Introduction to Gender
Session 1
Session 1: Learning Objectives
• At the end of today’s class, you should be able to:
– Gain a better understanding of the concept of Gender and its
related concepts.
• Discuss the justification for dealing with Gender
Inequality
• Identify the efforts that have been made globally,
regionally and locally to deal with gender inequalities
• Be familiar with arguments for affirmative action and
forms affirmative action.
3
BOYS WILL BE BOYS AND GIRLS
WILL BE GIRLS
4
Definition: Gender Vs. Sex
• Unlike sex, which is a biological concept, gender is a
social construct specifying the socially and culturally
prescribed ideas about the behaviour, actions, and roles a
particular sex performs and follows
• Gender is “the costume, a mask, a straitjacket in which
men and women dance their unequal dance”. (Gerda
Lerner, ………).
• Sex is definite, gender is fluid and constructed/negotiated
5
Gender Equality
• The concept that all human beings both men and
women, are free to develop their personal abilities
and make choices without stereotypes, rigid gender
roles and prejudices (UNESCO, 2000)
6
Gender Equality contd
Different behaviours,
aspirations and needs
of men & women are
considered
Rights,
responsibilities and
opportunities will
not depend on
whether they are
born male or
female
Valued and equally
favoured
it does not mean that
men and women
have to become the
same
7
Gender Equity
Fairness of
treatment for
women and
men according
to their
respective
needs
This may include
treatment that
is different but
considered
equal in rights,
benefits,
obligations &
opportunities
Equity
leads to
equality
8
Brain Teaser
A father and son get in a car crash
and are rushed to the hospital.
The father dies. The boy is taken
to the operating room and the
surgeon says, “I can’t operate on
this boy, because he’s my son.”
who is the Surgeon?
10
Why is gender an important issue in
African societies
Socio-Cultural Factors
▪ Social construction of society (we will build our society like that)
▪ Discriminatory cultural practices
▪ Discriminatory inheritance practices
▪ Marriage (polygamy, rights and duties in marriage, widowhood rites,
wife inheritance)
▪ Family and community life (chores, decision-making, seclusion,
stereotypes, role expectations
▪ Reproductive health (decisions on family planning, sexuality, pronatalism)
11
Why is Gender an important issue in
African societies
• Important for social relations (gender, class, kinship, etc.)
• Social relations determine roles, positions, privileges
and
power.
• Gender relations are reinforced by socialisation.
• Socialisation institutions (family, church, school, media, work,
etc.)
Legal factors
• The law as a re-inforcer (Customary Laws vrs. State laws)
12
Messages from Social Media
(Let’s discuss)
• Which one (s) do you use?
• What messages are sent?
• How are they gendered?
• How do you respond to
such messages?
13
Brain Teaser
The Concept of Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the male as the
primary authority figure is central to social organisation and where
fathers hold authority over women, children, other men and
property.
15
Patriarchy, contd.
– It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege and is
dependent on female subordination.
– Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social,
legal, political and economic organisation of a range of
different cultures and also influences modern civilisation.
– In modern times societies and institutions are described as
patriarchal when they have features of patriarchies.
– Matrilineal inheritance systems do not disrupt patriarchy.
16
MASCULINITIES
• The term masculinity signifies a
collective gender identity and not a
natural
attribute.
It
is
socially
constructed, fluid, resulting in diverse
forms across different times and
context, and mediated by socioeconomic position, race, ethnicity,
religion, age, geographic location and
other
local
factors
(Adomako
Ampofo and Boateng 2007; Ratele
2002; Connell1998; Morrell, 1998a;).
• It is subject to change
17
Masculinity Contd.
Masculinity defines how boys should
behave, be treated, dress, appear, what
they should succeed at, and what
attitudes and qualities they should have
(Bhasin, 2004)
Hegemonic masculinity
A dominant form of masculinity in a
society and pertains to the relations of
cultural domination by men. In addition
to being oppressive to women, it
silences other masculinities. They
present a version of how ‘real men’
should behave and men who are unable
to live up to such prescriptions are
ridiculed Eg: “Kwadwo Basia” (lit:
male with perceived feminine features
and attitudes)
18
Masculinity contd
• In order to sustain itself, hegemonic masculinity is
constantly on the ‘look out’ for threats against the
status quo-to adjusts the balance of power to keep
situation under control (Dipio, 2010).
• In some cases, masculinity can become precarious
and susceptible to subversion because of its
extraction from flawed depictions of femininity.
19
Elements of Gender Relations
•Division of labour
–Productive and reproductive roles
–Male roles and responsibilities valued more than women’s
–Women roles and responsibilities undervalued
Elements of Gender Relations
• Control of resources (land, power, labour,
education, training, etc.)
• Gender ideologies (socialization, changing, etc.)
• Gender myths and stereotypes (“women are their
own enemies,” victim blaming, e.g. in rape,
women are gossips, women are weaker sex, men
are cheats, men are liars, ).
22
23
24
Justifications for dealing
with gender inequalities
– Development imperatives
(sustainable-diversity
contributes to sustainable development, people-centred
development)
-
bringing
diverse
contributions
in
– Citizenship rights and the constitution
(all
development initiatives.
are equal) - human rights are women’s rights; women’s
rights are human rights.
– Gender equitable cultures
(E.g.
eliminate
indiscriminate cultural practices, bias working cultures).
25
INTERNATIONAL RESPONSES TO
GENDER INEQUALITY
▪ Past five decades: 4 world conferences has been held (Mexico
City, Copenhagen, Nairobi and Beijing) and a convention adopted
in 1979 to address gender equality.
✓
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW).
▪ These conferences helped to define the obstacles to gender
equality and action needed to overcome them.
▪ International Agreements;
✓
Beijing Platform for Action (+5, +10, +15, +20)
✓
Millennium Development Goals (1,3,5)
✓
Sustainable Development Goal 5
✓
African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
26
Historical Context to National
Interventions-The 4th Republic
• Constitutional Guarantees
– All persons shall be equal before the law (17.1).A person
shall not be discriminated against on grounds of gender,
race, colour, ethnic origin, religion, creed or social or
economic status (17.2) and(17.3)
– The State shall afford equality of economic opportunity to
all citizens; and, in particular, the State shall take all
necessary steps so as to ensure the full integration of
women into the mainstream of the economic development
of Ghana (35.6)
27
State Actions: Legal Reform
• Intestate Succession Law, 1985 (PNDC 111): Protects the
inheritance rights of spouses and children
• Criminal code amendment act of 1994 and 1998 sections 69 and 314
respectively criminalizes FGM and Trokosi
• The Human Trafficking Act, 2005 (Act 694)
• Domestic Violence Act, 2007 (Act 732): Seeks to protect the
populace against violence and abuse in homes and institutions
• Property Rights of Spouses Bill
28
State Action: Policy Reform
• Reproductive Health Policy and Strategy
• Gender Policy in Agriculture
• Girl-Child Education Policy
• Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy
• Maternity Leave policies
• Establishing Ministry for Women and Children’s Affairs** (Ministry
of Gender, Children and Social Protection)
• Establishing of Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU) of Police service,
now called Domestic Violence Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU)
29
Civil Society/Institutional Action
• Civil Society Action include labour unions and
associations
of
professionals
(farmers,
fishermen),
women, youth and students; religious and business
organizations, cultural and recreational clubs, as well as
political parties” (Drah 1993: 73).
• Women’s organisations have been an important part of
civil society organisations in Ghana. e.g. Network For
Women's Rights In Ghana (NETRIGHT), Domestic
Violence Coalition, Women’s Manifesto Coalition.
30
Examples: Civil Society Actions
• Getting the vote
• Defending the rights of individual
• Getting access to reproductive freedom
women (Federation of International
(birth control, abortion)
Women Lawyers, Women in Law and
• Women’s action in anti-apartheid
Development in Africa (WILDAF), etc.)
struggle
• Women’s action to end war in Liberia
• Greenbelt movement in Kenya, by
• Getting Domestic Violence Law passed
Wangari Maathai, 2004 Nobel Peace
• Improving women’s participation in
Prize Laureate. Mobilized women to
politics
bringing about change)
• Queen mothers associations supporting
different causes (HIV, girl’s skills • University of Ghana sexual harassment
training, etc.)
policy
Examples: Institutional Actions
• Women and gender studies in and
outside universities
• Research on gender (e.g. Violence
against women, women and
migration, women and land, media
and women, etc.)
• University of Ghana’s Sexual
harassment and misconduct policy
https://cegensa.ug.edu.gh/sites/cegensa.u
g.edu.gh/files/sexual_harassment_policy.
pdf
•
Submit a one page review of the
University of Ghana’s sexual
harassment
and misconduct
policy.
Group Agency
• Agency conveys the idea that people are not passive and can
change their situations through self conscious action
• The role of women’s self-help groups
– Micro-finance groups , e.g. susu
– Women’s cooperative, e.g. shea butter, beading, pottery,
bread making, etc.
– Widows support group
– HIV social network groups
33
Individual Agency
• Instances where people have triggered change by their
actions:
– Taking legal action (e.g. Women who petitioned
CHRAJ on workplace sexual harassment: FanAir,
NADMO)
– Taking a stand against gender discriminatory
practices (e.g. Swaziland where mother of Reed
Dance Bride protested)
– Leaving abusive relationships
– Learning new skills to improve lives
34
Affirmative Action Defined
• A set of temporary measures adopted by governments, public
and private institutions such as political parties, educational
establishments, corporations and companies to address a
history of systemic discrimination and exclusion of particular
social groups (Tsikata, 2009)
• AA encourages the efforts of particular social groups in the
interests of certain development goals
• AA is one of the effective tools for redressing the
inequalities/injustices/discrimination against people (women)
35
Background to Affirmative Action
Origins: In USA to address racial discrimination.
In South Africa to address racial and gender
disparities after Apartheid
• Quotas for gender based
affirmative is based on three
potentially
conflicting
justifications
• equality
• difference
• Symbolic value
36
Types of AA and Examples
DIRECT
•
INDIRECT
Quota (50% of appointed district •
Scholarship schemes (Northern Ghana
assembly
scholarships; cocoa marketing board
members
are
women;
scholarships)
Reservations of seats for women (10
women in parliament)
•
•
Girl Child Education Policies
Lower cut-off point for girls in
tertiary education
•
Fee free education; Free textbooks and
uniforms
Measures to promote participation of
women in certain professions
•
•
•
Targeted investments in infrastructure,
education and health in some Regions
•
School meals in certain districts
•
Reserved places in state universities for
students from deprived districts
Science clinics for girls
•
Fee
waiver
accommodation
disability)
or
for
automatic
persons
with
AA Cont.
• Quotas
are
only
effective when backed
by law and when
policies
such
as
electoral
reform,
political education, the
mobilisation of citizens
and the removal of
obstacles to women’s
ability to utilise the
quotas are removed
38
Value of affirmative Action
– Discrimination of any form does not self correct. Instead, it
perpetuates itself
– Improves representation of women
– Ensures a critical mass which can make a difference (e.g.
30% of women in decision making bodies)
– Provides more female role models and improves awareness
of the issues.
– Guarantees gender balanced policy making at all levels of
government.
– Allows considerable skills to be brought into decision
making structures.
39
Assessing Responses to Gender Inequality
• Progress has been made in promoting gender equality
– More consciousness of the importance of gender equality
– Some issues being addressed, e.g. Narrowing gap between boys
and girls in education
– In some countries there have been strong representation of
women in politics, e.g. Rwanda, South Africa
– Important legislations, e.g. Domestic violence law has been
passed.
– Increased number of women in professional careers and in
decision-making
– Improved maternal health coverage
– More access to credit for women
40
Summary
• Societies are gendered
• Gender is socially constructed
• Gender relations are power relations and privilege as well as disadvantage
differently
• The concept of patriarchy and masculinity
• The concept of gender equality, equity and inequality
41
Summary, Ctd.
• We have examined the various responses to gender
inequality :
• The justification for dealing with Gender inequality
• Identified the efforts that have been made globally,
regionally and locally to deal with gender inequalities
• State responses – legal and policy reform; affirmative
action
• Civil society actions
• Group actions to empower and to support rights
• Individual actions
• We have assessed the responses to gender inequality
42
END OF CLASS
43
INTRODUCTION
TO
AFRICAN STUDIES
Duration: 3 Weeks
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2015
1
Course Description
❖This introductory course aims to generate interest
among students in African Studies.
❖It will provide basic background information on Africa
and perspectives on its histories, peoples and cultures.
❖This course will serve as the spring board from which
the subsequent elective courses in African Studies will be
launched.
❖Two parts:
❖General introduction (3 weeks); and Introduction to Gender (3 weeks)
❖Electives (6 weeks)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
2
Course Objectives
I
❖To help students appreciate the contemporary value of
African Studies as an area of enquiry.
❖To help students engage with discourses on African
realities.
❖To encourage students to appreciate African Identities.
❖To help students develop a sense of Self Determination
in the global world.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
3
II
❖To make students aware of the negative stereotypes about
Africa and to encourage them to challenge these
stereotypes.
❖To Develop appropriate methodologies and frameworks
for examining Africa and its past through multi-disciplinary
approaches.
❖To highlight some of Africa’s contributions to world
civilizations and knowledge generation.
❖ To enhance students’ knowledge in specific areas of
African Humanities and Social Sciences
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
4
Course requirements
•Assessments
• Interim assessment (Intro. to African Studies
and Gender) 30%
• Final exam (Main Elective) 70%
•Course activities will include
• Formal instruction
•Tutorials
•Film Show
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
5
Week 1
The value of African studies in today’s world
• Learning objectives
At the end of Lecture 1, students should be able to:
• Understand the distinctive nature of Africa
• Explain various (mis) representations of Africa
• Appreciate the significant contribution of Africa to world
civilization.
• Appreciate the African Identity
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
6
WHO IS
AN
AFRICAN?
(Source: Google images, 2012)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
7
Who is an African?
• How are African identities constructed in the
face of the mosaic of identities that peoples
of African ancestry living within and beyond
the continent bear?
•To what extent do all categorized as Africans
or as having an African pedigree perceive
themselves as Africans?
•To what degree are all who perceive
themselves as Africans accepted as such?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
8
• Are there levels of “Africanness”, and are
some more African than others?
• How do African identities interface with
other levels of identity and citizenship in
Africa?
• And what are the implications of the
contentious nature of African identities and
citizenship for the projects of panAfricanism, the making of the Africa-nation,
and Africa’s development trajectories?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
9
Are these men Africans?
Barack Hussein Obama 44th
President of the United States
Dr. Guy Scott – Vice
President of Zambia
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
10
Defining Africanness
Multilayered
• Legal - e.g. citizenship, parentage, naturalization
• Conceptual
• Philosophical:
• shared value systems and world views (for example,
“ubuntu” – I am because we are) e.g. Belief in the
ancestors
• Cultural:
-tangible (buildings, monuments, artifacts)
-intangible (skills; highly developed oral traditions;
knowledge systems)
Why go beyond geographical borders?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
11
Concept of the African Diaspora
What do you think about the concept of the African Diaspora?
18th century painting showing a family of black Africans in Latin America
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_diaspora.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
12
Defining Africa
• Race? - note range of racial types on the continent
• People of African descent? (Large concentrations in
Northern and Southern America, the Caribbean. Also
found in India, the Middle East etc.)
• Political? - citizenship in one of the 53 countries of the
AU – see the constitutive act; long term residence in an
African country?
• Geographic? - Countries on the African Continent/Map
• Africa is not a country, but a continent
• Allegiance ? - Dedication to African heritage and
aspirations
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
13
EXERCISE 1
Blank Map Activity
Identify the following countries on the blank map
of Africa provided:
a. São Tomé and
Príncipe
b. South Sudan
c. Madagascar
d. Botswana
e. Rwanda
f. Western Sahara
g. Cape Verde
h. Uganda
i. Kenya
J. Senegal
k. The Gambia
i. Eritrea
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
14
A blank map of Africa
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
15
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
16
MISREPRESENTING AFRICA
❖Africa has no history?
❖Africans have no civilization?
❖Africa is the dark continent?
❖Africans have inferior minds?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
17
Africa the continent of crisis?
• Two types of narratives about Africa
• Except Africa – Development works everywhere in the world
but in Africa. Therefore Africa has to change rather than
development policies tailor themselves better to the needs of
Africa
• Doomsday narratives – There is a crisis of overpopulation in
Africa, poverty, drought, over utilisation of scarce resources,
environmental crisis, corruption, ethnic tensions, civil wars all
of which are resulting in a terrible crisis that requires external
interventions to halt. The solution has to come from outside
since African states are not competent to solve problems they
have created.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
18
POVERTY
A soup kitchen in Europe
Homelessness in USA
Ethiopia
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
19
BAD GOVERNANCE?
Nelson Mandela
Hugo Raphael Chavez
Silvio Berlusconi
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
Slobodan Milosevic
Idi Amin
20
Kwame Nkrumah
CONFLICTS
Child soldiers
Africa
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
Bosnia
21
Foreign Mercenaries
DEBATE ON CULTURAL
PRACTICES?
•Ritual killings
•Circumcision
•Widowhood rites
•Libation
•Child marriage
•Child labour
•Bride wealth
•Witchcraft
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
22
Representing Africa:
Dwenini mmɛn (Ram’s Horns)
What are the GOOD
representations of
Africa?
Humility, Strength, Wisdom and Learning
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
23
Contemporary Africa has contributed
positively to global knowledge
production and civilization in the
areas of:
▪ Agriculture
▪Academia
▪International Trade and Commerce
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
24
Coffee: An African Tree Crop
•Coffee originates in Africa.
•There are three types of coffee
•Arabica (originates in Ethiopia)
•Robusta (originates in Congo)
•Liberica (originates in Liberia).
•The highest quality of coffee is Arabica.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
25
Coffee: A Global Commodity
• Coffee was introduced into Dutch colonies in Java in the 1690s. In the 1720s
coffee was carried by the French and Dutch into botanical gardens in the
Americas, Dutch Guinea (Surinam), Haiti and Santa Domingue. Robusta and
Liberica species were also carried into South America.
• By the nineteenth century Brazil emerged as the major producer and world
consumption of coffee grew more than 15 times. By this period Yemeni and
Ethiopian production in international trade had become insignificant.
• However, in recent years coffee production has rapidly expanded in Africa with
Ethiopia, Tanzania, Rwanda and Kenya becoming significant producers of
Arabica and Côte d’Ivoire of Robusta (mainly used in producing nescafe).
• While producers get a small percentage of the total price if the coffee value
changes, in recent years the government of Ethiopia has successfully got
different varieties in Ethiopia internationally recognised for their heritage and
gained a premium price paid for these varieties in European markets. (See
documentary Black Gold)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
26
Cocoa: A South American tree crop
successfully cultivated in West Africa
• Cocoa is largely produced in West Africa, with over 80 percent of global production originating
from West Africa (the two dominant producers are Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana (producing around
70 percent of global supplies)).
• However cocoa is a South American crop, which was originally introduced into Sao Tomé and
Principe off the coast of Cameroon, from where it was subsequently smuggled into the Gold
Coast by Tetteh Quashie.
• By the 1820s the Gold Coast emerged as the most important producer contributing between 7080 percent of Global supplies. Cocoa was largely produced by farmers for export rather than
domestic consumption and provides an early example of successful monocrop agrarian
capitalism in Africa (Polly Hill 1960).
• During the 1970s Côte d’Ivoire overtook Ghana as the major producer. Competition also came
from Brazil and Malaysia, however as international production became increasingly competitive
the West African producers were able to out compete others.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
27
Coffee and cocoa
Examine the differences and similarities
of the coffee and cocoa stories.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
28
Positive Representation Africa
• Wole Soyinka is a Poet, playwright, and novelist from Nigeria.
• He has written many plays, poems using the mythology of the Yoruba. He
addresses social and political issues in Nigeria and Africa
• In 1967, he was jailed for 22 months for secretly meeting with Ojukwu of
Biafra to try and prevent a
civil war.
• In 1986 he won the Nobel prize for
Literature, the first African to win
the prize for new literatures.
• In 1994, he had to flee into exile
to escape imprisonment by Abacha.
Wole Soyinka
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
29
Positive Representation of Africa:
Inventors
Inventors
Country of Origin Inventions/Projects
Prof. Souleymane Mboup
Senegal
HIV-2 Virus (discover)
Dr. Oviemo Ovadje
Nigeria
Blood Auto-transfusion
Samuel Todo
Togo
Humanoid Robot
Jean-Patrice Keka
Democratic Republic of Congo Space Rockets
Prof. Francis K.A. Allotey
Ghana
The Allotey Formalism
Victor and Johnson Obasa
Nigeria
Armoured Vehicle
Simon Mwaura
Kenya
Multipurpose Mobile Remote
control
Prof. Nii Narku Quaynor
Ghana
One of the Pioneers of
designing and developing the
internet
Abdoulaye Toure
Senegal
Solar Oven
Positive Representation of Africa:
Inventors
Inventors
Country
Inventions/Projects
Mark Dean
United States
PC (Personal Computer)
Garrett A. Morgan
United States
Traffic Light/Gas Mask
Jan Ernst Matzeliger
Suriname
Shoe Lasting Machine
Elijah McCoy
United States
Oil Cup/Railway Lubrication Devices
Granville T Woods
United States
Synchronous Multiplex Railway Telegraph
Lewis Latimer
United States
Incandescent Lamp Carbon Filaments
Daniel Hale Williams
United States
Open Heart Surgery
Charles Drew
United States
Blood Transfusions
George Washington Carver United States
Plant-Based Inventions
Benjamin Banneker
United States
Grandfather Clock/Almanac/Washington
DC
Frederick M. Jones
United States
Mobile Refrigeration Unit
Prof. Monty Jones: Renowned African Scientist
• Prof. Monty Jones is a renowned plant breeder
from Sierra Leone who in 2004 won the World
Food prize for leading a team at West Africa
Rice Development Association (WARDA)
successfully crossing West African rice (Oryza
glaberima) with Asian rice (Oryza sativa)
creating the Nerica varieties (New Rice for
Africa), a rare and successful hybridisation of
rice.
• His approach is recognised to be innovative in
its use of participatory methods linking
farmers, extension agents and scientists
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
32
Ethiopian Airlines: A Successful
Commercial Venture
• It was established by the Ethiopian government in 1945.
• It has survived the many crises that has (have) plagued the airline industry
since its establishment and has grown to become one of the major airlines
in the world flying a wide range of routes the world over.
• “With its ten modern 787s and its confident global ambitions, Ethiopian
Airlines has not just Africa, but the whole world, in its hands.” The
Economist 3rd September 2012
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
33
What is African Studies?
• A formally organized multi-disciplinary academic
study of the continent of Africa and the African
diaspora.
• The study of African Studies is three- dimensional:
i) research/knowledge production
ii) dissemination of knowledge and teaching
iii) the application of knowledge/transformation of
knowledge into policies and social action.
Source: Gordon J.U (2013). Inaugural lecture, Kwame Chair, Institute of African
Studies, University of Ghana.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
34
Accessing sources on Africa (1)
Documentary & Non-documentary
•
Archaeology
• Provides information about how humans adapted to
their environment
• Archaeological information is obtained through the
excavation of specially selected sites
E.g. Ife Bronze works, Zimbabwe ruins, Pharaonic pyramids
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
35
•
Accessing sources on Africa (2)
Linguistics
• Study of the origin, structure, and changes of a language
• Languages that are closely related
E.g. Ga and Dangme or Waale and Dagaare may be deemed to have
developed out of a single parent language – e.g. eat di.
Twi bu ‘to break (off)’, Yorùbá bù ‘to break (off)’, Proto-Bantu *-bú̧n‘to break’, Common-Bantu *-búd-, *-bú̧g-, *-bú̧n-, *-bú̧nj- ‘to break’
Exercises: What is the word for kill, die, dance, walk, etc in different
languages?
• A comparative study of languages can provide valuable historical
information.
E.g. a study of Bantu and W/African languages provide evidence
of a common ancestor
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
36
Accessing sources on Africa (3)
• Oral traditions
•the lore (traditional knowledge and beliefs) of
cultures having no written language.
•Transmitted by word of mouth and consists, as does
written literature, of both prose and verse.(narratives,
poems and songs, myths, dramas, proverbs).
• Often transmitted by specialists/experts
• Can provide valuable facts and
perspectives on life, e.g. court historians
profound
• Nearly all known peoples, now or in the past, have
produced it.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
37
Accessing sources on Africa (4)
• Ancient Written Sources
• First writing developed in Africa: Mdw Ntr
(Hieroglyphics), source for writing systems that
emerged later (Latin, etc.)
• Oldest book in the history of all humanity from
Africa: Instructions of Ptahhotep dated to 25th
Century BCE
• Most significant religious text: Prt M Hrw ‘Book of
Coming Forth by Day’ from which others which
came later borrowed (Bible, etc.)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
38
African Writing Systems (4 cont’d)
• Other significant writing systems developed in
Africa:
• Meroetic script
• Ge’ez script
• Bamum script
• Mende script/N’ko
• Vai script
• Nsibidi script, etc.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
39
Accessing sources on Africa (5)
New Media: new media offer information in multiple and provide a wide variety of
sources
Written sources:
Primary sources
• official reports, files, court documents, financial papers, newspapers, old
family papers or official files.
Secondary sources
• Books (of analytical & scholarly articles)
Tertiary sources
• encyclopaedia, bibliography
Institutional sources
• museums, archives and libraries
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
40
Summary
In this lecture we have:
• Been given an overview of Introduction to African Studies
• Examined the distinct nature of Africa and its people.
• Identified some misrepresentations and negative
stereotypes about Africa.
• Enumerated some significant contributions by Africans
that (may) have been excluded in the dominant
narrative about world civilisation.
• Identified several sources of data and information on
Africa.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
41
“We need to keep hope alive and
strive to do better”
Kofi Annan, Former UN
Secretary General
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
42
References
• Adibe, Jideofor (ed.). (2009). Who is an African? Identity, Citizenship and the Making of the
Africa-Nation. London: Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd.
• Browder, Anthony. (1992). Nile Valley Contributions to Civilization. Washington, DC: Institute of
Karmic Guidance.
• Mafundikwa, S. (2004). Afrikan Alphabets: The Story of Writing in Afrika: Mark Batty.
• Roe, Emery. (1995). “Except –Africa: Postscript to a Special Section on Development Narratives”
in World Development Vol. 23 No 6 (pp. 1065-1069)
• Sekyi H.V.H. 1994 Colour Prejudice Past Present and Future. New York, Vantage Press
• http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm
• http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats
• http://www.kumatoo.com/african_inventors.html
• http://www.black inventor.com
• The Economist 3rd September 2012 http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2012/09/ethiopianairlines
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
43
Lecture Two
Political Geography of Africa
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
44
Objectives
• To explore political organization and administration
in pre-colonial Africa
• To appreciate African political institutions from precolonial through contemporary times
• Explain diversity of Africa within and outside Africa
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
45
What is the Political Geography of Africa?
• Political Geography is defined as the physical and conceptual
presence of Africa and African cultures, political systems and
values across time and space.
• Physical: Refers to the map of Africa, its people, traditions,
and political institutions.
• Sub-regional Dichotomy—Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) vs
North Africa.
• Conceptual: African presence through its people, cultures,
traditions, and practices on the continent and in the diaspora.
• African Diaspora—Europe, Caribbean, North America &
South America, Pacific Islands, India, Asia.
• Time & Space: Historical and contemporary expansion of
Africa: its values, political and religious systems in the
diaspora and on the continent.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
46
Important Facts
•Africa is the second largest continent after
Asia.
•Has a land area of a little over 11,700,000
km2.
•Stretches about 5000 miles from Cape Town
to Cairo, and 3000 from Dakar to Mogadishu.
•Africa’s population as of 2013 1,110,635,000
•Source United Nations' World Population
Prospects, the 2012 Revision
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
47
Important Facts
• Africa land size is about the size of USA, Argentina, Europe,
India, China and New Zealand combined or about three and a
half times the size of the United States of America.
• Africa has 54 modern states including island republic off its
coasts.
• Most African states are multi-lingual except a few like
Somalia, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Botswana. While Nigeria
for instance has over 500 languages, while Kenya has over
100.
• Africa is the cradle of humanity as the first humans lived on
African soil (the ancestors of homo sapiens sapiens).
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2011
48
Ali Mazrui’s View of Africa
• “Africa is the first habitat of man but it is the last to be made
habitable; Africans are not the most brutalized of all people but
probably the most humiliated in modern history; African
societies are not the closest to the West culturally but have been
experiencing the most rapid pace of westernization; Africa is
not the poorest of all the regions of the world in resources but it
is the least developed of the inhabited continents; Africa is not
the smallest of the continents but it is probably the most
fragmented; and Africa is the most central of all continents in
geographical location, but politically and to some extent
militarily, it may be the most marginal.”
• Ali Mazrui , The African Condition: A Political Prognosis London :
(Heinemann, 1980) pp. 1-3
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
49
Making of the African Diaspora
• Ancient Voluntary Migration
• First humans to populate the rest of the world
including remote islands
• Forced Migration
• Maafa (So-called Trans-Saharan and TransAtlantic ‘slave trade’)
• Conflicts
• Colonialism (French Policy)
• Manipulated Migration
• Pursuit of economic interests
• Education
• Diplomatic postings
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
50
Maps showing the various slave trade routes and the
making of the African diaspora
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2011
51
Indigenous States Development & Governments
• People from different communities joined together through
confederations or conquest, for purposes of commerce or defense, to
develop kingdoms;
• Those living under jurisdictions of such confederations or kingdoms
found that the breadth and complexity of their political consciousness
increased;
• Large scale empires (states) initially ‘rose’ out of such kingdoms by
expanding through military or diplomatic leadership, but they eventually
‘fell’ (fragmenting into their component parts) at a later time;
• Such large scale empires usually recognized the legitimacy and
autonomy of local leaders and communities; and
• The ‘small’ traditions of such local communities usually remained vital
and resilient, even during serious disruptions when the ‘great’ traditions
of imperial civilizations were abandoned or destroyed.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
52
African Indigenous State System
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
53
Examples of Ancient, Medieval, &
Early Modern African states
•Ancient Egypt •Songhay
•Kush/Nubia
•Kanem Bornu
•Axum
•Buganda
•Ghana
•The Oyo Empire
•Mali
•The Zulu Empire
•The Dahomey •Maravi
Kingdom
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
54
Indigenous State Structures and
Forms of Authority
• State Structure took two forms:
A. Centralized State forms
Centralized states had well defined political authority
with institutional bureaucracy for collecting taxes,
supervising ceremonies, maintaining law and order and
carrying out the general orders of the political heads E.g.
Old Ghana empire, Mali Empire etc.
–Forms of indigenous authority under this system
are;
▪Hierarchical systems
▪Pyramidal / Federated systems
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
55
➢Hierarchical Systems
• Highly centralized. Presided over by a powerful
political figure (king), with efficient bureaucracy
and military arrangement.
• Political heads often had subordinates who assisted
in the day-to-day administration of the society.
• E.g. Buganda Kingdom of Uganda; the Dahomey
kingdom Benin.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
56
➢Pyramidal/ Federated Systems
• A federation consisting of different levels of
autonomous nations with their own chiefs, paramount
chiefs or a king.
• The levels of the pyramid are based on seniority; thus
higher chiefs may or may not have the right to interfere
directly in the affairs of lower chiefs.
• In such instance, lower chiefs are expected to show
deference to the higher ones. E.g. Yoruba of Nigeria
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
57
B. Decentralized Societies
• Politically decentralized societies had no bureaucracies
and were often based on kinship. Maintenance of law
and order was deferred to elders, age-set groups and
other groups. This includes a gradation from societies
without any state structures to transitory forms of state
organizations.
–The form of indigenous authority
found in these societies is segmented
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2011
58
Segmented Systems
•Power is diffused and shared. Segments
of the society were managed by elders,
age-set groups or council chosen from
different lineages—segmented systems
do not have a single powerful political
figure.
•E.g. Tallensi of Northern Ghana, Ibo of
Nigeria and Nuer of Sudan
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
59
Basic Features of the Indigenous Political
Systems
•The Indigenous African political institutions
were largely based on kinship and ancestry.
•Rules of procedure were established through
customs and traditions some with oral, some
with written constitutions
•Women played active roles in the political
system including holding leadership and
military positions.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
60
• The indigenous political system had some democratic
features. For example, succession was regulated
according to descent and merit in some cases.
• Checks and balances were provided as well as
consensus-building.
• Power in the indigenous political system was both
secular and sacred.
• The village constitutes the basic unit of the indigenous
political system
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
61
EUROPEAN PRESENCE IN AFRICA
European Exploration
• In 1471, The Portuguese arrived on the Gold
Coast region of West Africa.
• Later, other Europeans followed including: the
Dutch, the Danes, the English
• The development led to trade activities between
Europeans and the Africans.
• Europeans traded with the Africans in the
following items-gold, ivory, beads and others.
Treaties in African Societies
•The Bond of 1844 signed between
Fanti Chiefs and The British.
•The Treaty of Butre, between the
Netherlands and the people of
Ahanta.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2011
63
Missionaries in Africa
•There were many Missions in Africa.
•Some Missionaries that came to the Gold
Coast were:
•The Protestants (The Anglicans, The Basel Missions,
Wesleyan, Methodist etc.)
•The Catholics
• For some of such missionaries, their main job was to gather
information and lay the groundwork that would be necessary for
the subsequent imperialistic ambitions and colonization of Africa
by first colonizing the minds.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2011
64
Berlin & Partition
• In 1879, France by her activities in the interior of Senegal, began the
European partitioning of Africa. In November 15, 1884 at the request of
Portugal, German chancellor Otto von Bismark called a conference of
major western powers of the world to discuss and end confusion over the
control of Africa
• 14 Western countries in attendance: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia,
Spain, Sweden-Norway (unified from 1814-1905), Turkey, and the United
States of America
• Major Players: France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal
• The conference ended in February 26, 1885 - a three month period where
colonial powers negotiated geometric boundaries in the interior of the
continent, disregarding the cultural and linguistic boundaries already
established by the indigenous African population
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
65
The Berlin Conference
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
66
European Holdings & Colonialism
• Great Britain desired a Cape-to-Cairo collection of colonies and almost succeeded
through its control of Egypt, Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), Uganda, Kenya (British
East Africa), South Africa, and Zambia, Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), and Botswana. The
British also controlled Nigeria and Ghana (Gold Coast).
• France took much of western Africa, from Mauritania to Chad (French West Africa)
and Gabon and the Republic of Congo (French Equatorial Africa).
• Belgium and King Leopold II controlled the Democratic Republic of Congo (Belgian
Congo).
• Portugal took Mozambique in the east and Angola in the west. Italy's holdings were
Somalia (Italian Somaliland) and a portion of Ethiopia.
• Germany took Namibia (German Southwest Africa) and Tanzania (German East
Africa) as well as Togo and Cameroon.
• Spain claimed the smallest territory - Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
67
Then and Now
Colonial
Post/Neo-colonial
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
68
Nature of Colonial Rule
• The European colonial powers shared one objective in their
African colonies: exploitation.
• However, their differences were reflected in the governance
established over the colonies.
• The British established a system of indirect rule.
• France and the other colonial powers ruled the colonies
directly from the metropolitan centres in Europe
• The French notably sought to create culturally assimilated
elites to represent French ideals in the colonies.
• In the Belgian Congo, King Leopold II, who had financed
the expeditions that staked Belgium's claim in Berlin,
embarked on a campaign of ruthless exploitation associated
with mass torture and death of the African people.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
69
Nationalism and Struggle for
Independence
•Necessitating factors:
•a. exploitation, discrimination and neglect by
colonial authorities
•b. the world wars
•c. western education
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
70
Political Legacies of Colonial Rule
a. New State Structures
Carved out without regard to pre-existing conditions
Mostly centralized
Subordination of indigenous political institutions & systems of authority
b. Different Systems of Governance
Presidential System
Parliamentary System
Hybrid System
c. Different Political Institutions
Legislature
Executive
Judiciary
Competitive Elections
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
71
PAN-AFRICANISM AND THE PANAFRICAN MOVEMENT
What is pan-Africanism?
It is a perception by some Africans (at home and abroad) that they
share a common origin, history, destiny and interest as a people of
African descent (usually expressed as unification economically,
politically, etc.).
Origins of the Pan-African Movement
Pan-Africanism in its modern form is undoubtedly the result of slavery and
colonialism in Africa. As a socio-political movement, it can be traced to the first
pan-African conference of July, 1900; in London. The conference was convened
by Henry Sylvester Williams and the African Association (AA); which H. S.
Williams founded in 1898.
The conference set up the Pan-African Association (PAA) which
later metamorphosed into the Pan-African Movement (PAM).
THE PAN-AFRICAN MOVEMENT
Goals
• Formation of the United States of Africa (USA); i.e., including
Caribbean countries.
• Ensure closer ties between peoples of African descent the world
over.
• Bring about friendlier relations between people of African
descent and other races.
• Secure the civil rights of all Africans in the world.
• Promote the businesses of Africans globally.
Some Leaders of PAM
• H. S. Williams (1869-1911)
• W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)- the father of pan-Africanism.
• Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)- “Africa for the Africans”
• George Padmore (1902-1959)
• Kwame Nkrumah (c. 1909-1972)- the father of pan-Africanism on
the African continent.
• Haile Selassie I (1892-1975)- first Chairman of Africa Unity
1963/64
• Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986)- Negro origins of pre-historic
Egyptian Civilization.
• Julius K. Nyerere (1922-1999)- founding member of OAU
• Malcolm X (1925-1965)
LEGACIES OF PAM
• Independent African/Caribbean states
• Formation of the OAU/AU
• Global civil rights for people of African descent.
• African Studies/Afrocentrism
• Etc.
Quest for Continental Government
A. The Early Debate -Regionalism Vs Continentalism
–Despite broad agreement among African leaders about the
importance of pan-Africanism as a foreign policy goal, there
was disagreement about the proper path to achieve such unity.
Three different opinions emerged as a result:
• First, The Brazzaville Group (named after the capital of
Congo-Brazzaville), and mainly of francophone countries
• It sought a minimalist approach and advocated the use of
standard diplomatic practices to coordinate national
economic policies
• It gave little consideration to the possibility of creating
continent-wide institutions (Gordon and Gordon, 2001).
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
75
•Second, The Casablanca Group (named
after the Moroccan city), and led by
Nkrumah, argued on the contrary that the
success of pan-Africanism required a
political union of all independent African
countries, patterned after the federal model
of the United Sates.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
76
• Third, the Monrovia Group (named after the
capital of Liberia), and led by Alhaji Abubakar
Tafawa Balewa, Prime Minister of Nigeria, rejected
the idea of political union as both undesirable and
unfeasible.
• The group argued that African leaders would
jealously guard their countries’ newfound
independence.
NOTE: AU’S 50TH ANNIVERSARY (25 May 1963- 25 May
2013)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
77
• It, however, sought a greater degree of cooperation
than that espoused by the Brazzaville Group.
• It called for the creation of a looser organisation of
independence(independent) African states that would
promote growing cooperation in functional areas such
as economic, scientific, educational and social
development
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
78
• On May 25, 1963, thirty-one African Heads of State
largely embraced the Monrovia vision of African
international relations by launching the Organisation of
African Unity (OAU), the first Pan-African,
intergovernmental organisation of independent African
countries based on African soil, with the determination
to gain freedom and liberation from colonial rule.
(Gordon and Gordon, 2001)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
79
B. Contemporary Efforts
• The AU was launched in 2002 to replace the OAU.
• AU is(was) inspired by the ideals of Pan-Africanism to
promote unity, solidarity, cohesion and cooperation
among Africans
• NEPAD, is a merger of the Millennium Partnership for
the Africa’s Recovery Program (MAP) and the OMEGA
Plan. The merger was finalized on July 3, 2001. Out of
the merger, the New African Initiative (NAI) was born.
Its policy framework was finalized on 23rd October
2001, forming NEPAD.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
80
•NEPAD provides a strategic framework
for the socio-economic upliftment of
Africa, integrating the continent into global
economy and placing it on the path to
sustainable development.
•Question
Why did the Casablanca group (led by
Kwame Nkrumah) advocate for a strong
continental government given that Africa
had diverse political institutions, systems,
and ethnicities?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
81
References
• James D. Grant, (1994) Political Development in Historic Africa. In Vincent
Khapoya (ed)., The African Experience: An Introduction (Printice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey).
• John ILLIffe, Africans: the History of a Continet (New York, 2007), Ch.4.
• Mueni wa Muiu & Guy Martin (2009) “Indigenous African Political Systems
and Institutions” A New Paradigm of the African State (Palgrave Macmillan,
New York)
• Mazrui, Ali, The African Condition: A Political Prognosis London :
(Heinemann, 1980)
• Nehemia Levtzion, 1973Ancient Ghana and Mali (London,.
• Vincent Khapoya (2013) “African Independence and Afterward” (Chapter 6) in
The African Experience: An Introduction (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey).
• April Gordon and Donald Gordon, (2001). Understanding Contemporary
Africa. Third Edition(Lynne Rienner, London)
• Film by Basil Davidson
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
82
Lecture Three
PERSPECTIVES OF AFRICAN
CULTURE
NOTIONS OF CULTURE
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
83
OBJECTIVES
By the end of lesson, students should be able to:
•Give a general overview of the following:
•African culture(s), languages and development.
• Interrogate various mis/conceptions of African
culture(s), languages and development
• Critique existing notions of these concepts.
• Establish and explain the relationship between
culture and development.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
84
Interactive session
•What do people in your society understand
by culture?
•What do you understand by culture?
•Do African languages have a word for
culture?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
85
True/False: What do you think about
the following???
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
86
Some Misconceptions about
African Culture(s)
•Modernity and Culture are opposites
•Culture does not include science and technology
•It is only about drumming and dancing
•It is all about the past (outmoded customs)
•Culture is only about traditional beliefs & customs
•It implies homogeneities (people doing things the
same way).
•Why are these deemed to be misconceptions?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
87
Culture?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
88
Definition of Culture
•“From their life experiences, a group
develops a set of rules and procedures for
meeting their needs. The set of rules and
procedures, together with a supporting set of
ideas and values, is called a culture.”
-Amos N. Wilson
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
89
Biko on Culture
•“A culture is essentially the society’s
composite answer to the varied
problems of life.”
- Steve Biko
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
90
Frequently cited definitions:
E. B. Tylor (1871)
"that complex whole which includes
knowledge, morals, religion, customs and
habits or any other capabilities acquired by
man as a member of society".
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
91
World Conference on Cultural Policies
adopted the following definition
(MONDIACULT, 1998) :
“Culture is that whole complex of distinctive
spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
features that characterize a society or social
groups. It includes not only arts and letters,
but also modes of life, the fundamental rights
of the human being, value systems, traditions
and beliefs”
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
92
Amilcar Cabral
• “Culture is simultaneously the fruit of a people's
history and a determinant of history, by the
positive or negative influence which it exerts on
the evolution of relationships between man and
his environment, among men or groups of men
within a society, as well as among different
societies[…] if imperialist domination has the
vital need to practice cultural oppression,
national liberation is necessarily an act of
culture.” (Cabral 1973:41)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
93
Frantz Fanon
• “A national culture is the whole body of
efforts made by a people in the sphere of
thought to describe, justify, and praise the
action through which that people has created
itself and keeps itself in existence.” (Fanon
1963:233)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
94
What is Culture?
• Culture is an artefact (i.e. man-made).
• Culture is learnt.
• Culture pertains to the group and not normally peculiar to
individuals.
• Culture is transmissible directly and indirectly.
• Variety of Sanctions enforce some conformity.
• It is not cast in stone.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
95
Summary of Other Views on culture
• It is the way a people think, feel and believe. (Clyde
Kluckholn)
• It is a convenient shorthand for an ill-defined entity which
might be described as ‘a way of life’. (Fieldhouse 1986)
• Culture is the totality of a people’s way of life. It embodies
the distinctive achievements of communities and people,
their identities and aspirations
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
96
Some Aspects of Culture
Economy: (goods and services: their production, distribution
and consumption within society)
Political: the society’s political norms and behaviours. Some
societies are identified by their political institutions and
leaders. E.g. Ashantis are identified by their allegiance to the
golden stool, a politico-religious symbol, and to the
Asantehene.
Technology: A society’s technology and sciences are crucial
to their culture. The people’s ways, techniques as well as
implements or tools are of relevance to the identification of
culture. Note that by studying artefacts Archaeologists are
able to identify past cultures.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
97
Entertainment: forms of entertainment (dances,
music, games, drama etc.). So important are the
performance arts some people seem to think that
culture is only about these.
Language: Languages that people speak are also
crucial to their identity. Many ethnic people are
known by the terms that refer to their languages.
The Nzema speak Nzema, the Yoruba speak
Yoruba.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
98
Culture is Dynamic
Culture changes and does not remain static. This may be
due to many factors.
• Changes in demographic profile of the society;
• Environmental changes and changes in the economy;
• Contact with other societies: through wars, trade,
colonization etc. can lead to borrowing of new habits and
norms and abandonment of old ways.
• Globalisation is responsible for many changes that
African societies are going through now.
• Changes in technology and scientific knowledge etc.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
99
Discuss: what does this picture tell us?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
100
Discuss
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
101
Who are
they?
Do they
exemplify
African
Culture?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
102
LANGUAGE(S) OF AFRICA
•Africa is home to about ⅓ of the world’s languages
i.e. over 2000 living languages. These serve a variety
of purposes, such as:
•Mother tongues/first languages, --- Cultural
•Official /National languages --- Administrative
•Trade languages- linguae francae --Communication
•Ritual / secret, theological languages --- Religion
•Media for artistic expression and entertainment.
•There are non-indigenous languages that came in
through colonialism – English, French, Portuguese,
Spanish
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
103
The Language Families
Linguists since Greenberg’s time have shown that
the majority of African languages have common
origins – proto-sources.
The 2000+ African languages are offspring of 4
parent languages. They are classified in one of 4
families:
-Afro-Asiatic [in North Africa & Middle East]
-Nilo-Saharan [Sahara, Nile basin, etc]
-Khoisan [around Kalahari]
-Niger-Congo-Kordofanian [basins of Niger and
Congo]
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
104
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
105
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
106
Critique: Theophile Obenga’s
Négro Égyptienne
bad (adj)
bin
Akan – bɔne
Wolof – bon
in (prep)
m
Akan – mu
Bantu – mu
Baule - mo
Songhay – bone
The partitioning of Africa into the four language families akin to
the Berlin conference:
• Done by and for Europeans with little to no consideration of Africans
or the realities on the ground.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
107
Interactive session
What do you understand by the term development?
1. Would you say development was unknown to
Africans until their contact with Europeans?
2. Do African languages have terms for
Development?
3. If yes, suggest Akan, Ewe, Ga and Dangbani terms
for Development?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
108
Misconceptions about Development
•Westernization/modernization?
•Economic growth?
•It is about per capita income/GDP
•Development is a project?
•Development is a definite state that some countries
have attained, but others never will?
•African culture hinders development?
•To be developed, countries have to attain certain
goals Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
109
Definitions of Development
Amartya Sen (1999:3) Economist &Nobel
Laureate:
“development can be seen.....as a process of
expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy.
Focusing on human freedoms contrasts with the
narrow views of development, such as identifying
development with the growth of gross national
product, or with the rise in personal incomes, or
with industrialisation or with technological
advance, or with social modernisation’’.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
110
•Ake C. (1996):
“Development is a process by which people
create and recreate themselves and their life
circumstances to realize higher levels of
civilization in accordance with their own
choices and values.”
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
111
Remarks about Development
Development is a Process.
•It should be people oriented.
•Wellbeing should be central issue.
•It should be about freedoms and informed
choices.
•It should be about social justice.
• It should include equity - gender equality.
•It should be about peace /absence of war,
conflicts.
•
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
112
How Culture applies to Development
• Promotion of progressive cultural practices, and
the rejection of destructive ones.
•It should accommodate a people’s aspirations.
•Cultural sensitivity: cultural assets – norms,
knowledge, etc. can be exploited as development
assets.
•Appreciate that certain cultural practices may be
entrenched in social systems.
•Cultural norms are not sacrosanct, and can be
modified or replaced if society needs to.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
113
Critical view of Culture
• “Without any doubt, underestimation of the cultural values of
African peoples, based upon racist feelings and upon the
intention of perpetuating foreign exploitation of Africans, has
done much harm to Africa. But in the face of the vital need
for progress, the following attitudes or behaviors will be no
less harmful to Africa: indiscriminate compliments;
systematic exaltation of virtues without condemning faults;
blind acceptance of the values of the culture, without
considering what presently or potentially regressive elements
it contains; confusion between what is the expression of an
objective and material historical reality and what appears to
be a creation of the mind or the product of a peculiar
temperament; absurd linking of artistic creations, whether
good or not, with supposed racial characteristics; and finally,
the non-scientific or a scientific critical appreciation of the
cultural phenomenon.” (Cabral 1973:51)
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
114
Cultural Practices that impede
Development
•Cultural practices which endanger human life
-Human sacrifice
Some practices may undermine individual
welfare
-FGM, infant betrothal, trokosi
Some practices can affect people’s
fundamental human rights.
- Witchcraft accusation
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
115
CONCLUSION
• Culture does not imply absolute homogeneity; it permits
sub-cultures and intra-cultural differences.
• Culture is created by human beings and is dynamic
• Multilingualism is the norm in Africa but unity underlies
heterogeneity of African cultures.
• African culture is the entirety of the African way of life. It
is an abstraction.
• Culture can be used as an important tool for development.
• Development, it is said, is culture specific.
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
116
SUMMARY
This lecture
• examined the concept of African culture(s).
• provided education about African languages and how they
divide and unite people.
• examined concepts of development
• looked at the interrelationships between culture,
development and language.
Question: Can we talk of African Culture, given the
diversities present in Africa?
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
117
REFERENCES
• Ake Claude, (1996). Democracy and development in Africa . Washington DC;
Brookings Institute.
• Biko, S. (1981). Black Consciousness & the Quest for a True Humanity. Ufahamu:
A Journal of African Studies, 11(1).
• Cabral, A. (1974). Return to the source: selected speeches: Monthly Review Press.
• Fanon, F., & Philcox, R. (2007). The Wretched of the Earth: Grove/Atlantic,
Incorporated.
• Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. (2001). African Languages: An introduction.
Cambridge pp 1-42.
• Obenga, T. (1993). Origine Commune de l'Egyptien Ancien, du Copte et des
Langues Negro-Africaines Modernes. Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Sen, Amartya. (1999). Development as Freedom, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• http://www.unesco.org/en/cultural-diversity/reflections-on-cultural-diversity/
© IAS, University of Ghana, Legon, 2013
118