What is Psychology?
Psychology is the science of behavior it deals with
prediction and control of behavior. Psychologists use the
methods of science to investigate and study all kinds of
behavior and mental processes say for example the activity
of single nerve cell to social conflicts that take place in
complex societies or say from the development of
language in childhood to the major adjustments required in
old age.
Why study Psychology?
• Know thy self
• To have a clear understanding of your own behavior,
personality, attitudes, emotions, cognitions and many more
things about yourself and others.
What is Abnormal Psychology?
It is a branch or field of Psychology which relates to mental
disorders or psychopathology. It involvesstudying patterns of
thinking and behaving that are maladaptive, disruptive
.These disruptive patterns ofthinking and behaving
ultimately effects the individual relationship with others.
You may have heard about a number of mental disorders
in television talk shows or in dramas or in themovies. Most
of us are even familiar with the names of these mental
disorders, such as Depression, Anxietydisorder, Eating
disorder, Schizophrenia, Post traumatic stress disorder,
Obsessive Compulsive disorder and many more.
Abnormal Psychology studies:
• The symptoms (what the disorders look like?), about
• The etiology (what causes these disorders),
• The assessment (how we can measure the disorders)
• The diagnosis (how we can classify the disorders)
• The prognosis (the possible outcome of the disorder)
• The treatment (how we intervene)
• Social implications (the effects that disorders have
on the individual, their family and on the society in
particular).
Example
A SIXTEEN YEAR OLD GIRL in her biology class saw the dissection of a
frog, about half way she left the room but she was bothered by images
of the dissection. She began to avoid situations where she might see
blood or injury .she found it difficult to look at raw meat or band aid.
She could not stand the sight of blood. She fainted in her class
frequently and she could not stand the people talking about blood,
surgery or injury.
Symptoms sight of blood, injury or band aid or raw meat created fear.
Etiology saw a dissection of frog
Assessment impaired functioning, and DSM-IV-TR
Diagnosis blood injury Phobia
Prognosis good
Treatment phobia treatment by Systematic Desensitization
Social implications can not study in class; enter professions like
medicine or nursing.
PSYCHOSIS is a general term that refers to several types of severe
mental disorder in which the person is
considered to be out of contact with reality.
Neurosis is a term no more used now we use the term Anxiety
disorders it refers to mild types of mental
disorder in which the person has contact with reality but its one area of
his life which is problematic.
Recognizing the presence of a disorder
• All mental disorders are typically defined by a set of characteristic
features; one symptom by itself is
seldom sufficient to make a diagnosis.
• A group of symptoms that appear together and are assumed to represent
a specific type of disorder
is referred to as a syndrome.
• The significance of any specific feature depends on whether the person
also exhibits additional
behaviors that are characteristic of a particular disorder.
• The duration of a person’s symptoms is also important.
• Mental disorders are defined in terms of persistent maladaptive
behaviors.
Impairment is the ability to perform social and occupational roles is
another consideration in identifying the presence of a mental disorder.
One of the most difficult issues in the field of abnormal psychology centers
on the processes by which mental disorders are identified.
Psychologists and other mental health professionals do not at present have
laboratory tests that can be usedto confirm definitively the presence of
psychopathology because the processes that are responsible formental
disorders have not yet been fully discovered.
Clinical psychologists depend on their observations of the person’s behavior
and descriptions of personal experience.
Insanity is a legal term that refers to judgments about whether a person
should be held responsible for criminal behavior if he or she is also mentally
disturbed.
Nervous breakdown is an old fashioned term that indicates, in very
general terms, that a person hasdeveloped some sort of incapacitating
but otherwise unspecified type of mental disorder.This expression does
not convey any specific information about the nature of the person’s
problems.
Crazy is a term that does not convey specific information and carries with
it many unfortunate, unfounded and negative implications.
Mental health professionals refer to psychopathological conditions as
mental disorders or abnormalbehaviors.
Lunatic, insane, mad and nuts are terms referring to bizarre set of
behaviors.
Example A
I felt the need to clean my room at home every Sunday and I would
spend some four to five hours at it. Iwould take every book out of the
bookcase, dust it and put it back. At that time I loved doing that .Then
I did not want to do it, but I could not stop and it made me think for
the time that I might be nuts. (Case A,diagnosed with obsessive
compulsive disorder, citation from Summers, 1996)
Example B
Whenever I get depressed it’s because I have lost a sense of myself. I
cannot find reasons to like myself. I think I am ugly, I think no one likes
me and I have become short tempered. Nobody wants to be around
me. I am left alone. Being alone confirms that I am ugly and not worth
being with. I think I am responsible for everything that goes wrong.
(Case B, diagnosed with depression, citation from Thorne, 1993)
Example C
Voices, like roar of a crowd. I felt like Jesus (Christ), I was being
crucified. It was dark. I just continued to huddle under the blanket,
feeling weak, and defenseless in a cruel world, I could no longer
understand (Case C, Diagnosed with Schizophrenia, citation from
Emmons & et.al, 1997)
The three examples cited are about exceptional, the unusual, the
different, and the abnormal people.
Most of the people get anxious, depressed, suspicious, socially
withdrawn or anti social, just less intensely briefly, so its no wonder that
while studying about the psychological disorders may at times evokes a
strange sense of self recognition and an understanding of our own
personality dynamics.
According to William James (1842-1910)” To study the abnormal is the
best way of understanding the normal”.
Another important reason for our curiosity about the disturbed people is
that many of us have felt eitherpersonally or through friends or family
members, the suffering and pain associated with the presence of a
psychological disorder.
Myths and Misunderstandings of Abnormality/Mental
Illness/Psychological Disorders
Following are the misconceptions and misunderstandings about the
Psychological Disorders
Behavior Perception
1 A person who has been mentally ill can never be normal.
2 Even if some mentally ill persons return to normal, most do not
and people remain crazy
3 People with Psychological problems are unpredictable.
4 Mentally ill persons are dangerous and they could become aggressive at
any time
5 Mentally ill people are misfits.
All the five myths are related to abnormal behavior or mental illness are not
based on any empirical
Team approach in Abnormal Psychology
Psychiatrist prescribes drugs, psychosurgery and procedures like
Electroconvulsive therapy. He identifies biological causes of disorder.
Clinical Psychologist has a master degree in psychology, a diploma in
clinical psychology or a PhD degree in psychology. He identifies
psychological, emotional, and behavioral causes of abnormal behavior.
Sociologist has a master degree in sociology. He identifies the sociological
causes of abnormal behavior. (sometimes)
A team approach is needed in abnormal psychology.
Difficulty in defining Abnormality
In this era of rapid technological advancement, you
might think there would be some objective test like
ablood test or a like a brain scan that could
determine whether an individual is normal or
abnormal?
There is no such test available; however
psychologists rely on signs, symptoms, and
subjective criteria for deciding when the observed
symptoms (signs) constitute abnormality.
Actually there is no general agreement but most
attempts to describe abnormality based on one or
more of the following criteria:
1.Deviation from statistical
Norms
The word abnormal means “away from
norm”
Abnormality is based on statistical
frequency.
Abnormal behavior is statistically
infrequent or deviant from norm
Ex. Extremely intelligent, extremely happy
BUT! In defining behavior, we must
consider more than statistical frequency!
2. Deviation from Social
Norms
Norms- standard/acceptable
behavior
Behavior that deviates from the
norm is considered abnormal
However, ideas of normality and
abnormality from one society to
another and it changes over time.
3. Maladaptiveness of
behavior
How behavior affects the well being of the individual
Maladaptive- if a certain behavior has an
adverse/negative effects on the individual or on
society.
Characteristics of Maladaptive behavior
1. physically damaging to the individual
Ex. Cuts herself if in trouble, hurt herself
2. Emotional suffering
3. Interfere with individuals ability to function in daily life
Ex. Can’t take a bath
4.Individual has lost touch with reality and cannot
control his behavior
4. Personal Distress
Suffers discomfort as a result of the
behavior
Various states of personal distress is cause
by troublesome emotions e.g. anxiety, fear,
and depression
Considered abnormal if the feelings
become prolonged and persisted after the
source of anxiety has been removed.
5. Perception or interpretation of
reality is faulty.
Normally, our sensory systems and
cognitive processes permit us to form
accurate mental representations of the
things we see in the environment
BUT! Seeing things and hearing voices or
sounds that are not present are considered
hallucinations, which are often signs of
mental disorder
NONE OF THESE DEFINITIONS
PROVIDES A COMPLETELY
SATISFACTORY DESCRIPTION OF
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR.
HOWEVER, THEY ARE CONSIDERED
IN DIAGNOSING ABNORMALITY
WHAT IS NORMALITY?
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NORMAL PERSON:
1. Efficient perception of reality- realistic in
your reactions, capabilities and
interpretation with what is going on in
your world.
2. An ability to exercise voluntary control
over your behavior.
3. Self-esteem and acceptance- welladjusted people have some self-worth or
give importance to their selves and feel
accepted by their selves and others.
4. An ability to form affectionate
relationships- individuals are able to form
close and satisfying relationship with other
people and sensitive to the feelings of
others.
5. Productivity- individuals are able to
channel their abilities into productive
activity.
Defining Psychological Disorders
Psychological Disorder is a psychological dysfunction with in an individual
that is associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a
response that is not typical or culturally expected.
Psychological dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional,
or behavioral functioning of the individual. A schizophrenic individual
exhibits breakdown of cognitive (thinking), emotional (feeling) or
behavioral (action) functions.
The disorder or behavior must be associated with distress and
impairment. It is quite normal to be
distressed or upset, if someone close to you dies. This distress and
impairment makes you unable to function socially i.e. that is an individual
attempts to avoids friends, relatives and even work colleagues.
The criterion, that the response be a typical or not culturally expected. At
times, something is considered abnormal because it occurs infrequently it
deviates from the average say when someone is extremely short or tall or
eccentric. So we can conclude that behavioral, emotional or cognitive
dysfunction that is unexpected in a culture and associated with personal
distress or impairment in functioning is abnormal
SO LET US SEE HOW MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS STUDY
ABNORMALITY
There are two guidelines for defining abnormality used by mental health
professionals.
Guidelines for defining Abnormality
1. Impaired Functioning
2. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
1. Impaired Functioning
A judgment about a behavior or an experience which causes impaired
functioning i.e. difficulty in
performing appropriate and expected roles. Judgment about the
impairment can be made in reference to the person’s context, the back
ground of behavior, the person’s age, and gender, historical, social and
cultural background of the behavior.
2. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM-IV-TR
Another judgment about determining abnormality is whether a person’s
behavior fit expert professional
rules for specific diagnosis. These rules are stated in the diagnostic and
statistical manual, 4th Edition,
revision called DSM-IV-TR. This system is used around the world for
classifying psychological disorders
Let us study the examples using these two guidelines
Example H
H was a conscientious and reliable secretary in a business
office. She was cheerful and easygoing. Now she has missed
many days of work and has to force herself to go to the office.
At home she prefers to be alone away from her husband and
children. She has nightmares and wakes up screaming at
night. A year ago she was working late in her office; a stranger
entered the building, found H alone, and robbed her at
gunpoint. H was traumatized by the event and for days H
could not go to work at her office.
The case H clearly has impaired functioning and with the help
of DSM –IV-TR she is diagnosed as
suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD.
What is meant by Psychopathology?
The term Psychopathology is the scientific study of Psychological
disorders. There are three major categories of concepts that make up the
study and discussion of Psychological disorder.
Study of Psychological disorder
 Causation Etiology
 Treatment and Outcome
 Clinical Description
The Clinical description represents the unique combination of
behaviors, thoughts and feelings that make a specific disorder. The word
clinical refers to types of problems or disorders that you find in a clinic or
hospital and especially with activities connected with assessment and
treatment.
The clinical description of a disorder is further elaborated by the concepts
of
Prevalence refers to how many people in the population as a whole have
the disorder? The figure ornumber of cases is called the prevalence of the
disorder.
Incidence means how many new cases occur during a given period of
time, say in a year?
Episodic Course-Mood disorders (say depression) follow an episodic
course in which an individual is likely to recover within a few months and
a reoccurrence of the disorder at a later time.
Time limited course means that the disorder will improve without
treatment in short period of time.
Some disorders have sudden acute onset while some disorders develop
generally over an extended period of time having an insidious onset.
Prognosis refers to chances of improvement of the disorder, so when we
say that “prognosis” is “good”, itmeans that the individual will improve
( more chances of improvement),while the statement that“prognosis” is
“guarded” means that the probable outcome does not looks good (less
chances of improvement)
The Etiology or study of origins has to do why a disorder begins (what
causes it) and it includes the
biological, psychological and social dimensions.
Treatment /Intervention/Therapy can be during a medication or
psychosocial treatment such as Psychodynamic, cognitive,
behavior or humanistic therapy. The triad approach of Etiology, the
causation,and the treatment of disorder is currently used.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON
ABNORMALITY
3 categories of theories that causes mental disorders
1. Biological theories- saw mental disorders as similar to
physical diseases, caused by the breakdown of one of the
systems in the body.
Treatment/cure- restoration of the body to good health
2. Supernatural theories- mental disorder is a result of divine
interventions, curses, demonic possession and personal
sin.
Treatment/Cure- religious rituals, exorcisms, confessions,
atonement of sins
3. Psychological or stress-related theories- saw mental
disorder as a result of traumas, or chronic stress
Treatment- rest, relaxation, change of environment and
herbal medicines
ANCIENT THEORIES
Stone Age- supernatural beliefs
Demons and ghosts were the cause of the
abnormal behavior
Treatment: Drill holes in the skull of the
person
There was evidence of trephination (cutting
holes into a skull to let evil spirits out) back
in the stone age.
Ancient China
Chinese Medicine was based on the
concept of YING and YANG. (positive and
negative force in the human body)
If YING and YANG is balance = healthy
If YING and YANG is imbalance = insanity
Treatment: Withholding food since food was
considered to be the source of positive
force.
VITAL AIR- flows from different organs
Heart-joy; lungs-sorrow; lungs-anger---encourage to live a harmonious life to
Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome
mental disorders occur only in women
because of “WANDERING UTERUS”
Egyptian believes that the uterus can be
dislodged and wander throughout the body,
interfering with the organs and causing
symptoms.
Hysteria=greek word of UTERUS
OLD TESTAMENT
Madness=Mental disorder
seen as punishment from GOD
Treatment= confess and repent
MIDDLE AGES
Accused witches are considered to have a
mental disorder
Psychic epidemics occurred but explanation
is due to spirit possession.
18th and 19th Century
More gentle treatment of people with
mental disorders
Began to establish ASYLUMS (rehabilitation
center)
Humanitarian movement-providing people
with mental disorders with clean, safe living
conditions and humane treatment
MODERN PERSPECTIVES IN
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Emil Kraeplin- student of Wundt founded
the Organic/Biogenic theory
He developed a scheme of classifying
symptoms into discrete mental disorders
which leads to the advancement of
scientific study of the disorders
General Paresis- important discoveries
under modern biological theories of
abnormality. It is a disease that leads to
paralysis, insanity and eventually death.
Richard Krafft Ebing- who discovered that
general paresis is due to syphilis infection.
Biogenic theory (kraeplin)- organic cause;
mental illness like physical illness could be
classified into separate pathologies, each of
which had a different organic cause and
could be recognized as a distinct cluster of
symptoms, called SYNDROME
Psychogenic theory- psychological
disturbances is due primarily to emotional
stress not organic dysfunction
Franz Anton Mesmer- Hypnosis is the cure
of hysteria
PERSPECTIVES IN ABNORMAL
PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE- assumes that AB issues from
unconscious psychological conflicts originating in childhood,
unresolved conflicts(talking cure, free association)
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE-primary cause of AB is
inappropriate learning-maladaptive behaviors are rewarded,
adaptive behaviors are not rewarded
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE- AB is an outgrowth of maladaptive
ways of perceiving and thinking about oneself and
environment
HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE- AB results from
failure to accept oneself, to take responsibility from one’s
actions
INTERPERSONAL PERSPECTIVE- AB as the product of
disordered relationships
SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE- AB as the
product of broad social forces. It examines
the biases that influence diagnosis
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES- analyzes AB in
terms of biological components