
investigate the impact of counsellor self-disclosure on clients. Like Hill et al. (2018),
Henretty et al. (2014) distinguished immediacy from non-immediacy self-disclosure.
The study found that self-disclosure had an overall positive effect on clients, with
favourable client perceptions of the therapist. Furthermore, therapist self-disclosure
tends to encourage clients to disclose in kind. Helpful therapist disclosures revealed
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similarities between therapist and client and were of negative content valence.
Notably, non-immediacy disclosures were more beneficial than immediacy
disclosures, a finding discussed further below.
Strengths of the Henretty et al. (2014) study include its large sample size and careful
analysis of moderating variables. Weaknesses include the reliance on analog
studies, and findings on immediacy were in contradiction to an earlier study explored
next.
Henretty & Levitt (2010) conducted a qualitative review of the role of therapist selfdisclosure in psychotherapy. Like Henretty et al. (2014), they found overall positive
effects of self-disclosure. Self-disclosure tends to increase clients' perceptions of the
therapist's warmth and increase client liking of the therapist. Similarly, they found
that therapist self-disclosure can lead to reciprocal client disclosure.
Whereas Henretty et al. (2014) found that non-immediacy self-disclosure had more
positive effects than immediacy, Henretty & Levitt (2010) found the opposite to be
true, a conclusion echoed in Danzer's (2019) evidence-based text on self-disclosure.
Additionally, Henretty & Levitt (2010) found that excessive self-disclosure risks the
client seeing the therapist as less of an expert and can result in role reversal.
Henretty & Levitt (2010) argue that self-disclosure is a delicate balancing act,
cautioning against the extremes of complete non-disclosure or untempered selfdisclosure. They echo the findings of Hill et al. (2018) that self-disclosure carries
risks and benefits. Further, they agree with Peterson (2002), Zur (2022), Farber
(2006) and the AASW (2017) that there is no certainty that the intended benefits of a
self-disclosure will occur for a particular client at a specific time, place and context.
To summarise the above sections, perhaps Bottrill et al. (2010) and Knight's (2012)
findings that students are anxious and unsure about self-disclosure are
understandable. Self-disclosure is complex and contested from ethical, theoretical
and practical viewpoints. The existing research is voluminous but has contradictions
and limitations. Students need to find a balance between the extremes of nondisclosure and over disclosure, cognisant that self-disclosure has potential risks, and
there is no way to be sure the intended benefits will manifest. The decision-making
approach proposed below attempts to address these concerns.
Reflective Exercise – Evidence-Based Practice
What are your views on evidence-based practice (EBP) in social work and
counselling? How might you use research on self-disclosure to inform your
practice?
Self-Disclosure Decision-Making Approach
There may be ample time to make self-disclosure decisions like building a
professional website and decorating an office; however self-disclosure decisions like
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sharing a personal experience or answering a client’s question generally need to be
made very quickly (Bottrill et al., 2010). That said, much pre and post-work can be
done to aid quick disclosure decisions. The decision-making factors below are
separated into before, during and after the moment.
Before the Moment
Professional Role, Power and Relationship
Before engaging in self-disclosure, it can be helpful to reflect on how you define your
professional role, your views on power as a social worker, and what differentiates
your professional relationships from personal relationships. Doing so may help
achieve the delicate balancing of maintaining a professional role and relationship
whilst building a personal connection (Reamer, 2021).
Reflective Exercise – Professional Role, Power and Relationship
How do you conceptualise your professional role?
How do you feel about power as a social worker? Do you prefer a medical
model approach where you're more of a detached expert, or perhaps another
approach?
How do you see your professional relationships compared to your personal
relationships? Do you agree with Gelso & Kline (2019) that the therapeutic
alliance contains:
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Agreement on goals and tasks;
A working bond between social worker and client – the bond needed to
achieve goals and tasks; and
The real relationship – the more profound, human connection between
client and social worker
I resonate with Gelso & Kline's (2019) model. For example, my professional
relationships are much more goal and task-focused than my personal
relationships. Other personal reflections include:
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I expect reciprocity and balance in personal relationships (at least over
the long term), whilst professional relationships are about the client.
I aim to achieve impartiality and objectivity in my professional
relationships.
Another valuable construct to conceptualise self-disclosure is use of self – the
uniqueness and individuality you bring when applying theory and knowledge
in practice (Dewane, 2006). I believe that self-disclosure is necessary for use
of self and building the real relationship.
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Determine What You're Willing to Disclose
The reflective exercise "Informed Consent and Self-Disclosure" earlier considered
areas that you may be prepared to disclose in the interests of informed consent. It
may be helpful to further think about what subject areas you are willing to disclose to
clients, perhaps using a construct such as the three P's model, which conceptualises
the social worker as having a professional, personal and private self (Hood, 2018).
The professional self contains theories and practice tools, the private self is not
revealed to clients, and the personal self is the middle ground used to engage with
clients at a deeper human level. Gelso & Kline (2019) might argue that the personal
self is used to build the real relationship. Edelwich & Brodsky (1991, p. 143)
demonstrate personal and private self with quotes from an experienced social worker
– he will disclose information such as "what teams I root for, what movies I like, what
food I enjoy", but draws the line at topics such as "My sex life, how much money I
make—these are no one's business".
The Johari window contains two dimensions – known to self / not known to self and
known to others / not known to others (Gibson, 2012). An advantage of the Johari
window is that it encourages the social worker to acknowledge the existence of blindspots (known to others but not known to ourselves). Also, the social worker may
have unresolved emotions and potential countertransference areas, which Knox &
Hill (2018) counsel against disclosing.
Reflective Exercise – Drawing boundaries around self-disclosure
What topics form part of your professional, personal and private selves?
How might you work on revealing blind spots?
What events and emotions are unprocessed for you?
What strong countertransference reactions might you experience?
Develop a Taxonomy of Self-Disclosure
As discussed above, self-disclosure is a broad phenomenon, and contentions over
its definition have produced conflicting research results (Hill et al., 2018). Before
using self-disclosure, I suggest developing your own taxonomy, so that you can
identify what type of disclosure you intend to use.
Reflective Exercise – Your Taxonomy of Self-Disclosure
How might you categorise types of self-disclosure?
I use Hill's (2019) taxonomy of self-disclosure but don't classify disclosing
similarity as a particular technique. My categories are:
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Disclosure of facts – such as qualifications and biographical
information;
Disclosure of feeling – including Rogerian conditions of empathy and
positive regard;
Disclosure of insight – things I have learned;
Disclosure of strategies – things that have worked for me; and
Immediacy - a powerful but nuanced technique that I don't use until my
client's trust and safety are established (Hill et al., 2020; Knox et al.,
2021). As mentioned below, I also practice immediacy in my everyday
life.
Review Personal and Professional Ethics
It is essential to respect the confidentiality of others, such as your family (Australian
Association of Social Workers, 2017). Client confidentiality is unidirectional - clients
have no ethical or legal requirement to maintain social worker confidences (Gibson,
2012). It may be prudent to assume that anything disclosed to a client could become
public knowledge. Further, whilst peer workers are expected to disclose experiences
such as mental illness, other professionals such as psychologists and social workers
may encounter discrimination or loss of status from fellow professionals (Lovell et al.,
2020).
Strom-Gottried (2015) suggests reviewing your professional organisation's code of
ethics. For example, the AASW covers self-disclosure in section 5.7.6 of the code of
ethics and a guidance piece on boundaries (Australian Association of Social
Workers, 2017, 2020). These publications inform this document and are referenced
throughout.
Reflective Exercise – Personal and Professional Ethics
Do you think the approach in this paper meets your personal and professional
code of ethics? If not, what might you change?
Employing Organisation and Broader Setting
Zur (2017) stresses the importance of reviewing your employers' policies and
procedures on self-disclosure, discussing these with your supervisor, and
considering your work setting. For example, a mental health social worker running a
private practice in a large city faces different self-disclosure and boundary
challenges than a hospital social worker in a close-knit rural community. Similarly, a
social worker in a forensic setting will probably approach self-disclosure differently
from a social worker in a residential recovery community.
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Reflective Exercise – Organisational and Broader Setting
Review your placement's policies and procedures on self-disclosure and
consider any broader settings factors that may influence your self-disclosure
decisions.
Observe and Practice
I have found rich opportunities to observe self-disclosure in many settings – from
dealings with my mechanic to my doctor. I find it fascinating to watch power
differentials and how different individuals choose a balance between getting the job
done and making a personal connection. I also find that practising self-disclosure
techniques in my personal life – especially immediacy – helps my professional selfdisclosure skills.
In the Moment Factors
Identify the type of self-disclosure you’re planning to use
Use your taxonomy of self-disclosure (developed above) to identify the type of selfdisclosure you're planning to use.
If in doubt, wait
Strom-Gottfried (2015) and Reamer (2021) encourage social workers to use the
principle of publicity before disclosing. For example, imagine how your peers and
supervisor would view the disclosure.
You might also tune into your body to see how you feel about the disclosure, paying
particular attention to unresolved emotions and potential countertransference
triggers you've identified in the "drawing boundaries around self-disclosure" reflective
exercise above.
Finally, you might consider if there is another way to achieve your goals (Australian
Association of Social Workers, 2017). Research suggests that self-disclosure is best
used sparingly (Audet, 2011; Danzer, 2019; Henretty & Levitt, 2010; Hill, 2019; Knox
& Hill, 2003; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2018).
If in doubt, don't self-disclose and seek supervision (Australian Association of Social
Workers, 2020). It is always possible to self-disclose later but impossible to retract a
self-disclosure you’ve already made.
Who do I serve?
Walsh (2021) states that self-disclosure should always be provided to help the client
rather than meet a need of the social worker. Walsh's statement concurs with AASW
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ethical imperatives on the priority of client interest (Australian Association of Social
Workers, 2020).
Before proceeding with a self-disclosure, you can ask yourself a quick question like
"who does this disclosure serve?". If the answer is self-serving, don't self-disclose.
Two examples of self-serving self-disclosures I've rejected were: disclosing because
I'm feeling anxious and trying to fill a silence, and disclosing in response to a client's
question because it was easier than saying no.
Risk-Benefit Analysis
It is crucial to have a clear purpose before disclosing (Danzer, 2019). Indeed,
research by Pinto-Coelho et al. (2018) indicates that disclosures made with a clear
purpose create better outcomes for clients than disclosures made without any
purpose. In line with ethical imperatives to act in the client's best interests, the
purpose of a self-disclosure should be to deliver benefits to the client whilst
minimising potential risks (Australian Association of Social Workers, 2017).
The bullet points below list the potential benefits of self-disclosure with references to
relevant research and theory:
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Achieving informed consent (discussed in the ethics section above);
Building a therapeutic relationship – research consistently shows that selfdisclosure is linked to an enhanced relationship, which is the best predictor of
positive therapeutic outcomes (Zur, 2022a);
Humanising the social worker and making them more personable and
relatable (Lovell et al., 2020);
Reducing power differentials (Dunlop et al., 2021);
Encouraging client disclosure - Social worker self-disclosure can encourage
reciprocal client disclosure (Henretty & Levitt, 2010; Hill et al., 2018);
Demonstrating Rogerian conditions of congruence, empathy and nonjudgement (discussed in the theory section above);
Normalising client experiences – Disclosure of a similar experience can help
normalise the client's experience and reduce feelings of shame and
aloneness (Audet & Everall, 2003);
Inspiring hope and confidence – Disclosing that the social worker has
experienced similar challenges and worked through them can inspire hope in
clients and confidence in the social worker (Moody et al., 2021);
Education and modelling – Self-disclosing insights and strategies for similar
situations can model coping strategies and educate clients (Archard, 2021);
and
Gently making suggestions – Rather than telling the client what to do, the
social worker may self-disclose something that worked for them and ask the
client if she thinks that might also work for the client (Hill, 2019).+
Potential risks of self-disclosure include:
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Making the focus of the session about the social worker rather than the client
(Lawson et al., 2021; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2018; Saidipour, 2021);
Role reversal – the client feeling they need to look after the social worker
(Audet & Everall, 2010; Henretty & Levitt, 2010);
Shifting from a professional relationship to a personal relationship (Danzer,
2019);
Client loss of confidence in the social worker, and loss of expert status
(Dunlop et al., 2021; Nussbaum, 2014).
Many of the risks above pertain to the social worker's professional role, expert status
and professional relationship with the client. The reflective exercise "Professional
Role, Power and Relationship" above may assist in clarifying your views on these
constructs and identifying potential over-disclosure.
Hill (2019) stresses the importance of attuning to your client when assessing the
potential benefits and risks of a self-disclosure. What works for one client may not
work for another. Indeed, what works for a client at one point in time, may not work
at another point in time. Potential client factors may include culture, personality and
presenting conditions (Zur, 2007). The “How to self-disclose” section further below
makes suggestions for self-disclosing to maximise potential benefits and minimise
potential risks, focusing on observing and seeking client feedback.
After the Moment Factors
Reflection, Consultation and Supervision
The AASW (2020) and authors such as Reamer (2021) strongly recommend taking
time to reflect on self-disclosures, consult with peers and utilise supervision. Like
any complex technique, self-disclosure takes time, experience and guidance to
develop. It can also be educational to observe how your supervisor uses selfdisclosure in supervision and how that makes you feel (Knox et al., 2021).
I have been fortunate to have supervisors who share my views on self-disclosure,
engage in self-disclosure, and encourage discussions. I suspect I’d struggle if I had
a supervisor who is strongly against self-disclosure. Perhaps I’d use the framework
of this document to understand the supervisor’s views – for example, the
supervisor's ethical and theoretical viewpoints.
How to Self-disclose
So, you’ve followed the advice above:




Completed the reflective exercises to clarify your position on self-disclosure
and make fast self-disclosure decisions;
Identified the type of self-disclosure you’re planning to use;
Checked in with yourself;
Have a clear purpose in mind, the purpose is to deliver benefits to clients, and
you’ve considered the potential risks.
Page 14 of 22
What next? The following are suggestions for self-disclosing, with references to
relevant research and theory:







Keep it short, simple and relevant to the clients’ concerns – don’t go on
personal tangents or introduce extraneous subject matter (Audet, 2011; Hill et
al., 2018);
Favour disclosures of similarity and positive feelings about the client (Audet &
Everall, 2003; Audet, 2011; Pinto-Coelho et al., 2018);
Avoid disclosing potentially sensitive or unethical topics such as current
stressors or sexual feelings (Zur, 2007, 2010, 2022a);
Qualify your disclosures and use tentative language (Farber, 2006; Hill, 2019;
Hill et al., 2020) - I find that humility and curiosity are essential, especially
when using immediacy. I also link my approach to the theory of
phenomenology and post-structuralism – I’m looking to understand my client's
experience rather than impose any version of reality that I may hold (White,
2007);
While disclosing, watch for client feedback and adjust accordingly (Audet &
Everall, 2003; Bloomgarden & Mennuti, 2009; Henretty & Levitt, 2010; Hill,
2019);
After disclosing, return focus to the client (Henretty & Levitt, 2010; Hill, 2019;
Hill et al., 2018; Knox & Hill, 2003); and
If you feel you may have missed the mark, check-in with the client and be
open to receiving corrective feedback (Danzer, 2019).
Hill’s text “Helping Skills: Facilitating Exploration, Insight, and Action” (Hill, 2019)
contains many examples of self-disclosures illustrating the points above. Here is
one example demonstrating relevance, brevity, similarity, suitable subject matter,
tentative language and returning focus to the client (Hill, 2019, p. 381):
Page 15 of 22
In Conclusion
Anxiety and uncertainty about self-disclosure are common amongst students; it’s a
contentious and complex technique that takes time to learn. I hope this document
has been helpful.
Page 16 of 22
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