Name: CHERRY LYN N. LAGUNZAD
Subject: Prof. Educ.513 DTS 1 FACILITATING LEARNING 1 (FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION 1)
School: EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY-TANAUAN CAMPUS
Professor: DR. CLASILDA TECSON
Gestalt Psychology; Information Processing; Gagne's Conditions of Learning;
Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory; Bruner's
Constructivist Theory; Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept
Learning; Transfer of Learning; BLOOMS' Taxonomy of Learning
A. Define Gestalt Principles

Gestalt principles are principles/laws of human perception that describe how
humans’ group similar elements, recognize patterns and simplify complex
images when we perceive objects. Designers use the principles to organize
content on websites and other interfaces so it is aesthetically pleasing and easy
to understand.
a) Law of proximity - the gestalt grouping law that states elements that are close
together tend to be perceived as a unified group. This straightforward law states that items
close to each other tend to be grouped together, whereas items further apart are less
likely to be grouped together.
b) Law of Similarity - the gestalt grouping law that states that elements that are similar
to each other tend to be perceived as a unified group. Similarity can refer to any number
of features, including color, orientation, size, or motion.
c) Law of Closure - The law of Closure explains how we perceive incomplete shapes
(Palmer & Rock, 1994). When there is missing information in an image, the eye ignores
the missing information and fills in the gaps with lines, color or patterns from the
surrounding area to complete the image. In reality, there are no borders or lines between
this area (the background) outside the image we’re completing and the bits of background
that we have determined are now part of the image. The eye tells us otherwise.
d) Law of Continuation - The law of continuation asserts that the human eye follows
lines, curves, or a sequence of shapes in order to determine a relationship between
design elements. The continuation can carry through both positive and negative spaces
in designs. Positive space is the space in a design that is made up of the subject – the
image we insert. Negative space is the rest of the space around and in between that
object’s edges. When we view a design layout, our eyes tend to draw a line that connects
different elements.
e) Law of Good Pragnanz - This is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the
law of simplicity. This law holds that when you're presented with a set of ambiguous or
complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as possible. For example,
when presented with the Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an
assortment of curved, connected lines. The word prägnanz is a German term meaning
"good figure."
f) Law of Figure Ground - principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as
either being in the foreground or the background. They either stand out prominently in the
front (the figure) or recede into the back (the ground).
B. a. What is Information Processing Theory in teaching?
Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is
encoded into our memory. The theory describes how our brains filter information, from
what we’re paying attention to in the present moment, to what gets stored in our shortterm or working memory and ultimately into our long-term memory. The premise of
Information Processing Theory is that creating a long-term memory is something that
happens in stages; first we perceive something through our sensory memory, which is
everything we can see, hear, feel or taste in a given moment; our short-term memory is
what we use to remember things for very short periods, like a phone number; and longterm memory is stored permanently in our brains.
b. What are the types of knowledge under this theory? Describe each.

Declarative knowledge - refers to facts or information stored in the memory, that
is considered static in nature. Declarative knowledge, also referred to as
conceptual, propositional or descriptive knowledge, describes things, events, or
processes; their attributes; and their relation to each other. It's basically “how” you
know to do something.' Facts, world history, or rules for mathematical equations
are all examples of declarative knowledge. Declarative knowledge is also usually
explicit knowledge, meaning that you are consciously aware that you understand
the information.

Procedural knowledge – refers to the knowledge of how to perform a specific skill
or task, and is considered knowledge related to methods, procedures, or operation
of equipment. Procedural knowledge is also referred to as Implicit Knowledge, or
know-how. Procedural knowledge, also known as imperative knowledge, is the
type of knowledge exercised in the performance of a task. It's basically “how” you
know to do something. The classic example of procedural knowledge is riding a
bicycle. Once you figured it out, it quickly became implicit knowledge.

Episodic knowledge – might also be called anecdotal. This is memory for specific
events in one’s life: a memory of your first kiss or of your graduation. The personal
stories of our lives comprise episodic memory.
C) What are the stages in information processing theory? Describe each.
In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through
three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally, Long-Term
Memory.
These
stages
were
first
proposed
by
Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S) or
three-box model, is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that
a computer processes information.



In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first
in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds,
and tastes. It is very brief storage, essentially long enough for the brain to
register and start processing the information. Sensory memory can hold visual
information for about half of a second and auditory information for a few
seconds. Unlike other cognitive processes, it seems that sensory memory does
not change from infancy (Siegler, 1998). However, without the ability to encode the
information, it fades from sensory memory quickly (Papalia et al., 2008). As
children and adolescence become more capable of encoding, they can take more
advantage of the information available to them in the sensory memory. We are
constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even
most of it. Moreover, most of it has no impact on our lives. For example, what was
your professor wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed
appropriately, it does not matter what she was wearing. Sensory information about
sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we do not view as valuable
information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information will
move into our short-term memory system.
Short-term memory (STM), also called working memory, is a temporary
storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. Short-term memory is
the bridge between information taken in through sensory memory and the more
permanent storage of information in long-term memory. Information that is not
moved along from short-term memory to long-term memory will be forgotten.
Short-term memory is also called working memory because this is the system
where the “work” of memory happens. If you are retrieving information from your
long-term memory, you are moving it into your working memory, where you can
think about that information. The conscious repetition of information to be
remembered, to move STM into long-term memory is called memory consolidation.
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike
short-term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no real limits. It encompasses
all the things you can remember what happened more than just a few minutes ago
to all of the things that you can remember what happened days, weeks, and years
ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be
like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It is not there on your
desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you
want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories.
Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. Long-term memory is
divided into two types: explicit and implicit. Understanding the different types is
important because a person’s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders
can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for
other types:
Explicit memories, also called declarative memories, are those we
consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your
chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory.
(Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative
memory are used interchangeably.)
Implicit memories, also called non-declarative memories, are memories that
are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors.
Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.


d) What is forgetting? What are the two ways by which forgetting is likely to
occur?
Forgetting is generally not about actually losing or erasing the information from
your long-term memory. Forgetting typically involves a failure in memory retrieval.
While the information is somewhere in your long-term memory, you are not able to
actually retrieve and remember it.
Forgetting is the loss or change in information that was previously stored in shortterm or long-term memory. It can occur suddenly or it can occur gradually as old
memories are lost. While it is usually normal, excessive or unusual forgetting might
be a sign of a more serious problem.
 Two ways by which forgetting is likely to occur
First, the memory has disappeared - it is no longer available. Second, the memory is still
stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved. These two
answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed by psychologists. The first
answer is more likely to be applied to forgetting in short term memory, the second
to forgetting in long term memory.
Forgetting information from short term memory (STM) can be explained using the theories
of trace decay and displacement. Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be
explained using the theories of interference, retrieval failure and lack of consolidation.
e) What are the methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information when forgetting
occurs? Describe each.




Recall: This type of memory retrieval involves being able to access the
information without being cued. Answering a question on a fill-in-the-blank test is
a good example of recall.
Recollection: This type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing memory,
often utilizing logical structures, partial memories, narratives or clues. For
example, writing an answer on an essay exam often involves remembering bits
of information and then restructuring the remaining information based on these
partial memories.
Recognition: This type of memory retrieval involves identifying information after
experiencing it again. For example, taking a multiple-choice quiz requires that
you recognize the correct answer out of a group of available answers.
Relearning: This type of memory retrieval involves relearning information that has
been previously learned. This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve
information in the future and can improve the strength of memories.
f) What are the other Memory Methods? Describe each.






Active Experiencing: How actors remember their lines.
 Break down a written script into a series of logically connected 'beats' or
intentions. When performing (rehearsing too), rather than thinking about
the lines, feel for the character's intention and through this let the lines
come through spontaneously and naturally.
The Linking Method: Associate sequential pairs of items.
 Use this method for remembering lists of items. These can be relatively
unrelated items, such as a shopping list, or a connected set, such as the
key points of a business presentation.
The Journey Method: associate items to places along a known journey.
 Use to remember a list or sequence of items or activities.
The House method: associating things to places in a building
 Use when you want to remember a large number of things.
The Peg Method: For remembering numbers
 Use this system when you want to remember numbers.
The Consonant Peg Method: An alternative method.
 Use this method for remembering numbers.





The Story Method: Setting words in a story context.
 Use to remember a set of words or sequence of activities
The Celebrity Method: Linking memories to celebrities.
 Use this method to remember things when you are fascinated by celebrities
or when you find it easier to bring them to mind.
The Town Method: Building a complete town of links.
 Use to remember a complex and detailed set of information
Mnemonics: Playing with initial letters.
 Use to remember a sequence of words where you only need a simple set
of initial letters to be able to remember the original words.
Close Your Eyes: To better see things.
 Use when you are trying to remember something that has happened or
something you have done.
C. What are Gagne's Conditions of Learning?
Robert Gagne describes conditions of learning as a means through which individuals and
groups acquire relevant skills to be accepted in society. Learning is a direct result of
human behaviour which is influenced by the environment and the individual thinking
process of learners. The foundations of Gagne’s Condition of learning lies in the theories
of behaviourism. He also mentioned that learning a specific skill depends on previous
learning skills in a logical and sequential manner that contributes to building a learning
experience.
a. What are his 5 categories of Learning?



Verbal information includes declarative knowledge that is stored in distributed
forms. It should be related to previous information that draws attention to other
features by including variations in speech or print, provides meaningful content for
effective encoding and cues for effective recall and generalisation.
Intellectual skills include procedural knowledge such as steps of a process or
hierarchies with higher and lower order skills. There is a need for prior knowledge
here, it calls attention to distinctive features and stimulates the recall of previously
learned components' skills.
Cognitive strategies are skills that influence the skills and activation of other
systems by breaking the problem into parts. It uses less prior knowledge and more


practical examples and experiences backed by the feedback on the strategy or
outcome.
Motor skills deal with skills where error-less performance is expected. It
encourages mental practice. Prior learning of the process and practice enhances
the overall process.
Attitudes are mental states that influence an individual’s actions and require a
human to observe and learn from those who also provide feedback.
b. What are his 9 levels of Instruction?
 Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)
Start the learning process by gaining the attention of your audience. It starts the learning
process when the learner is being receptive to the information received. This may be
achieved by calling names of learners during the discussion to completely focus attention
on learners.
 Level 2: Informing learners of the objective (Expectancy)
Next, learners must know what they are about to learn and why. At the start of the lecture,
they should be aware of what they will have learned by the end of the session, its benefit
to them and the organization.
For instance, explaining to learners why they will learn what they will learn and how to
apply the concept to your practice. This makes them more receptive to learning.
 Level 3: Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval)
Matching the concept with what learners have learned previously. Prior experiences can
be used to solve new problems and resolve matters easily. This may also take the form
of a simple Q/A session to establish a link between specific material knowledge.
 Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)
Presenting new information in an effective manner using more examples, use of timelines,
diagrams, concept maps and student discussions. Try using different media and styles
such as visual cues and verbal instructions to suit people with different learning styles.
 Level 5: Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)
Helping your team learn and retain most of the information by providing alternative
approaches to illustrate the information you are trying to convey to the learner. Examples
include; case studies and graphics. Giving time for discussion and answering queries with
relevant additional materials.
 Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)
Now is the time to see if learners can demonstrate their knowledge with what was taught
to them. Give them a brief test after each task/ unit to see if they can apply it to their
learning before moving forward.
 Level 7: Providing feedback (Reinforcement)
After a clear demonstration of knowledge from the learners’ end, it's time to give feedback
to them and guide them on the points they missed. Your feedback and tips will help them
improve. Discuss their results, be professional with comments and give them guidelines
to work on. This is a healthy exercise if conducted properly.
 Level 8: Assessing performance (Retrieval)
When learners have had a good opportunity to practice and refine their learning it is time
to assess their learning with a test at the end of the course or any other measurement
tool such as a case study or seminar to show learners have learned the material or skill
effectively. This test shall be completed without any assistance or coaching.
 Level 9: Enhancing retention and transfer (Generalization)
At this stage, learners show the transfer of knowledge through the application of skills
and knowledge. They should then be provided with real-life examples to apply the
acquired knowledge. Gagne’s conditions of learning have its own pros and cons. People
who have learning issues may respond better to this regime that is clearly very systematic
where learners are provided with resources and a blueprint for learning. It can also be
adjusted to suit their needs. However, it also requires a great deal of assistance overall
where critical thinking and instructions can’t be avoided. This practice may restrict
learners’ imagination and exploration instinct. But overall, these 9 steps are nine events
of instruction, systematically designed as foundation blocks of learning in modern
classrooms.
D. a) Who is David Ausubel?
David Ausubel was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on the learning of school
subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student already knows as
being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns next. Ausubel viewed
learning as an active process, not simply responding to your environment. Learners seek
to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new knowledge with that which they
have already learned.
b) Refering to the Advance Organizer, what are the main Categories under
Ausubel's Subsumption Theory?




Expository Organizers
Narrative Organizers
Skimming Organizers
Graphic Organizers
c) What are those items under each category?




Expository Organizers that provide a description of new knowledge.
Narrative Organizers that present the new information in a story format.
Skimming Organizers that flick through the information.
Graphic Organizers that include pictographs, descriptive or conceptual
patterns and concept maps.
d.) When can meaningful learning take place according to Ausubel's belief?
According to his theory, to learn meaningfully, individuals must relate new knowledge to
relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact with the learner’s
knowledge structure. Ausubel believes that learning of new knowledge relies on what is
already known. That is, construction of knowledge begins with our observation and
recognition of events and objects through concepts we already have. We learn by
constructing a network of concepts and adding to them. Concept map, developed by
Ausubel and Novac, is an instructional device that uses this aspect of the theory to allow
instruction of material to learners; it is a way of representing relationships between ideas,
images, or words.
e.) In what way can advance organizers be a major instructional tool?
Advance Organizers are one of three tactics to activate prior knowledge, along with cues
and questioning. They are used as a way for teachers to help their students make
connections between their prior knowledge and the new information and concepts to be
taught.
E. a) Who is Jerome Bruner?
Jerome Bruner, in full Jerome Seymour Bruner, (born October 1, 1915, New York,
New York, U.S.—died June 5, 2016, New York, New York), American psychologist and
educator who developed theories on perception, learning, memory, and other aspects of
cognition in young children that had a strong influence on the American educational
system and helped launch the field of cognitive psychology.
b. What is the major theme in this theory?
A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process
in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and
makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e.,
schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows
the individual to “go beyond the information given”.
c) According to Bruner a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects. What are they? Describe each briefly.


predisposition towards learning - experiences should be designed that will help
the student be willing and able to learn.
the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most
readily grasped by the learner - Any idea or problem or body of knowledge can be


presented in a form simple enough so that any particular learner can understand
it in a recognizable form
the most effective sequences in which to present material - instruction should lead
the learner through the content in order to increase the student's ability to "grasp,
transform and transfer" what is learned. In general sequencing should move from
enactive (hands-on, concrete), to iconic (visual), to symbolic (descriptions in
words or mathematical symbols). However, this sequence will be dependent on
the student's symbolic system and learning style.
the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments - movement from extrinsic
rewards, such as teacher's praise, toward intrinsic rewards inherent in solving
problems or understanding the concepts is desirable.
d) What are referred to in Bruners categorization?
Categories are "rules" that specify four things about objects.
e) According to Bruner, what are the different kinds of categories?
Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories. Equivalence can be
determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions,
functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, "car", "truck", "van" could all
be combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria, for
example by science, law, or cultural agreement. For example, and apple is still an apple
whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of
of
a
botanical
classification
group
(formal).
Coding systems are categories serve to recognize sensory input. They are major
organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate
sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related
categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related
categories. Bruner's theories introduced the idea that people interpret the world largely
in terms of similarities and differences
f. What are the two views of Constructivism?


Individual constructivism – the theory that learners can build their own
knowledge individually. Learners interact with the material. For example,
painting, building blocks, or individual play.
Social constructivism - the learning takes place between an individual and
their peers and or teachers. The interaction between the individual and the
learner is the most important emphasis, along with the environment.
g) What are the characteristics of Constructivism?







Introduction of overarching concept followed by expansion of individual
components
Knowledge is compiled through active dialogue between students and teacher
Group interaction is encouraged to foster negotiation among students
Value is placed on the process of learning through experience and interaction
Learning occurs as students gain exposure to a variety of individual perspectives
Construction of knowledge based upon a comprehensive view of learning
Student-centered learning is the essence
F. a. when can transfer of learning occur?


Transfer of learning occurs when knowledge we acquire moves from our working
memory to long-term memory, and is retrievable.
Transfer of learning occurs when people apply information, strategies, and skills
they have learned to a new situation or context. Transfer is not a discrete activity,
but is rather an integral part of the learning process.
b. What are the different types of Transfer? What are the factors affecting
transfer of learning?

Positive transfer
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as a
positive transfer. For example, skills in playing the violin facilitate learning to play the
piano. Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving a
scooter facilitates driving a motorbike.

Negative transfer
When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known as a
negative transfer. For example, speaking Telugu hindering the learning of Malayalam.
Left-hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right-hand drive.

Neutral transfer
When learning of one activity neither facilitates or hinders the learning of another task, it
is a case of neutral transfer. It is also called as zero transfer.
The factors that can affect transfer include:




Context and degree of original learning: how well the learner acquired the
knowledge.
Similarity: commonalities between original learning and new, such as environment
and other memory cues.
Critical attributes: characteristics that make something unique.
Association: connections between multiple events, actions, bits of information, and
so on; as well as the conditions and emotions connected to it by the learner.
G. a. State the BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES (Original and
Revised Version)
ORIGINAL VERSION
 Bloom’s taxonomy was originally published in 1956 by a team of cognitive
psychologists at the University of Chicago. It is named after the committee’s
chairman, Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999). The original taxonomy was organized
into three domains: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. Educators have
primarily focused on the Cognitive model, which includes six different classification
levels: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis,
and Evaluation. The group sought to design a logical framework for teaching and
learning goals that would help researchers and educators understand the
fundamental ways in which people acquire and develop new knowledge, skills, and
understandings. Their initial intention was to help academics avoid duplicative or
redundant efforts in developing different tests to measure the same educational
objectives.
REVISED VERSION
 Revised Bloom’s taxonomy emphasizes students’ learning outcomes through
the use of refined terms. The revised taxonomy is a refreshed take on Bloom’s
Taxonomy from 1956, which examined cognitive skills and learning behavior.
Changes to terminology, structure and emphasis are a part of the revised
approach. Nouns such as evaluation or synthesis are now replaced with verbs
such as creating or evaluating, respectively. With structure, “creating” now
becomes the highest level—the area meant for generating ideas or constructing a
new point of view. Emphasis has also changed, whereby the taxonomy is aimed
at wider audiences and attempts to be more universal beyond grade school.
Revised Bloom’s taxonomy refers to the emphasis on two learning domains that
make up educational objectives: cognitive (knowledge) and affective (attitude).
b. List the six-question categories and sample questions for each level.






Remembering: Describe where Harry Potter lived.
Understanding: Summarize the Deathly Hallows story.
Applying: Construct a theory as to why Hermione’s Patronus is an otter.
Analyzing: Differentiate between how Cedric Diggory reacted in the maze and
how you would react.
Evaluating: Assess whether or not Luna Lovegood is an essential character in the
Harry Potter series.
Creating: Compose a song, poem, or rap to convey the Deathly Hallows story in
a new form.