METAL FORMING 1 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Material Behavior in Metal Forming Overview of Metal Forming Temperature in Metal Forming Strain Rate Sensitivity Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming 3 Metal Forming Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal workpieces ▪ The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed the yield strength of the metal ▪ The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die 4 Stresses in Metal Forming ▪ Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive ▪ Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion ▪ However, some forming processes ▪ Stretch the metal (tensile stresses) ▪ Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive) ▪ Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning) 5 Material Properties in Metal Forming ▪ Desirable material properties: ▪ Low yield strength ▪ High ductility ▪ These properties are affected by temperature: ▪ Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is raised ▪ Other factors: ▪ Strain rate and friction 6 Basic Types of Deformation Processes 1. 2. (stock has high V/A) Bulk deformation ▪ Rolling ▪ Forging ▪ Extrusion ▪ Wire and bar drawing (stock has low V/A) Sheet metalworking ▪ Bending ▪ Deep drawing ▪ Cutting 7 Bulk Deformation Processes ▪ Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape changes ▪ "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface area‑to‑volume ratios ▪ Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular bars 8 Rolling Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling 9 Forging Basic bulk deformation processes: forging 10 Extrusion Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion 11 Wire and Bar Drawing Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing 12 Sheet Metalworking ▪ Forming and related operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils ▪ High surface area‑to‑volume ratio of starting metal, which distinguishes these from bulk deformation ▪ Often called pressworking because presses perform these operations ▪ Parts are called stampings ▪ Usual tooling: punch and die 13 Sheet Metal Bending Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending 14 Deep Drawing Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing 15 Shearing of Sheet Metal Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing 16 Material Behavior in Metal Forming ▪ Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is plastically deformed ▪ In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve: where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent ▪ Flow curve based on true stress and true strain 17 Flow Stress ▪ For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to strain hardening ▪ Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as a function of strain 18 Average Flow Stress ▪ Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest where = average flow stress; and ε = maximum strain during deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent 19 Temperature in Metal Forming ▪ For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature ▪ Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at higher temperatures ▪ In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures 20 Temperature in Metal Forming ▪ Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and power at elevated temperature ▪ Three temperature ranges in metal forming: ▪ Cold working ▪ Warm working ▪ Hot working 21 1. Cold Working ▪ Performed at room temperature or slightly above ▪ Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations ▪ Minimum or no machining usually required 22 Advantages of Cold Forming ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Better accuracy, closer tolerances Better surface finish Strain hardening increases strength and hardness No heating of work required 23 Disadvantages of Cold Forming ▪ Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation ▪ Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done ▪ In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation ▪ In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked Impact of Cold Work As cold work is increased • Yield strength (σy) increases. • Tensile strength (TS) increases. • Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases. Adapted from Fig. 8.20, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. low carbon steel 24 Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working • What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility after cold working Cu? Copper Cold Work Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm 25 Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working 500 300 300 MPa 100 0 2 4 % 0Cold 0 Work C u 6 0 σy = 300 MPa 800 600 400 340 MPa 200 0 2 4 % Cold 0 0 Work C u6 0 TS = 340 MPa ductility (%EL) 700 tensile strength (MPa) yield strength (MPa) • What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%? 6 0 4 0 2 0 7 %00 C u 2 4 %0 Cold0 Work 6 0 %EL = 7% Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 26 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working • 1 hour treatment at Tanneal... decreases TS and increases %EL. • Effects of cold work are nullified! 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 6 0 tensile strength 5 0 500 4 0 400 3 0 ductility 2 0 300 Re co ry cry • Three Annealing stages: 1. Recovery 2. Recrystallization 3. Grain Growth Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.) Gr Re ve ductility (%EL) tensile strength (MPa) annealing temperature (ºC) sta lliz ain ati o n Gr ow th 27 Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 1. Recovery •During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved. In addition, physical properties such as electrical and thermal conductivities are recovered to their precold-worked states. 28 Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 2. Recrystallization • New grains are formed that: -- have low dislocation densities -- are small in size -- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains. 0.6 mm 0.6 mm Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (a),(b), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.21 (a),(b) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.) 33% cold worked brass New crystals nucleate after 3 sec. at 580°C. 29 As Recrystallization Continues… • All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced. 0.6 mm 0.6 mm Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (c),(d), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.21 (c),(d) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.) After 4 seconds After 8 seconds 30 Anisotropy in σy • Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal - before rolling - after rolling Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.) rolling direction 235 μm - isotropic since grains are equiaxed & randomly oriented. - anisotropic since rolling affects grain orientation and shape. 31 Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 3. Grain Growth • At longer times, average grain size increases. -- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear) -- Large grains continue to grow 0.6 mm After 8 s, 580ºC 0.6 mm After 15 min, 580ºC • Empirical Relation: exponent typ. ~ 2 grain diam. at time t. Adapted from Fig. 8.21 (d),(e), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.21 (d),(e) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.) coefficient dependent on material and T. elapsed time 32 TR = recrystallization temperature TR Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. º 33 Recrystallization Temperature TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 h. 0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on: • %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW • Purity of metal -- TR decreases with increasing purity 34 35 2. Warm Working ▪ Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below recrystallization temperature ▪ Dividing line between cold working and warm working often expressed in terms of melting point: ▪ 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal 36 Advantages of Warm Working ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Lower forces and power than in cold working More intricate work geometries possible Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated Low spring back Disadvantage: 1. Scaling of part surface 37 3. Hot Working ▪ Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature ▪ Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of melting point on absolute scale ▪ In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.6Tm ▪ Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this level 38 Why Hot Working? Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal ‑ far more than possible with cold working or warm working ▪ Why? ▪ Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temperature ▪ Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically) ▪ Ductility is significantly increased 39 Advantages of Hot Working ▪ Workpart shape can be significantly altered ▪ Lower forces and power required ▪ Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed ▪ Strength properties of product are generally isotropic ▪ No work hardening occurs during forming 40 Disadvantages of Hot Working ▪ Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk forming ▪ Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece) ▪ Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish ▪ Shorter tool life