Dissertation
Beyond the Symbol:
An Ethical Analysis of the Fetishisation and Commodification of the
Frida Kahlo Image for Public Consumption.
Rhiann Kimber Hearons
14579196
Independent Study
ILL3975M
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
‘An extended essay submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a
BA (Hons) in Illustration at the University of Lincoln.
Date: 28th March 2020
:
Word count: 10,703
Abstract
Frida Kahlo is perhaps one of the most celebrated artists in the world, her image decorates products
from apparel to homeware. She has become an iconic symbol of feminism and a role model for fringe
communities. However ethical considerations of her commodification seem to be unchecked and the
rights of the artist appear ambiguous. Kahlo’s communist identity and disapproval of capitalism seem
detached from the version we see for public consumption, therefore it is the aim of this study to
explore the semiotic value of not only her artwork, but her image. It is through this ethical analysis the
appeal of Frida Kahlo will be presented alongside her relationship with the consumer. Alongside her
exotic appeal, the ‘cult of celebrity’ theory and the idea of ‘secular saints’ are considered amongst the
reasonings behind the Frida-mania ever present in society . Through addressing the controversy
surrounding these products, an understanding of the ethical limitations can be explored via research
into the businesses advocating and contributing to the problem. Journals and books will be an
essential part of qualitative research. The pre-existing findings within the topics of discussion will be
used to understand the relationship between celebrity and follower. Several biographies of Frida
Kahlo will prove to be a significant source for understanding her life. In addition to this, online
articles and websites allow for insight into contemporary views on the topics and will provide
qualitative research in the form of social media followers or population figures. In addition to these
methods, primary research extends to visiting the Victoria and Albert Museum for the Frida Kahlo:
Making Herself Up exhibition, where Kahlo’s possessions are displayed, this will be an exclusive
insight into the personal history of the artist. Once the findings have been considered, this study goes
on to postulate whether the fetishisation and commodification of Frida Kahlo’s work and image for
:
public consumption is ethically correct?
:
Contents
Abstract
1
Acknowledgements
3
List of Illustrations
4
Introduction
6
Chapter One: The Human Condition and Cult of Celebrity
8
Chapter Two: Frida the Artist, the Socialist, the Woman
16
Chapter Three: The Commodification of Frida Kahlo
27
Chapter Four: Ethics and Controversy
36
Conclusion
44
References: Books
47
References: Journals
48
References: Websites
49
References: Media
54
Bibliography
55
Acknowledgements
First and foremost I wish to acknowledge the love and support of my family, without whom I would
not have been able to complete this study. They are truly my biggest inspiration.
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Dr Rowan Gatfield for his invaluable suggestions in
aiding the development of this study and refocusing me when I’ve run off on a tangent. His willingness
to give his time so generously has been a testament to his supportive and encouraging role as a
supervisor.
A special thanks to Conor Horne for his enthusiastic listening of my ramblings and for being a
constant source of comfort and reassurance.
I would also like to acknowledge the support provided by my peer, Heather Gray for always
motivating me when challenges arise - We did it!
List of Illustrations
Figure 1: ‘Frida Callus’ socks
https://www.stanfords.co.uk/frida-callus-socks-medium_0755702539517?
wgu=5563_196673_15853456525613_67dd4bebbd&wgexpiry=1593121652&utm_campaign=webgains&utm_sourc
e=webgains&utm_medium=webgains
Figure 2: Marilyn Monroe’s tomb
:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/contusion/5389634858
https://www.flickr.com/photos/contusion/5389634858
Figure 3: An example of a Kouros
http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/10930/unknown-maker-kouros-greek-about-530-bc-or-modernforgery/
Figure 4: Marilyn Monroes cooking utensils
https://www.julienslive.com/view-auctions/catalog/id/180
Figure 5: ‘Self Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird’ Frida Kahlo 1940 (Painting)
https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/untitled-self-portrait-with-thorn-necklace-and-hummingbird-fridakahlo/MwHFAKi5c5lw2g
Figure 6: ‘Henry Ford Hospital’ Frida Kahlo 1932 (Painting)
https://artsandculture.google.com/story/henry-ford-hospital/hAJyWRJedbcfKQ
Figure 7: ‘Wife of Master Mural Painter Gleefully Dabbles in Work of Art’ Florence Davies 1933(News
Article)
http://www.openculture.com/2015/03/1933-article-on-frida-kahlo-wife-of-the-master-mural-painter-gleefullydabbles-in-works-of-art.html
Figure 8: Frida Kahlo (middle row, left) poses in a suit (1927)
https://lisawallerrogers.com/2010/01/23/frida-kahlo-in-a-suit/
Figure 9: ‘Self Portrait with Cropped Hair’ Frida Kahlo 1940 (Painting)
https://www.moma.org/collection/works/78333
Figure 10: Frida Kahlo ofrenda Peter Marin 2018 (Installation)
https://hiplatina.com/frida-kahlo-diego-rivera-new-north-carolina-exhibit/
Figure 11: A fan posing with the Frida Kahlo ofrenda
https://www.picuki.com/tag/fridaanddiegoexhibit
Figure 12: ‘Viva Che!’ Jim Fitzpatrick 1968 (Painting)
https://www.jimfitzpatrick.com/product/viva-che/
Figure 13: ‘Marxism Will Give Health To The Ill’ Frida Kahlo 1954 (Painting)
https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/marxism-will-give-health-to-the-ill/HAElPPnYYlxEWA
Figure 14: Theresa May wearing a Frida Kahlo bracelet
:
https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2017/10/05/british-pm-theresa-may-wore-frida-kahlo-
https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2017/10/05/british-pm-theresa-may-wore-frida-kahlobracelet-and-people-are-bemused
Figure 15: Frida Kahlo (left) in the October 1937 edition of Vogue
https://search-proquest-com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/vogue/docview/879224118/C59228E4919448F6PQ/1?
accountid=16461&imgSeq=1
Figure 16: Items from the ‘Frida Kahlo: Making Herself Up’ exhibit
https://www.vam.ac.uk/exhibitions/frida-kahlo-making-her-self-up?
gclid=Cj0KCQjwyPbzBRDsARIsAFh15JaoKzcG4Kp7MUz0jwMGNdaXDquaHqeKZpLcbHfqfgeENND27Xad1QQaAoQVE
ALw_wcB
Figure 17: Frida Kahlo Barbie Doll
https://www.fastcompany.com/40542227/mattel-is-in-hot-water-over-its-new-frida-kahlo-barbie-doll
Figure 18: Cris Melo and her Frida Kahlo inspired artwork
https://www.kqed.org/news/11793388/why-a-california-artist-is-taking-the-frida-kahlo-corporation-to-court?
fbclid=IwAR0RKDQvfszWpwew_52eaqvIQfb0VV2AmmnNSJ241v2BbX6hF5p4pwj5xbI
Figure 19: A screengrab of Frida Kahlo’s funeral video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7udC0BIJcH4&t=24s
Figure 20: Frida Kahlo at a protest in Guatemala 1954
https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/frida-kahlo-juan-o%E2%80%99gorman-and-diego-rivera-in-the-lastphotograph-taken-of-frida-before-her-death-at-a-demonstration-against-us-intervention-in-guatemala-autor-noidentificado/ZQF2bXcgVOk80Q
Introduction
Commodification and fetishism aren’t something that crosses one’s mind whilst shopping on the high
street. You may recognise a familiar face amongst the gifts available, a woman with flowers in her hair
and a monobrow. A monobrow? You stare at the depiction of this figure and wonder why she has a
sweep of black framing her face. You can’t quite place where you’ve seen her before, and then you
realise - you saw that exact face decorating a plant pot. In fact, it’s saved in your Etsy wish list.
What you do not realise, is that woman with her bold lipstick and facial hair, is a cultural icon for
:
many communities. She is the Mexican artist, Frida Kahlo and you may think she is just a fashion
accessory, however upon further research into this exotic figure the true history of her life is revealed.
You may question if Frida Kahlo would want to be on a pair of socks for £8.99 (Stanfords.com, n.d) her
name made into a pun; ‘Frida Callus’ (Fig 1) but these socks are super cute and who could resist?
Fig 1: ‘Frida Callus’ Socks
This study aims to explore the appeal of Frida Kahlo and whether the fetishisation and
commodification of her image for public consumption is ethically correct? The ‘cult of celebrity’ will
be considered as a way of interpreting the findings, this term is used to critique the obsession that
society has with celebrities, often likening the celebrity to a cult leader or saint (Walker, 2003).
Ethical consideration is important to this study and will be employed as a way of questioning the
moral principles of Kahlo’s followers and the conduct of those wishing to preserve her legacy.
This study also aims to reflect the wider cultural implications of preserving the identity and rights of
the deceased.
Chapter One will examine the notion of ‘fame’ and its effects on celebrities and their followers. The
chapter will then discuss the ‘cult of celebrity’. The relationship between celebrity and saint is
explored along with its evolution within society, from the ancient Greeks, to the digital era which
perhaps enables a follower to live vicariously through a celebrity. Frida Kahlo’s role within this study
is introduced and her posthumous popularity will be analysed throughout. Chapter Two focuses on
Frida Kahlo as a historical figure, providing arguments to support her popularity, alongside a
:
discussion of the ethical issues resulting from her commodification. Chapter Three will offer examples
discussion of the ethical issues resulting from her commodification. Chapter Three will offer examples
of Kahlo’s commodification, alongside the values placed upon these objects by her followers. Links
will be made between commodification and fetishism, they will be offered as potential consequences
of the cult of celebrity. In the final chapter, the study will explore commodification in more detail,
exploring the problematic role of the follower; the family and finally, the individual being celebrated.
The economic impact of fetishised commodities will be examined alongside how this affects consumer
culture. The rights of Frida Kahlo will be presented and posthumous recognition will be considered
as a way of preserving an individual's legacy.
Chapter 1: The Human Condition and Cult of Celebrity.
This chapter examines the notion of ‘fame’. It begins by examining the lives and effects of fame on
celebrities and their followers. It explores the Ancient Greek’s view of fame, and the way in which they
categorised it; namely Plato’s theory of the ‘tripartite psyche’ and the Homeric ‘Kleos’. This chapter
then leads into a discussion around the ‘cult of celebrity’. The term ‘cult of celebrity’ is used to
describe the obsession of society putting individuals on a ‘pedestal’, by bestowing mythic qualities and
using these individuals as points of admiration and idyllic desire (Walker, 2003). This chapter also
briefly examines how humans can be ‘fetishised’ by followers, altering their status from someone who
is viewed as a hero in society, to celebrity and even to a saint. Finally, it explores the process of
‘vicariousness’, whereby followers begin to live their lives through their idols.
The Ancient Greek poet Homer describes the heroes in Greek classics as enjoying an elevated position.
This position is referred to as ‘Kleos’, a form of glorification, something generated by word of mouth,
usually through gossip or myth (Howells, 2001). This elevated position is possibly relatable to
modern athletes, actors or what has come to be known as celebrities.
:
The Greek Philosopher Plato discusses the psychological effect of the human condition and its desire
The Greek Philosopher Plato discusses the psychological effect of the human condition and its desire
for fame through his tripartite soul theory, Plato describes this theory as being amongst the higher
aspects of the human soul that desire truth and reality, referred to as ‘rationality’; and (materialistic)
‘appetitive’; and ‘thumos’ (Hobbs, 2011). The ‘thumos’ categorises the person's position in society,
how others view one's actions and relate to the human desire for validation. It is this apparently selfserving fame and glory criticised by Plato that emerges as a point of interest, as he believed fame is
only helpful if one wants to be famous for being virtuous, yet this is rarely the case in modern society
(Hobbs, 2011). This raises the question of why modern society is so consumed by the need for fame,
going so far as to commit immoral and self-deprecating acts instead of following the ideals of Plato’s
virtuous ‘thumos’. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines fame as “The fact or condition of being
known or recognised by many people”. This definition points to the possibility that fame can only be
achieved through admirers; Thus the celebrity and the follower are codependents (French, 2017). It
would appear that this codependence can reach something of a ‘cult’ status or ‘cult of celebrity’.
Although the origins for the phrase ‘cult of celebrity’ appear unclear, evidence of the theory can be
traced back to the Stone Age in which “individuals are held above regular society for their so-called
superior traits; such as looks, possessions, skills or sexual ability” (French, 2017). Therefore it could
be offered that the afore-mentioned behaviour “reflects a primal need to elevate individuals to the
status of mythic heroes” (Baker, 2010). As indicated the lives of the ancient Greeks are revealing when
trying to understand the origins of this social phenomenon. This “primal need” (French, 2017)
appears to also manifest physically in built structures. As indicated in Howell’s (2011) study of the
:
Ancient Greeks and their worship of heroes through built objects.
Fig 2: Marilyn Monroe’s tomb
Howell’s (2011) explores the history of the celebrity through its significance in Ancient Greece. He
suggests that heroes were venerated with sites being constructed to worship the hero in the afterlife.
Similarly, it could be offered that such shrines and places of pilgrimage can also be found in modern
society, the frequently visited graves of celebrities like; Doors singer, Jim Morrison and actress,
Marilyn Monroe have become tourist hot spots amongst fans (Howells, 2011). The lipstick stains from
followers kissing Marilyn Monroe's tomb (fig 2) are akin to worshippers kissing the statues of saints.
Fig 3: An example of a kouros
Howells (2011) notes the importance of the Greek ‘kouros’, a grave marker depicting the individual in
:
peak physical health, a way in which the individual would wish to be remembered (fig 3). He suggests
that the photograph is a similar way of capturing an individual and preserving their best attributes.
Through the cult of celebrity we see the kouros or the modern photograph as a means of preserving
life, he notes that this is like a “cult practice investing the mortal hero with perpetual life, it also
invests him with perpetual youth” (Howells, 2011, p.115).
The evolution of societal heroes from the Greek athlete or soldier to a saint and finally to the
contemporary celebrity is discussed through Howells argument where he points out that there is “A
thin and controversial line between... veneration and worship.”(Howells, 2011). When a person is
given the attributes of a God or worshipped in such a way that they become mythical, we lose the real
person beneath the legend (Baker, 2010). It could, therefore, be argued that the ‘cult of celebrity’ as
we understand it, evolved during this time. As French (2011) indicates Heroes became saints and the
individual holds power over the follower in a hierarchy of worth. He notes that these individuals
appear to be “projections of supposed perfect ways of being, placed on idyllic pedestals for all to love
and adore.” Therefore we can postulate that followers have a desire to showcase their love and
devotion for the hero, and so this relationship becomes warped by developing into the kind of
obsessive behaviour described through the ‘cult of celebrity’.
“Our cult of celebrity is stopping people living the most flourishing, productive lives they
could, stopping them being as virtuous as they could and as happy as they could” (Hobbs,
2011).
This remark on the effect of celebrity culture as being cult-like and its subsequent influence on
society, suggests that our obsession with fame is affecting our mental wellbeing. In this way, the
author is pointing to the lack of virtue Plato had envisioned for society in the future. The author also
points to the central catalyst for this change in culture.
" The rise of mass media makes it much easier for people to gain exposure and get themselves
recognised across the world... Is it because they don’t want to be invisible?" It could be
explained by the fact that we now live in much larger communities but with a high level of
:
anonymity. Becoming famous makes individuals less ‘forgettable’ and their memory lives on
anonymity. Becoming famous makes individuals less ‘forgettable’ and their memory lives on
after their death.” (Hobbs, 2011).
Therefore it might be argued that the desire to be famous is not innate but instead a consequence of
the modern age. The author offers instead that it is a need for recognition and a fear of being forgotten
that are key elements in maintaining the cult of celebrity. Hobbs’ insights thus illuminate
why contemporary society appears to be so obsessed with following celebrities and participating in
celebrity culture.
The creation of social media, especially Instagram provides data and a statistical representation of
the ‘follower’. As of February 2020, the top followed celebrity on Instagram is; footballer Cristiano
Ronaldo with 204 million followers (Brandwatch, 2020). To put these statistics into perspective as of
March 2020 there are only 67.7 million people living in the United Kingdom (Worldometers, 2020).
Social media can convince followers that they have a deep connection with the celebrity. Private
aspects of celebrities’ lives are up for show in a staged and managed way i.e. they have complete
control over how the follower views them (Howells, 2011). It can be said this virtual world appears to
offer the idea of having a relationship with the star. Instagram has assumed “a pseudo-intimate
relationship between the public and the celebrities that borders on exploitation.”(Newell-Hanson,
2017). This apparent exploitation is possibly evidenced through the perceived pressure many
celebrities feel to maintain this ideal life. Baker (2011) notes that the main objective of the cult of
celebrity is “to elevate people to the status of mythic heroes, only to destroy them” (Baker, 2011).
Lu (2013) offers how individuals can “Live vicariously through your favourite celebrities with
Instagram” The author begins with describing the differences between celebrities and regular people
noting that;
“Sometimes celebrities are just like us. They shop at the grocery store! They take out the
garbage! They get parking tickets! But other times, they take their private jets to St. Barts for
an impromptu week away, and suddenly we’re coldly reminded that they are nothing like us”
:
As the author suggests, regular people are able to live vicariously through celebrities by connecting
As the author suggests, regular people are able to live vicariously through celebrities by connecting
with these idyllic people and their associated lifestyle, whilst escaping from their own mundane
existence without consequence. Living vicariously through a celebrity it would seem can be facilitated
in various ways, for example through social media, which can be aligned to the ‘kouros’ or through
the construction of a shrine (Howells, 2011). It would seem that the creation of ‘objects of devotion’ is
another means by which followers can maintain the cult of celebrity. It would appear that such objects
of devotion are a form of fetishism.
Fig 4: Marilyn Monroe’s cooking utensils
“The term ‘fetish’ is etymologically rooted in the Latin ‘facicius’, meaning ‘to do’ or in the passive ‘a
thing made by art’” (Fernandez and Lastovicka, 2011, p.279). These objects of devotion could outlive
mortal beings but not the celebrity's mythology (Howells, 2011) meaning that once the celebrity has
passed, the object seemingly has more value and importance. For example the wooden cooking
utensils of Marilyn Monroe (fig 4) sold for $2,460 in 2016 (Julienslive, 2016). Fetishism and objects of
devotion will be discussed in more detail in the coming chapters, however, it does seem fitting to
introduce their importance in the commodification of individuals through the cult of celebrity. It
appears that the desire to venerate and idolise a celebrity is not exclusive to the ordinary person;
other celebrities have been noted to behave in similar ways, thus commodifying their fellow celebrity.
In the 1990’s pop star Madonna brought about a resurgence in interest for Mexican artist Frida Kahlo
:
through her personal collection of Kahlo’s artwork (Franco,2008). Since then, Frida Kahlo has become
a pop culture icon, as it would seem that more and more people are interested in the celebrity aspect
of Frida Kahlo rather than her art (Walker, 2003). Walker criticises this relationship in his book ‘Art
and Celebrity’ by stating;
“The Madonna/Kahlo connection is principally a ploy by Hollywood publicists, art world
entrepreneurs and Madonna herself to exploit an old and reliable advertising device, the
artist/celebrity validation code. By this measure, Kahlo is considered a better artist
(investment) because her work is collected by Madonna, and Madonna is considered a more
serious and respected celebrity (investment) because she collects Kahlos” (Walker, 2003,
p.65)
Therefore this presents the possibility of exploitation within the ‘cult of celebrity’, in which celebrities
commodify other celebrities in order to gain respect and status, a motive also utilised by the ordinary
follower. The afore-mentioned statement by Walker (2003) suggests that Madonna is a follower of the
“cult of the individual artist” (Polonsky, 2014)
The cult of the individual artist is not a modern invention and in fact dates back to the Italian
Renaissance when artists emerged as a professional category (Walker, 2003). However, it would seem
the impact that social media has on our modern understanding and worship of celebrities’ has
positioned Frida Kahlo as a figurehead for many communities. The exploitative connection between
commodity and consumerism is a key consideration in this study, particularly around following Frida
Kahlo’s posthumous recognition as a symbol for Feminist, LGBTQ and Latinx (a gender-neutral term
for those born of Latin descent) communities.
In conclusion, this chapter set out to research the ‘follower’ and to understand this process through
the cult of celebrity. As a result, several insights have emerged; by looking into the Ancient Greek
ideals of fame in the work of the poet Homer and the philosopher Plato, it can be said that the
objective of life is to be virtuous. However, in the contemporary age, it would seem that fame, and
indeed infamy, have become a symbol of how successful one's life is. Hobbs (2011) suggests, this
:
desire for fame and recognition can affect the mentality of society through the pseudo-intimate
desire for fame and recognition can affect the mentality of society through the pseudo-intimate
relationship supplied by social media. It can be argued that this artificial relationship influences and
creates unachievable expectations for the follower. It is by living vicariously through the celebrity,
that the follower may escape into a seemingly perfect life. French (2009) offers that the cult of
celebrity is deeply ingrained in humanity and can be evidenced in prehistoric civilisations as well as
modern interpretations like social media. Howell’s (2011) theory of Kouros and built structures
relates to the proposed exploitative effect that digital media has, for example, social media can be
interpreted as a digital shrine; with likes, comments and shares being the offering. It would seem that
there is a thin line between a follower honouring and respecting an individual; to then obsess and
commodify that individual through mythic veneration and fetishism. It also appears that this
commodification is not specific to the ordinary follower. Walker’s (2003) opinion that Madonna
commodifies Frida Kahlo as a means of improving her status within the art community and gaining a
more serious association is presented. This resurgence for Frida Kahlo lays the foundation for the
coming chapters and themes within this study. It would seem that Frida Kahlo has become an icon or
motif for liberal politics and her image and life are often imbued with artistic license, in the hope of
appealing to consumers in the form of objects of devotion. It is through this exploration that one
hopes to postulate why the follower commodifies and consumes images of Kahlo, and why she
appeals to such a large collective. These will be presented in the following chapters as an exploration
of the human condition and the influence of the cult of celebrity.
Chapter 2: Frida the Artist, the Socialist, the Woman.
This chapter explores the many roles of Frida Kahlo and the way she was viewed during her life and
posthumously. The semiotics within her work are discussed, as a way of interpreting who the artist
:
was as a woman, and perhaps more importantly, how she wanted to be viewed by her followers.
was as a woman, and perhaps more importantly, how she wanted to be viewed by her followers.
Comparisons are made between Frida Kahlo and Che Guevera, focusing principally on their political
views and how these conflicted with capitalism and consumerism. In the second half of this chapter,
the appeal and misconstrual of Frida Kahlo are analysed, as indicated through phrases such as
‘Fridamania’. Finally, this chapter discusses how the cult of celebrity theory can be employed to assist
our understanding of the ways the follower manifests their admiration for the artist as a form of selfactualisation.
Magdalena Carmen Freida Kahlo was born on the 6th of July 1907. Politics was arguably a significant
part of Kahlo’s life, whether it was the social politics of Mexico or racial politics, pertaining to her
conflicting European and Indigenous identities. As an artist, Kahlo is known for her deeply
autobiographical work that can often border on unsettling (Lindauer, 1999) It is through this work
she expressed her pain and view on the world, however, it can be said that her artwork presents the
many roles that Frida Kahlo embodied during her lifetime (Herrara, 1983). Through the semiotics of
her work, we are able to see not only how the artist presented herself, but how our value on the work
has changed in relation to Kahlo's romanticisation (Lindauer, 1999,).
:
Figure 5: ‘Self Portrait with Thorn Necklace and
Hummingbird’ Frida Kahlo 1940 (Painting)
Hummingbird’ Frida Kahlo 1940 (Painting)
Art historian and author of Frida: The Biography of Frida Kahlo; Hayden Herrara, notes that
romanticism and the appeal of tragedy are evident in the world. She argues that Kahlo is an “alluring
victim” to the ‘sadomasochism’ of society (Herrara, 1983). It would appear that Kahlo’s use of
semiotics was a way of presenting herself as a secular saint, “People look at her image and find
strength” (Lindauer, 1999, p.165). In the artwork ‘Self Portrait with Thorn Necklace and
Hummingbird’ (1940) (fig 5) The use of imagery in this piece, especially the thorn necklace
corresponds to Christ's crown of thorns. It can be said that she presents herself as an icon for those
who are suffering, the cult of celebrity theory becoming more apparent. For example, we can infer that
the ‘sadomasochism’ of society refers to our need to feel a connection with these celebrities who we
can project our pain on to. In the art world, suffering is considered a key element in what makes a
good artist; “Art is a reflection of humanity, and humanity’s greatest virtue is its ability to overcome
adversity” (Zara, 2012), therefore we can note the reverence that society holds on such artists like
Kahlo. Perhaps there is an innate desire to emulate the virtuousness of suffering. As mentioned in
Chapter one, followers have a desire to showcase their love and devotion for a martyr; this obsession
could be the catalyst for the cult of celebrity and commodification.
In regard to suffering, Frida Kahlo was involved in a ‘tumultuous’ relationship with Mexican Muralist
Diego Rivera, who would have several affairs, including one with Kahlo’s younger sister Cristina
(Lindauer, 1999). Although considered posthumously a feminist icon, her relationship with Rivera
appears co-dependent and her duties as a wife seemed to subsume any creative endeavours she had
before the marriage (Lindaur, 1999). It would also appear that the Frida’s family were dependent on
Riveras success as he was paying for her outstanding medical bills. Perhaps this relationship was
crucial for sustaining the middle-class life of the Kahlo family (Lindaur, 1999). There is further
evidence that Kahlo postponed and ultimately declined offers that could launch her career as a
serious artist, such as a teaching position at the Department of Fine Arts in Mexico City, in favour of
looking after her husband Diego (Lindauer, 1999). Arguments have been made for the authenticity of
:
Kahlo as a feminist figurehead, for example, New York Times journalist Shackleford wrote a response
Kahlo as a feminist figurehead, for example, New York Times journalist Shackleford wrote a response
to Herraras 1990 article “Why Frida Kahlo speaks to the 90’s”, in which she addresses the
Kahlo/Rivera marriage and provides a possible reason to why Frida painted her suffering;
“The images she created were born out of a singular compulsion to be seen and understood
by Diego Rivera, a misogynist who could not love her or any woman” (Shackleford, 1990)
However, Kahlo’s non-binary dress sense and subverting societies ideals of women would suggest she
was a feminist, perhaps by making Kahlo an idol of feminist theory, we use the subject of pain to
“conceptualise the politics of the repressed” (Zarzycka, 2006, p.75).
Figure 6: ‘Henry Ford Hospital’ Frida Kahlo 1932 (Painting)
The physical pain in Frida Kahlo’s life includes contracting Polio at the age of six, leaving her with a
weak leg which would later become gangrenous and need to be amputated. This was a consequence of
a tram accident, during which she was impaled through her pelvis, resulting in several broken bones,
a broken spine and a punctured uterus. It is speculated that the damage to her uterus was a possible
cause for her fertility issues (Budrys, 2006). Frida Kahlo depicted her inability to have children openly
and brutally, In the piece ‘Henry Ford Hospital’ (1932) (fig 6). Kahlo paints her experience after
suffering her first miscarriage, she uses symbolism to express her pain to an audience. For example,
the snail symbolises the long and slow procedure of ensuring the complete removal of the fetus. The
:
horror of this piece shocked viewers at the time, who considered Frida a painter of small and delicate
subjects. Lindauer summarises the views that traditional Mexican society placed on female artists
during this time:
“Women were expected to maintain their artistic interests at the level of trivial, private hobby
or to dedicate themselves to the contemptible objects of popular culture. Art as a professional
occupation and a medium of exchange value was for men; women were relegated to art as a
domestic pastime. Perfect subjects for women to portray were, of course, what they ‘know
best’: children and the home” (Lindauer, 1999, p.18).
It can be said that Frida Kahlo did indeed depict domestic scenes, her family life and (lack of) children
albeit interpreting the safe and ‘contemptible’ subjects in an uncomfortably honest way. Kahlo could
be seen as a feminist in the way she rebelled against societal pressure and its expectations.
Figure 7: ‘Wife of Master Mural Painter Gleefully Dabbles in Work of Art’
Florence Davies 1933(News Article)
:
In the media, Kahlo was subjected to misogyny and her work belittled, in the 1933 article ‘Wife of
Master Mural Painter Gleefully Dabbles in Work of Art’ written by Florence Davies (fig 7), Frida is
described as having “twinkling” eyes and being a “miniature-like little person with her long black
braids wound demurely about her head and a foolish little ruffled apron over her black silk dress "
(Davies, 1933). Her work is also described as miniature, suggesting Davies questioned the
seriousness of Kahlo's work. It would appear that although Kahlo attempted to challenge society's
opinion of the female artist, the media was more concerned with her appearance. This obsession over
Kahlo’s appearance continues to be a focus for the media and possibly enables her commodification,
this will be explored further in chapter three.
Figure 8: Frida Kahlo (middle row, left)
poses in a suit (1927)
Figure 9: ‘Self Portrait With Cropped
Hair’ Frida Kahlo 1940 (Painting)
Herrara notes that Kahlo was able to express the suffering of women in her artwork with an “iron will
that we associate with masculinity” (Herrara, 1990) Although known for her traditional Mexican
dress and using flowers to decorate her hair; There is evidence of Kahlo dressing in suits, especially
for family portraits (Fig 8). She would often dress in men’s clothes and during a separation from
:
Rivera, she cut her hair short. This is depicted in the piece ‘Self-portrait with Cropped Hair’, 1940 (Fig
9), therefore we can infer that although Kahlo registered prescribed gender roles, she did not restrict
herself to them (Lindauer, 1999). Perhaps it is through Kahlo's capacity to appear both feminine and
masculine that resonates with a broad range of followers, especially those of non-binary or LGBTQ+
communities. However Kahlo's work was arguably more than just challenging social normality, the
semiotics of her work can be interpreted as a form of iconography, a way in which she invited others
to admire her, maybe even soliciting her future worship.
Lindauer suggests Kahlo’s “suffering created her iconography” (Lindauer, 1999, p.20) and argues that
there is little distinction between the artist and the paintings, which Lindauer refers to as a “single
entity” (Lindauer, 1999, p.150). We can infer that the inability to differentiate the artist from the
artwork, allows the artist to become mythic as we forget the human experiences behind the work.
Perhaps it is this desensitisation that enables society to commodify Frida Kahlo and seemingly ignore
the brutal and political content of her artwork. Professor Marta Zarzycka encapsulates this sentiment
in the line; “If Frida Kahlo the popular icon had never existed, maybe we would see her pain more
clearly” (Zarzycka, 2006, 84). Kahlo’s work is often described as surreal, with the artist presenting
her work to an audience who may express loathing, pity and horror in response to the imagery and
the themes explored, however, it can be said that Frida Kahlo indulged this response by dressing the
message of pain and suffering in an artistic way (Zarzycka, 2006). It is through the semiotics of the
artists work, that we begin to understand how Frida wanted to be viewed.
Frida Kahlo's work during the 1930s is reminiscent of ex-voto paintings, which were made as
offerings or gestures of gratitude to saints. The size, composition and depiction of an injured person
alongside a written message are almost parallel with Kahlo's style during this time. The
aforementioned artwork, Henry Ford Hospital, is an example of this format, however, Kahlo subverts
the idea by placing herself as the subject (The Art Story, n.d). Therefore it can be suggested that
Kahlo's paintings take on a religious function. Herrara argues that through Kahlo's self-portraiture
and depiction of suffering, the artist becomes a secular saint (Herrara, 1983). In the previous chapter
the idea of the kouros was presented, perhaps Kahlo’s work can be interpreted in a similar way, in
:
which the artist creates an object of devotion to remind others of her suffering.
which the artist creates an object of devotion to remind others of her suffering.
Figure 10: Frida Kahlo ofrenda
Figure 11: A fan posing with the
Peter Marin 2018 (Installation)
Frida Kahlo ofrenda
Altars of remembrance are a key part of Mexican culture. These ‘ofrendas’ are present during Dia De
Los Muertos (Day of the Dead), a celebration of the deceased. Frida Kahlo has many ofrendas, Fig 10
shows one such shrine created in 2019 by artist Peter Marin. This shrine was constructed to honour
Frida Kahlo, however, its placement in the North Carolina Museum of art encourages the public to
pose and add to the installation (MCMA, 2019). Fig 11 demonstrates followers interacting with the
shrine. Consequently, this shrine of remembrance is perhaps a tourist spot and could be considered a
way for Marin and the public to feel a false connection to the artist. For example, many visitors to the
Ofrenda were dressed in kitsch clothing emulating the style of Kahlo, it can be argued that this
:
supports the commodification of the artist.
Figure 12: Viva Che! Jim Fitzpatrick 1968 (Painting)
By examining the iconography of Frida Kahlo's work alongside the cult of celebrity theory, we begin
to question the role of Kahlo and why she is viewed as a ‘secular saint’. Similarities have been drawn
between Frida Kahlo and Che Guevara, a socialist revolutionary who played a key role in the Cuban
Revolution of the 1950s. After Che’s death, artist Jim Fitzpatrick, created a graphical rendition of
Guevara (Fig 12) that became a motif on many products (Allwood, 2016). These garments became
known as ‘Che-Chic’; like ‘Frida-Mania’, the figure is appropriated and reconfigured for public
consumption. Sanchez proposes that this merchandise is consumed by audiences that care little to
understand the complexities of their identity (Sanchez, 2012), therefore we can postulate the
connection between commodifying an individual, and being ignorant to their history.
In regard to the idea of the ‘secular saint’, the parallels to Guevara and Christ began as soon as he died,
with Susana Osinga (a nurse who cleaned the body) stating ‘'He was just like Christ, with his strong
eyes, his beard, his long hair.' (Schipani, 2007). This saint-like interpretation of Guevara has appeared
:
in rural Bolivia, with many people including an image of Guevara in their household pantheons, next
to the Virgin Mary, Christ and other saints. In a somewhat cult-like way, he is ‘Saint Ernesto’ (Sanchez,
2012). The Fitzpatrick rendition of Guevara presents exaggerated ideas of a strong and dominant
rebel when in reality Che Guevara was asthmatic and malnourished (Sanchez, 2012). This resonates
with the whitewashed, disability-free version of Frida Kahlo we see depicted on products.
Both Kahlo and Guevara can be viewed as figures that simultaneously support capitalism through
their commodification, yet through their real-life socialist politics, remain icons that challenge the
structure of society. As a result of their commodification they have become politically nonthreatening and their image a perfect attire for trendy alternative movements (Sanchez, 2012). As
these celebrities were anti-Capitalist during their lives, the posthumous commodification of their
image is controversial. It can be argued that Kahlo and Guevara have ceased to be historical figures,
instead, becoming mythic as we lose the reality of their lives (Allwood, 2016).
This chapter has been an exploration of who Frida Kahlo was and how she wanted to be viewed.
Through the iconography of her work and the suffering she presents to the audience, it can be
suggested that Frida wanted her experiences and pain to resonate with society, perhaps going so far
as to present herself as a martyr and offering herself as an icon to adore. This may have been to fulfil
her own need for Diego’s attention or a way of seeking validation for her suffering; a controversial
idea considering Frida Kahlo appears to be the current figurehead of feminism. On the other
hand, Kahlo has clearly obtained a celebrity status which eclipses the success she enjoyed during her
lifetime. Lindauer provides us with the argument that Frida Kahlo is a role model for many people, a
possible hero for those struggling to find their own voice and public personalities (Lindauer, 1999). It
would appear that by validating the artist, the followers’ struggle is also validated through selfactualisation (a realisation and fulfilment of one's behaviour or actions). Following Frida Kahlo’s
resurgence in the 90’s, It would seem that the legacy of Kahlo and her artwork have been rescued
from oblivion (Lindauer, 1999 ), however, the social and political significance of her work and beliefs
have been erased, allowing a more digestible version to be commodified and consumed by the masses.
:
This commodification and consumerism will be explored further in Chapter Three.
Chapter 3: Commodification and Fetishisation
This chapter discusses the history of commodification and how it affects society. It begins by
exploring the process of fetishisation in greater depth, elaborating from its introduction in Chapter
One. Commodification and fetishisation are presented as a consequence of the cult of celebrity theory.
It is argued that the creation of commodities, viewed as a way of capturing an individual's essence
(like a holy relic), concretise the idea of the celebrity as a saint. Examples of Frida Kahlo’s
commodification are presented and the values placed upon these products by her followers are
:
examined.
Figure 13: ‘Marxism Will Give Health To The Ill’
Frida Kahlo 1954 (Painting)
In Chapter One the theory of commodification was introduced; commodification is the act of taking
something’s original form and commercialising it, turning it into an object of trade and capital (Hill et
al, 2007). Karl Marx was one of the original sociologists to study this theory and described it as
“expropriating the means of production from much of the population in order to create a supply of
labourers who must labour in order to purchase.” (Hill et al, 2007, 43). Consequently, Frida Kahlo was
inspired by Marxism and this influenced her political views and association with the Mexican
Communist Party. In the 1954 painting ‘Marxism Will Give Health To The Ill’ (fig 13), painted the same
year as her death, Frida shows her trust in communism and the crutches either side of her figure
suggest a utopian belief that communism would ease her pain (Henderson, 2018). It would therefore
be ironic that an individual so politically motivated, and a producer of socialist artwork, would accept
her commodification.
:
Figure 14: Theresa May wearing a Frida Kahlo bracelet
There are several branches of commodification, however this study will focus on ‘defusion’: the
process of depoliticising the values and subversive potential of an individual, similarly to the
discussion in Chapter Two regarding the reinvention of Che Guevera. In doing this, businesses are able
to prioritise the mainstream and appropriate parts of identities for society to consume (Hill et al,
2007).
‘The forward momentum and marketability of [Frida Kahlo] has allowed corporations and
politicians…. to manipulate culture for their own endorsement’ (Solarin, 2018).
This statement refers to the former Prime Minister of Great Britain, Theresa May, who wore a Frida
Kahlo bracelet during a televised event in 2017 (Fig 14). May was the leader of the Conservative
party and therefore her decision to wear a bracelet depicting the leftist Kahlo seems contradictory to
her right wing politics. Many journalists have argued that this was an attempt to appeal to a younger
audience (Lindsay-Perez, 2019).
Figure 15: Frida Kahlo (left) in the October 1937 edition of Vogue
:
The commodification of Frida Kahlo can be seen everywhere, from online independent sellers and
The commodification of Frida Kahlo can be seen everywhere, from online independent sellers and
markets across city centres to big-name brands such as Mattel. Perhaps it is the appearance of Frida
Kahlo that makes her such a commodity. During her lifetime her native Mexican clothing was
discussed widely, she appeared under the name ‘Senora Rivera’ in the October 1937 edition of Vogue
(Fig 15) which discusses the “surprising” sophistication of Mexico, this article, written by Alice-Leone
Moats, exemplifies the exoticism and ‘othering’ of Mexicans during the 1930s.
Despite her mainly European ethnicity and features; Kahlo became famous for her exotic appearance,
the dramatic jewellery and explicitly Mexican self-representation (Lindauer, 1999) It has been
suggested that this exotic clothing was a way of hiding behind an assumed identity and creating a
persona to hide her pain “The more miserable she was, the more she bedecked herself with ribbons
and ruffles. She transformed herself into an icon for herself and others to worship” (Herrara, 1990).
Art historians, such as Kalamu Ya Salaam have argued that Frida painted her skin darker. This could
be related to the conflicting identity of her ethnicity and its middle-class association. Instead, Frida
Kahlo may have been influenced by indigenous women who worked for the Kahlo family (Herrara,
1983). This controversial revelation can also be associated with Frida Kahlo’s proud nationalism and
influence of her socialist politics, where white Europeans were considered bourgeois. Therefore an
argument can be made that Kahlo wanted to be seen as indigenous and wear the clothing despite
coming from an educated middle class, predominantly European family (Ya Salaam, 2015).
Furthermore Frida changed the spelling of her name from the German ‘Frieda’ as a further attempt as
disassociating with her European heritage (Herrara, 1983). It would seem that an artist so
appropriated and commodified may be guilty of appropriating indigenous culture.
There is further controversy in regard to Frida Kahlo's depiction in popular culture. Some argue her
facial hair is eradicated and others believe it is emphasized for comedic effect. For example, it can be
offered that magazines, articles and products inspired by the artist, note but fail to reproduce the
unplucked eyebrow and “discernable moustache” (Lindaur, 1999, pg.158). This can be considered
ironic as society deems Kahlo a feminist icon for her acceptance of her unibrow and yet by removing
:
her facial hair, this takes away her identity (Edwards, 2019).
On the other hand, Kahlo’s unibrow has been subject to comedic ridicule, with many people using it as
a parody to attract consumers. In a 2012 article titled ‘Frida's Unibrow Was a Statement, Not a
Gimmick’ the author S.Mortimer discusses the overuse and exaggeration of Frida Kahlo’s facial hair.
“Dear Art Gallery of Ontario, one of your employees handed me a unibrow and a card that said
I should wear it in order to get 50 percent off the price of admission to your exhibit "Frida and
Diego: Passion, Politics and Painting." I am glad that Frida Kahlo's work is here in Toronto, but
I can't help but think this stunt isn't how Kahlo would have wished to be remembered”
(Mortimer, 2012).
In her diary, Frida noted, “Of my face, I like my eyebrows and eyes” (Kahlo and Zamora, 1995, p.143) .
Kahlo depicted herself with a unibrow and moustache in most of her self portraits; she explored the
juxtapositional relationship between the feminine and the masculine. Therefore an argument can be
made that the commodification of Kahlo’s image relies on her recognisable unibrow. However, the
2002 film ‘Frida’ starring Salma Hayak and produced by Harvey Weinstein’s former company
Miramax, presents an alternative viewpoint. In a 2017 article written by Hayak for The New York
Times, the actress revealed that Weinstein wanted to make Frida ‘sexy’.;“The limp and the monobrow
must go and there must be full-frontal nudity and sex scenes with another woman” (Hayek, 2017).
This presents the idea that sex sells and an argument can be made that the commodification of Frida
:
is perhaps adjacent to the exploitation of women (France, 2018).
Figure 16: Items from the ‘Frida Kahlo: Making Herself Up’ exhibit
In Chapter One the theory of Fetishism was introduced, and although fetishism is often considered to
mean sexual desire, it has roots in worship. These fetishised objects of devotion could be considered
holy relics in the cult of celebrity (Fernandez and Lastovicka, 2011).
In 2019, The Victoria and Albert Museum in London, hosted the exhibition; ‘Frida Kahlo: Making
Herself Up’, showcasing personal items of the artist (Fig 16). It can be said that exhibition culture
encourages the “mythologising and commodification” of an individual (Lindsay-Perez, 2019). The
V&A exhibition received mixed reviews despite its arguably cohesive and in-depth exploration of
Frida Kahlo’s personal items; some believe that Kahlo's medicated body was presented in a fetishistic
way rather than a celebratory one, arguing that the exhibition should acknowledge Kahlo’s
commodification and open up a discussion on the fetishism of trauma (Lindsay-Perez, 2019).
Another example of Frida Kahlo’s fetishism relates back to Chapter Three’s discussion on Ofrendas
and shrines. The online article titled ‘Evoking Frida Kahlo: Making Memory Altars and Shrines’
(Schafer, 2015) encourages followers of Frida Kahlo to create their own shrine using DIY and crafting
instructions. The article promotes a workshop experience in Oaxaca city, Mexico priced between
$495-$795, where a fan of Frida Kahlo can be instructed and inspired to create a shrine for the artist.
This excursion may be considered a capitalist ploy by the organisers who are seemingly exploiting
both Kahlo’s popularity and the exoticism of traditional Mexican ‘Ofrendas’ - commodifying it as a
simple souvenir for tourists.
It would seem that Frida Kahlo is more than a victim of commodification, she has become a
corporation (MNC, 2019). The romanticised idea of Kahlo seems worlds apart from the copyright laws
and court cases her name is now associated with. The reality of capitalising on an individual
posthumously has produced a hierarchy, with the ‘Frida Kahlo Corporation’ at the top. The FKC is a
:
Panama based business and has been operating since 2004 under Kahlo's niece Isolda, who inherited
the property rights of the artist. The FKC has attempted to claim total ownership of Frida Kahlo's
likeness and has trademarked the words ‘Frida Kahlo’, making the artist a brand and no longer an
individual historical figure (MNC, 2019). This is perhaps controversial as the mission statement on
their website reads:
“We are dedicated to educating, sharing and preserving Frida Kahlo’s art,
image and legacy.” (Frida Kahlo Corporation, 2020)
It could be inferred that by taking ownership of all things Frida Kahlo, they intended to avoid the
commodification of the individual and maintain the artist’s views. However after Isolda Kahlo’s death
in 2007 (Green, 2018), the FKC has used their namesake as a way of monopolising on her popularity.
It can be offered that Kahlo has become a “cookie-cutter-mould of her former self” and a tool in
service of capitalism “In ways that the artist wouldn't have wanted” (MNC, 2019).
Figure 17: Frida Kahlo Barbie doll
In addition to FKC portfolio of products like Frida Kahlo tequila and Frida Kahlo Tweezers - “An odd
:
choice given the artist's iconic unibrow” (Veltman, 2020)- is the corporation's deal with Mattel, the
producer of the famous Barbie dolls. The creation of a Frida Kahlo Barbie doll (Fig 17) in 2018 caused
a dispute between the Frida Kahlo Corporation and the Kahlo family, who also claimed to own the
rights to the artist and had not given Mattel permission to create the doll (Marine, 2018). The doll
portrays Frida with lighter skin and eyes; a ‘normal’ body, void of surgical scars or disability (such as
her false leg) and the removal of her facial hair. Frida Kahlo’s great-niece, Mara de Anda Romeo,
wishes for a more accurate depiction of the artist
“I would have liked the doll to have traits more like Frida’s, not this doll with light-coloured
eyes,” (Marine, 2018).
Aside from the tendentious copyright dispute and the wishes of the Kahlo family, Frida Kahlo fans
have also criticised the doll, who many believe has been white-washed and lacks her aforementioned
iconic facial hair. It also seems that her disability has been eradicated (Veltman, 2020). This
commodification of Frida Kahlo has consequently caused the complete expulsion of the real historical
figure and instead offers us a literal plastic version of Frida, without radical thought or physical
trauma. It would seem that an argument may be made for the commodity becoming more important
than the historical person depicted, due to its fetishistic value placed upon the mythic celebrity
(Sanchez, 2012). The role of commodification within the cult of celebrity seems to validate ignorance
in favour of a person following fashion or presenting their loyalty as a ‘disciple’. Therefore it appears
the reality of the celebrity's life is eradicated in order to produce merchandise for mass consumption
and to favour the economic growth of capitalism (Holland, 2018).
In conclusion, this chapter has discussed the commodification of Frida Kahlo and the ways she has
become a product. The cult of celebrity and capitalism merge to create a market for self-actualisation,
where we as a society feel a need to wear our interests and favourite celebrities as merchandise,
either as a way of expressing our interest or arguably to feel a sense of community with others who
find that subject interesting (Hollander, 2010). Furthermore, this merchandise is often created by low
paid workers in poor conditions, in regard to the political and cultural views of Frida Kahlo, this
:
seems ironic and ‘distasteful’ (Kitroeff and Kim, 2017). It would appear that Frida Kahlo’s likeness can
seems ironic and ‘distasteful’ (Kitroeff and Kim, 2017). It would appear that Frida Kahlo’s likeness can
be easily applied to movements surrounding empowerment and femininity, although these
movements may be relevant to the artist's life, using Frida Kahlo as a symbol for ‘surface-level
reverence’ is arguably irresponsible in a time where "girl power" is being used as a marketing tool
(Solarin, 2018). It would seem that very few people know who Frida Kahlo is, other than “...the artist
with the unibrow” (Garza, 2018) and despite Kahlo being a historical figure, it would seem her
complex interests, life and politics have been neglected, in favour of prioritising her exotic dress
sense, unibrow and bold lipstick. It can be offered that although Kahlo’s style is an integral part of her
myth, it is her, “construction of identity through ethnicity, her disability, her political beliefs and her
art that makes her such a compelling and relevant icon today” (Wilcox, Henestrosa, 2018) The pros
and cons of this commodification are presented in the next chapter, alongside a discussion on the
ethics of posthumously capitalising on Kahlo's image; with focus on The Frida Kahlo Corporation and
other groups who may be held accountable for ‘Frida-Mania’.
Chapter 4: Ethics and Controversy
This chapter extends the theory of commodification by explaining it from an ethical standpoint.
:
The commodification of humans is thus explored alongside the problematic role of the follower;
the family and finally, the individual being celebrated. The role of the economy in relation to
fetishised commodities is also examined, noting its importance to capitalist consumerism. The
posthumous Frida Kahlo Corporation and branding surrounding Frida Kahlo are presented,
alongside the possible motivation as to why Kahlo’s images have been selected as commodities to
be purchased, displayed and worn by followers. Finally, as a consumer of Frida Kahlo products,
personal reflective thoughts are offered. The rights of the celebrity are examined and cases are
presented for and against the overwhelming amount of Frida Kahlo merchandise.
In Chapter Three, the idea of Commodification was presented however, the purpose of this
chapter is to explore the ethical controversies surrounding the commodification of people. This
discussion will be focused on Frida Kahlo; however, the ethics of consumerism and more directly,
posthumous exploitation, can be applied to post mortem as a whole.
Karl Marx’s definition of a commodity relates heavily to the idea of fetishism. ‘Commodity
Fetishism’ is a term used to describe a distorted relationship between the product and the buyer.
For example, the buyer (the follower) regards the product, whether it be a Frida Kahlo mug or tshirt, as a means of physically connecting with the celebrity and obtaining some of their ‘magic’
(Fernandez and Lastovicka (2011). Beatriz Alvarado, the spokeswoman for the Frida Kahlo
Corporation states, "It's an honor to have a piece of Frida Kahlo that will inspire you day to day"
(Green, 2018). Therefore we can associate the ‘magic’ of fetishism to mean the follower hopes to
gain a part of Kahlo's personality and live vicariously through this ideal, marketable vision of
Frida Kahlo.
The FKC website outlines the brand as representing “a female role model, a strong woman that
transcends and overcomes barriers of culture, time and society with her unique and iconic
personality” (Frida Kahlo Corporation, 2020). Although as previously mentioned, the disregarded
parts of the artist's life and beliefs may suggest that this personality, marketed as Frida Kahlo’s,
may be exaggerated or perhaps manufactured to exploit followers who are hoping to enrich their
lives with the uniqueness of Kahlo. This could also be considered a tactic to appeal to the feminist
community (Krichell, 2018) however, like de-radicalising Che Guevera, it is considered a ‘trendy’
:
way to dilute the political message.
way to dilute the political message.
It can be said that the idea of the celebrity is no longer attached to a belief or way of life, instead,
the individual becomes a product that the follower consumes (Baker, 2010). The cult of celebrity
theory is arguably accountable for turning people into products. For example, an item associated
with the celebrity can be considered a holy relic and the mass production of these ‘relics’, is a
source of profit for businesses relying on the interest of the follower.
Frida Kahlo is arguably an important source of income for many businesses, including
independent sellers. In an interview with an independent seller, Pedro Hernandez; the owner of a
small market booth in Coyoacán, Mexico, Hernandez talks about the impact of selling Kahlo
merchandise has to his business and its appeal to the tourists. He acknowledges that although
Coyoacán is the birthplace of Frida Kahlo, he doesn't know much about the artist, he states, “She
must be important because if not, she wouldn't be famous," (Green, 2018). Therefore we can infer
that the Frida Kahlo economy provides much needed economic growth in Mexico. However, it is
the commodification of Kahlo and turning her into a symbol that holds ethical responsibilities
(Veltman, 2020).
On the United States Patent and Trademark Office website there are over 37 registered
trademarks for the ‘Frida Kahlo’ symbol with most being owned by The Frida Kahlo Corporation.
The trademarks all include similar phrases; “The name ‘FRIDA KAHLO’ does not identify a living
individual” or “The name(s), portrait(s) and/or signatures(s) shown in the mark do not identify a
particular living individual” (United States Patent and Trademark Office, n.d). Although true due
to the death of Frida Kahlo, this holds ethical ambiguity in relation to Mexico's laws surrounding
the posthumous rights of an individual (Fenig, 2014). Prior to 1956, the post mortem copyright
protection of artists in Mexico lasted between 20-25 years, additionally, the right of publicity is
valid for 50 years post mortem (Lydiate, n.d.). This meant that in 2004 Frida Kahlo’s image and
artwork became available to the public. In 2004 the Kahlo family turned to trademark protection
and thus the Frida Kahlo Corporation was formed as a way to legally distribute Frida Kahlo as a
commodity. (Wickersham-Salisbury, 2019). It would appear that the FKC has attempted to
:
control the way fans depict Frida Kahlo, with many small business sellers from online
control the way fans depict Frida Kahlo, with many small business sellers from online
marketplaces like Etsy being pressured into paying for the right to use the artist's image
(Veltman, 2020).
Figure 18: Cris Melo and her Frida Kahlo inspired artwork
One such artist; Cris Melo, who sells paintings depicting a Kahlo inspired figure (Fig 18), has
refused to comply with the cease and desist orders of the Frida Kahlo Corporation because she
feels Frida Kahlo is a public figure and should not be trademarked. Melo has stated that she feels
a spiritual attachment to Frida Kahlo and occasionally offers a prayer to her; “I tell her, I’m not
doing this for me, I’m doing this for you” (Veltman, 2020). From this behaviour we can infer that a
“pseudo intimate relationship” (Newell-Hanson, 2017) has inspired Melo to pursue the case
against the Frida Kahlo Corporation, It can be argued that this is similar to Melo bestowing the
role of disciple upon herself, further cementing the theory of the cult of celebrity and the
celebrity as a diety.
The FKC has affected many artists and online businesses who want to capitalise on Frida Kahlo's
image - it would seem that regardless of the individuals reasoning, whether it be an international
company or an independent seller, Kahlo’s commodification is a source of income and profit. This
case of a commodified Frida Kahlo appears problematic within the community of Frida’s
followers, with many articles acknowledging the ethical contention. However, an argument can
be made that by buying and circulating images of Frida Kahlo, it generates followers and interest
:
in her life and work. Without this legacy, the artist and work may be forgotten, perhaps the legacy
in her life and work. Without this legacy, the artist and work may be forgotten, perhaps the legacy
of Frida Kahlo depends on her commodification (Lindauer, 1999). Alternatively, Krichel argues
that commodification has weaponised Kahlo's legacy and her glorification leaves little space for
“actual education”.
The mass-produced FKC merchandise is incongruous with Frida Kahlo’s belief in communism
and therefore the fair treatment of working-class Mexicans. A 2017 LA Times article brings
attention to the poor working conditions in factories owned by brands like Forever 21, who have
produced their own Frida Kahlo merch in association with the FKC. An argument is made over
the $6 hourly wage of factory workers in LA, home to one of the nation's largest Mexican
immigrant communities (Kitroeff and Kim, 2017). It could be criticised that this is another reason
why the FKC is failing to preserve Frida’s political legacy.
It can be offered that there is an “innate human desire to treat the wishes of once-living persons
with respect” (Smolensky, 2009, p.801) however the treatment of an individual's posthumous
rights seems to ignore this theory and instead Smolensky offers that commodification is a way to
control the behaviours of the living. “Autonomy and respect are not without limits”(Smolenksy,
2009, 801). It would appear that there is a limit on the extent of the relationship between
celebrity and the corporations who hold their trademark. Professor Rebecca Tushnet, of Harvard
University, offers that these corporations claim the rights to control what's commodified and
distributed “not to prevent commercialization but actually to profit from it." (Green, 2020).
In addition to the ethical controversy of merchandise, societies desire to connect with these ‘elite’
celebrities and although Frida Kahlo gained the majority of her fame posthumously, her marriage
to Diego Rivera and the exoticism of her fashion made her a figure for public fascination during
her lifetime, as a result of this, her death gained the attention of journalists and paparazzi. It
would seem that the death of a celebrity elevates the status and value of the individual
(Chamorro-Premuzic, 2014) and the celebrity becomes a martyr with death marking the
beginning of their mythology (Howells, 2001).
After her death in July 1954, the funeral was recorded and the footage of her corpse
:
(Photography Fundación Televisa Collection, 2018) can be considered disrespectful due to her
uncomfortable position and partially open eyes. She does not appear peaceful or sleeping as one
would imagine, in addition, it can be noted that when researching the death of Frida Kahlo and
her funeral, there is little to say in regards to her passing. The video which could be widely
discussed amongst historians and critics for its arguably distressing footage is somewhat lost
amongst the bright colours of ‘Frida-Mania’ and ‘girl power’ (Solarin, 2018). As a society, it seems
that we have become desensitised to tragedy (Krichell, 2018) and the circulation of Kahlo’s
funeral video borders on morbid fascination and exploitation.
Figure 19: A screengrab of Frida Kahlo’s funeral video
Nevertheless, this recording does provide us with evidence of her political beliefs. The
communist flag is draped over her coffin (Fig 19), this is arguably a significant moment in the life
and death of Frida Kahlo as it solidifies her political views and the revolutionary behaviour she
:
participated in.
Figure 20: Frida Kahlo (central) at a protest in Guatemala 1954
Her last public appearance was at a protest in Guatemala (Herrera, 1983), less than ten days
before her death Kahlo is seen wearing a simple shawl and sitting in a wheelchair (Fig 20). She is
far from the fashion icon and exotic figure society has come to worship. Arguably however the
appeal of Frida Kahlo should not be her fashion, but her beliefs and how they were expressed
through painting and protesting (Lindauer, 1999). Therefore it can be said there are ethical
contradictions with how The Frida Kahlo Corporation commodifies and capitalises on their
namesake. Despite their commitment to preserving her legacy, it would seem they have
reinvented Kahlo for public consumption with the intent to educate.
In contrast it can be noted that the spread of Kahlo’s iconography is appropriate as she was the
principal muse behind her paintings. Alvarado argues that Kahlo “Sold herself in a way… We’re
just doing what she did” (Garza, 2018). Therefore it can be said that Frida Kahlo commodified
herself in the way she marketed her work and image to the socialist Mexican community (Ya
Salaam, 2015). As mentioned in Chapter Three, the attempt to remove traces of her European
heritage, by darkening her skin and changing the spelling of her name, may be just as
controversial as Mattel lightning of the skin and eyes on the Frida Barbie doll.
The Frida Kahlo Corporation not only targets fans of the artist but encourages young women to
buy Frida inspired goods as a way for the millennial generation to connect with her legacy
(Garza, 2018). It would seem that the commodification and mass Frida-mania is inviting younger
generations to become interested in the artist, however, this merchandise is often divorced from
the political and personal context of her life, in a way that is damaging to the legacy of the artist.
In personal reflection, as a fan of Frida Kahlo, one can understand the appeal of products
showing the artist. This exploitation of her image however seems to leave a distasteful presence.
Although an interest in Frida Kahlo evolves into the societal pressure to buy merchandise and
showcase your admiration, it does appear that like many others, the curiosity to explore the
:
figure behind the monobrow does lead to knowledge of Kahlo’s life and political beliefs. This is
figure behind the monobrow does lead to knowledge of Kahlo’s life and political beliefs. This is
perhaps the goal of the FKC, although this may ultimately be tarnished by the ethical ambiguity
surrounding Frida Kahlo's commodification.
In conclusion, this chapter has explored the controversy surrounding commodification and the
rights of the deceased. The commodification of Frida Kahlo seems to be a source of income for
small businesses, alongside larger ones like the Frida Kahlo Corporation. However, it would seem
there is more criticism surrounding the FKC due to a speculated desire to control all elements of
the Kahlo image. It has been noted that this may be a way for the corporation to capitalise on the
unclear rights of the deceased, however, there has been an acknowledgement to the education
that this commodification inspires and therefore generates future followers to preserve the Frida
Kahlo legacy. Consequently, it appears that the marketing of Frida Kahlo as a fashionable,
empowering role model has disregarded the personal and political details of her life. Frida
Kahlo’s role within her own commodification has been discussed alongside her self-exoticism
which received criticism in similar ways to the Mattel Barbie doll. As this study draws to a close,
the findings of all chapters will be considered and theories surrounding the ethical
considerations of Frida Kahlo's commodification and fetishism will be analysed.
Conclusion
This study set out to find if the fetishisation and commodification of Frida Kahlo’s work and
image for public consumption is ethically correct. It is through this study that several arguments
have arisen for and against the commodification of the artist, moreover, the study also explored
the origin of commodification and why society holds certain individuals to the esteemed
standard of ‘celebrity’. This cult of celebrity theory has imbued the findings with context and
allowed for the consideration of complex offerings like ‘the cult of the individual artist’ and the
:
idea of the ‘secular saint’.
In Chapter One, the ‘follower’ was acknowledged as a key component to the cult of celebrity.
Without a follower, there is no fame. The interpretations of the Greek philosopher Plato were
discussed, he argued that the objective of life is to be virtuous however it was found that fame
has become a symbol of success rather than virtue. This chapter also notes the vicariousness of a
follower through the celebrity and therefore offers an explanation to why the role of ‘follower’
exists. In addition to this, the exploitative effect of modernity on the cult of celebrity is proposed,
with social media being interpreted as a digital shrine. It can be said there is a thin line between a
follower honouring an individual; to then commodify that individual through veneration and
fetishism.
Chapter One also introduced the focus for this study, Frida Kahlo and noted her resurgence as an
icon for liberal politics, acknowledging that depictions of the individual are often imbued with
artistic license, in the hope of appealing to consumers in the form of objects of devotion.
The appeal of Frida Kahlo was explored in Chapter Two, the iconography of the artist, and how
this reflected her personal life was presented, offering that by validating the experiences of
Kahlo, the follower is able to self-actualise and form a pseudo intimate relationship with the
artist. It is also offered that Kahlo is responsible for her veneration, considering the iconography
of her work and its parallels with religious ex-votos of the time. She presented herself in a way
that was appealing to those wanting to escape into a romanticised version of rural Mexico,
through her brightly coloured fashion. Moreover, this chapter presents the argument that Kahlo
may have been guilty of commodifying indigenous Mexican culture in an attempt to integrate
with the ideals of Mexican socialism.
Chapter Three explored the relationship between commodification and Frida Kahlo. It would
appear that commodification has transformed Kahlo into a palatable symbol to be used as a tool
for marketing products to her followers. The connection between the cult of celebrity and
capitalism was presented and offered as a market for self-actualisation. The factories behind the
merchandise are discussed, alongside the political significance of Frida Kahlo as a communist
and the irony around poorly paid workers. In addition to this, an argument was made to the
:
irresponsibility of removing the historical significance and complexity of Frida Kahlo as this is
irresponsibility of removing the historical significance and complexity of Frida Kahlo as this is
perhaps counterintuitive to her appeal as a figurehead for feminism and subverting social
normality. The Frida Kahlo Corporation is discussed with arguments for and against the success
in maintaining her legacy; it was concluded that paradoxically a commodity can serve as a
catalyst for curiosity; however, despite the educational intent, the conduct of the FKC is
considered unethical and controversial.
The criticism of the Frida Kahlo Corporation was explored in Chapter Four, alongside the rights of
the deceased and how the commodification of Frida Kahlo appears ethically ambiguous. In
addition, the responsibility of the follower and the independent seller were explored, with the
argument that the positive impact on Mexico’s economy may be considered a legacy of Kahlo.
It can be offered that Frida Kahlo would have appreciated the celebration of her artwork and her
recognition as an artist. However, the commodification of her image overshadows the complexity
and skill of her work. It would appear that although her work is sold to the masses, there is a
definite lack of support for her more bloody and harrowing work, the public is provided with the
sanitised and easily digestible version of Kahlo. The recognition of the artist’s labour is
disconnected from the popularity of her appearance, the exoticism and easily recognisable
monobrow trivialise the individualism of Frida Kahlo as a historical figure, it would appear that
the symbol we see amongst this ‘Frida-mania’ is a diluted version of the deceased, that perhaps
encourages stereotypes and fetishises the ‘other’.
Frida Kahlo wrote of her understanding of capitalism and fame during a 1932 trip to the USA
“The most important thing for everyone in Gringolandia is to have ambition and become
‘somebody,’ and frankly, I don’t have the least ambition to become anybody.” (Kahlo and Zamora,
1995, p.108).
And although she has become ‘somebody’, her commodification and fetishism
seem to present us with a figure who is distant from reality. Despite being remembered for her
artwork, fashion and lesser-known political prevalence, it does seem that although her writings
and photographs remain, we are left with a symbol who can be interpreted in many ways,
without truly knowing the right one. Perhaps it would be ethically redeeming to restore the
:
complexities of the individual and present Frida Kahlo as more than just a cliche marketing
complexities of the individual and present Frida Kahlo as more than just a cliche marketing
device.
References
Books
Fuentes, C., Kahlo, F. and Lowe, S. (2005). The diary of Frida Kahlo. New York: H.N. Abrams.
Herrera, H (1983). Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo. Harper.
Kahlo, F. & Zamora, M. (1995). The letters of Frida Kahlo: cartas apasionadas. San Francisco, Chronicle
Books.
Lindauer, M. (1999). Devouring Frida. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press.
Walker, J.A., (2003). Art and Celebrity. London: Pluto Press.
Wilcox, C. and Henestrosa, C. (2018). Frida Kahlo: Making Herself Up. London: V&A Publishing.
:
Journals
Fernandez, K Lastovicka J. (2011). Making Magic: Fetishes in Contemporary Consumption. Journal of
Consumer Research. 38. 278-278. 10.1086/659079. [accessed 11 December 2019].
Hill, D., Greaves, N. and Maisuria, A. (2007) Embourgeoisement, immiseration, commodification Marxism revisited: a critique of education in capitalist systems. Journal for Critical Education Policy
Studies. Available from: http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/05-1-02.pdf
[accessed 03 March 2020].
Howells, R. (2011) ‘Heroes, saints and celebrities: the photograph as holy relic’, Celebrity Studies,
2(2), p. 112. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=edb&AN=62823213&site=eds-live&scope=site [Accessed 20 November 2019].
Sanchez, C. D. (2012) ‘The Apotheosis of Frida and Ché: Secular Saints and Fetishized Commodities’,
Journal of Religion & Popular Culture, 24(2), pp. 296–309. doi: 10.1353/rpc.2012.0016.
[accessed 20 November 2019].
Smolensky, K.B (2009) Rights Of The Dead. Hofstra Law Review, 37(3) pp. 763-803. Available at:
https://law.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/journals/lawreview/lrv_issues_v37n03_cc4_smolensky_final.pdf
[accessed 10 March 2020].
Zarzycka, M. (2006). ‘Now I Live on a Painful Planet’. Third Text, 20(1), pp.73-84.
[accessed 03 December 2019].
Websites
:
Baker, K. (2010). The Cult of Celebrity Is as Old as Humanity Itself. Newsweek. Available from:
https://www.newsweek.com/cult-celebrity-old-humanity-itself-69931
[accessed 17 September 2019].
Brand Watch (2020) The Top 20 Most Followed Accounts on Instagram. Brand Watch. Available from:
https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/top-most-instagram-followers/
[accessed 20 March 2020]
Chamorro-Premuzic, T (2014). When Death Goes Viral: Mourning Celebrities On Social Media. The
Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-networkblog/2014/aug/21/robin-williams-mourning-death-celebrities-social-media-viral
[accessed 10 March 2020].
France, M. (2018). The many (marketable) faces of Frida Kahlo. Prospectmagazine.co.uk. Available at:
https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/the-many-marketable-faces-of-frida-kahlo
[accessed 12 October 2019].
French, G. (2017). the cult of celebrity: how sinister is our obsession with fame?. Vice ID. Available at:
https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/article/mbvdg3/the-cult-of-celebrity-how-sinister-is-our-obsession-withfame [accessed 29 September 2019].
Frida Kahlo Corporation (2020). Available at: https://fridakahlocorporation.com/
[accessed 20 September 2019]
Garza, F (2018). Frida Kahlo, All the Cool Girls, and Me. Racked Available at:
https://www.racked.com/2018/4/10/17215768/frida-kahlo-cool-clothes-eyebrows
[accessed 04 March 2020].
Green, E. (2018). As Mexico Capitalises on Her Image, Has Frida Kahlo become Over Commercialized?.
National Public Radio. Available at: https://www.npr.org/2018/06/02/616129555/as-mexico-capitalizes-on-
:
her-image-has-frida-kahlo-become-over-commercialized?
her-image-has-frida-kahlo-become-over-commercialized?
t=1583516449213&fbclid=IwAR0yDbZ6r7kBk8MvF9N29FsO34wj7Ut9mpqB2pu0vWP2bk0UHWVld1fewKc&t=158
3522886956
[accessed 30
September 2019].
Hayek, S. (2017). Opinion | Harvey Weinstein Is My Monster Too. The New York Times. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/13/opinion/contributors/salma-hayek-harveyweinstein.html [accessed 03 November 2019].
Herrera, H. (1990). Art View; Why Frida Kahlo Speaks to the 90's. The New York Times. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/28/arts/art-view-why-frida-kahlo-speaks-to-the-90-s.html
[accessed 11 December 2019].
Henderson, P.L (2018) 'Marxism will heal the sick': Frida Kahlo and Karl Marx. Culture Matters
Available at: https://www.culturematters.org.uk/index.php/arts/visual-art/item/2739-marxism-will-heal-thesick-frida-kahlo-and-karl-marx
[accessed 04 March 2020].
Holland, J. (2018). The Commodification of Art and the Illusions of Capitalism. Counter Punch.
Available at: https://www.counterpunch.org/2018/02/02/the-commodification-of-art-and-the-illusions-ofcapitalism/ [accessed 29 September 2019].
Julienslive.com. (2016). Marilyn Monroe Auction- Property From The Collection of David
Gainsborough-Roberts, The Estate of Lee Strasberg, and Déjà vu. [online] Available at:
https://www.julienslive.com/view-auctions/catalog/id/180
[Accessed
06 January 2020].
Krichel, S. (2018). How the commercialization of Frida Kahlo has weaponized her legacy against her.
:
National Post. Available at: https://nationalpost.com/entertainment/how-the-commercialization-of-frida-kahlo-
National Post. Available at: https://nationalpost.com/entertainment/how-the-commercialization-of-frida-kahlohas-weaponized-her-legacy-against-her
[accessed 17 September 2019].
Kitroeff, N. V, Kim (2017). Behind a $13 shirt, a $6-an-hour worker. LA Times. Available at:
https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-fi-forever-21-factory-workers/
[accessed 02 February 2020].
Lindsay-Perez, M. (2019). Problematizing "Frida-Mania". The Isis. Available at:
https://isismagazine.org.uk/2019/02/problematizing-frida-mania/
[accessed 08 October 2019].
Lu, A. (2013) Live Vicariously Through Your Favourite Celebrities With Instagram. Hollywood.com.
Available at: http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/best-celebrity-instagrams-60232830/
[accessed 03 December 2019].
Lydiate, H. (n.d.). Posthumous Legal and Ethical Issues – Tate Papers. The Tate Modern. Available at:
https://www.tate.org.uk/research/publications/tate-papers/08/posthumous-legal-and-ethical-issues
[accessed 29 September 2019].
Mortimer, S. (2012). Frida's Unibrow Was a Statement, Not a Gimmick. Huffington Post. Available at:
https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/sarah-mortimer/frida-kahlo-ago-unibrow_b_2100916.html?
guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAAdBCU_nfSE6bsP8D18Wehn3b7idWmhxqOcHpnKqHcAY7kH_xAaXqqf9yb7CxowYWsQFhtpHkPMmUXn1AoPlf_8mWXpML07LTLovi
PYMJ7oqpkuAq70TzNI1rnuR4M6luqJW3vucGvKrloTsEk2FnCPHXXoR8wPLXj8Yioqc-OP
[accessed 13 February 2020].
MNC (2019). The Questionable Business of Being Frida. Messy Nessy Chic. Available at:
:
https://www.messynessychic.com/2019/07/10/the-questionable-business-of-being-frida/
[accessed 10 October 2019].
NCMA (2019). Honouring Frida Kahlo’s Life and Legacy. North Carolina Museum of Art. Available at:
https://ncartmuseum.org/blog/view/honoring_frida_kahlos_life_and_legacy
[accessed 02 February 2020].
Stanfords.co.uk. (n.d).Frida Callus Socks.Stanfords. Available at: https://www.stanfords.co.uk/frida-callussocks-medium_0755702539517?
wgu=5563_196673_15853456525613_67dd4bebbd&wgexpiry=1593121652&utm_campaign=webgains&utm_sourc
e=webgains&utm_medium=webgains [accessed 25 March 2020].
Schafer, N. (2015) Evoking Frida Kahlo: Making Memory Altars and Shrines. Oaxaca Culture. Available
at: http://oaxacaculture.com/2015/06/evoking-frida-kahlo-making-memory-altars-shrines/
[accessed 02 February 2020].
Schipani, A. (2007) The Final Triumph of Saint Che. The Guardian. Available from
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/23/theobserver.worldnews
[accessed 02 February 2020].
Solarin, A. (2018). Frida Kahlo is not your symbol. Dazed. Available at: https://www.dazeddigital.com/artphotography/article/40259/1/frida-kahlo-is-not-your-symbol
[accessed 20 October 2019].
Thackara, T. (2017). How Frida Kahlo Became a Global Brand. Artsy. Available at:
https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-frida-kahlo-global-brand
[accessed 10 October 2019].
The Art Story. (n.d). Frida Kahlo Artworks and Famous Paintings. The Art Story. Available at:
https://www.theartstory.org/artist/kahlo-frida/artworks/
:
02 February 2020].
[accessed
United States Patent and Trademark Office. (n.d). Available at: http://tmsearch.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?
f=toc&state=4805%3A5i4tlj.1.1&p_search=searchss&p_L=50&BackReference=&p_plural=yes&p_s_PARA1=&p_tagrep
l%7E%3A=PARA1%24LD&expr=PARA1+AND+PARA2&p_s_PARA2=Frida+Kahlo&p_tagrepl%7E%3A=PARA2%24CO
MB&p_op_ALL=AND&a_default=search&a_search=Submit+Query&a_search=Submit+Query
[accessed 04 March 2020].
Worldometer (2020). U.K Population LIVE. Worldometer. Available at:
https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/uk-population/
[accessed 06 March 2020]
Wickersham-Salisbury, L. (2019). Rolling Over in Her Grave: Frida Kahlo’s Trademarks and
Commodified Legacy. Center for Art Law. Available at: https://itsartlaw.org/2019/08/02/rolling-over-in-hergrave-frida-kahlos-trademarks-and-commodified-legacy/ [accessed 18 September 2019].
Veltman, C. (2020). Why a California Artist Is Taking The Frida Kahlo Corporation to Court. Qked.
Available at: https://www.kqed.org/news/11793388/why-a-california-artist-is-taking-the-frida-kahlocorporation-to-court?fbclid=IwAR0RKDQvfszWpwew_52eaqvIQfb0VV2AmmnNSJ241v2BbX6hF5p4pwj5xbI
[accessed 01 March 2020].
Viéville, C. (2018). Frida Kahlo: Invention of the Self, Invention of the Oeuvre. AWARE Women
artists/Femmes artistes. Available at: https://awarewomenartists.com/en/magazine/frida-kahlo-linvention-desoi-linvention-de-loeuvre/
[accessed 05 November 2019] .
Ya Salaam, K. (2015). HISTORY: Three Deep – Cultural Appropriation and Frida Khalo | Neo-Griot.
Kalamu.com. Available at: http://kalamu.com/neogriot/2015/05/23/history-three-deep-cultural-appropriationand-frida-khalo/
[accessed 03 November 2019].
Media
Hobbs, A. (2011). Plato and Celebrity: Prof Angie Hobbs. Warwick, UK. Available at:
https://warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/knowledge-archive/socialscience/celebrity/
:
[accessed 14 November 2019].
[accessed 14 November 2019].
Photography Fundación Televisa Collection (2018). Funeral de Frida Kahlo (1954) | Imágenes de la
memoria. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7udC0BIJcH4&t=24s
[accessed 04 February 2020].
Bibliography
Books
Brenner, A. (2002) Idols Behind Altars: Modern Mexican and Its Cultural Roots. New York: Biblo &
Tannen.
Hacker (n.d.). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.
Magazines Archives
Vogue (1937). Senoras of Mexico. United States: Vogue. Available at: https://search-proquestcom.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/vogue/docview/879224118/C59228E4919448F6PQ/1?
accountid=16461&imgSeq=1
[accessed 05 March 2020].
Websites
Allwood, J. (2016). How the Che Guevara t shirt became a global phenomenon.Dazed Digital. Available
from https://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/32208/1/how-the-che-guevara-t-shirt-became-a-global-
:
phenomenon [accessed 20 February 2020].
Cascone, S. (2019). A New Line of Frida Kahlo Makeup Seems to Have Forgotten About the Artist's
Signature Unibrow, and Her Fans Are Furious. Artnet News. Available from: https://news.artnet.com/artworld/frida-kahlo-ultra-beauty-makeup-controversy-1603084
[accessed 12 October
2019].
Collazo, J. (2015). Would Frida Kahlo Hate How Her Image Gets Used Today?. Remezcla. Available
from: http://remezcla.com/features/culture/frida-kahlo-hate-image-gets-used-today/
[accessed 8 October 2019].
Edwards, J. (2019). The Moustache that Went Missing – The Censorship of Frida Kahlo’s Facial Hair.
The Golovine Available at: https://thegolovine.wordpress.com/2019/04/11/the-moustache-that-went-missingthe-censorship-of-frida-kahlos-facial-hair/
[accessed 10 October 2019]
Estiler, K. (2016). When Art Becomes Commodified, Does It Help or Hinder Originality?. Hype Beast.
Available at: https://hypebeast.com/2016/7/commodified-art-kaws-ron-english-shepard-fairey
[accessed 10 October 2019].
Grinnell College. (n.d) Subcultures & Sociology | Commodification. Grinnell College. Available at:
https://haenfler.sites.grinnell.edu/subcultural-theory-and-theorists/commodification/
[accessed 03 March 2020].
Jones, J. (2015). 1933 Article on Frida Kahlo: “Wife of the Master Mural Painter Gleefully Dabbles in
Works of Art”. Open Culture. Available at: http://www.openculture.com/2015/03/1933-article-on-frida-kahlowife-of-the-master-mural-painter-gleefully-dabbles-in-works-of-art.html
:
[accessed 08 October 2019].
Kenber, B (2011) ‘Holy relics reveal how we’ve always been devoted to the cult of celebrity’. The
Times. London, England. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=edsgbe&AN=edsgcl.253377107&site=eds-live&scope=site [Accessed 20 November 2019].
Marine, B. (2018). Frida Kahlo Would Not Have Approved of Being Turned Into a Barbie Doll. W
Magazine. Available at: https://www.wmagazine.com/story/frida-kahlo-barbie
[accessed 08 October 2019].
Marquez, E. (2015). Fridamania: Homage or Materialistic Commercialization?. Mercury Mambo.
Available at: http://mercurymambo.com/fridamania-homage-materialistic-commercialization/
[accessed 02 October 2019].
Mencimer, S. (2002). The Trouble With Frida Kahlo. Alternet. Available at:
https://www.alternet.org/2002/06/the_trouble_with_frida_kahlo/
[accessed 25 September 2019].
Miranda, C. (2014). Saving Frida Kahlo From Her Own Celebrity. ARTnews. Available at:
http://www.artnews.com/2014/07/14/saving-frida-kahlo-from-her-own-celebrity/
[accessed 10 October 2019].
Nast, C. (2019). Artist Frida Kahlo Defied Labels—And Her Work Is More Relevant Now Than Ever.
Architectural Digest. Available at: https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/frida-kahlo-exhibitions
[accessed 20 October 2019].
Peller, A (2006). Self-Portraits of a Struggle with Addiction: The Life and Paintings of Frida Kahlo.
BASIS Online. Available at: https://www.basisonline.org/2006/01/addiction-the-h.html
:
[accessed 10 March 2020].
Polonsky, N. (2014). The cult of celebrity in the world of art. [online] Cherwell. Available at:
https://cherwell.org/2014/10/08/the-cult-of-celebrity-in-the-world-of-art/
[Accessed 03 Feb. 2020].
Prasad, P. (n.d.). Commodifying Icons: The Commercialization of Frida Kahlo. [online] Compass: The
Gallatin Research Journal. Available at: https://wp.nyu.edu/compass/2018/11/13/commodifying-icons-thecommercialization-of-frida-kahlo/
[accessed 17 September 2019].
Rosas, A. (n.d). How Frida Kahlo Fused Her Mexicanness With Socialism. Google Arts and Culture.
Available at: https://artsandculture.google.com/theme/how-frida-kahlo-fused-her-mexicanness-withsocialism/7wIiyOyRt3urIA?hl=en
[accessed 04 March 2020].
Salisbury, L.(2019). Rolling Over In Her Grave, Frida Kahlo’ Trademarks and Commodified Legacy. Its
Art Law. Available at: https://itsartlaw.org/2019/08/02/rolling-over-in-her-grave-frida-kahlos-trademarks-andcommodified-legacy/ [accessed 01 March 2020].
Selvin, C. (2019). 'Imagine What Frida Would Think of This': Colorado-Based Artist Sues Frida Kahlo
Corporation for Right to Sell Dolls Depicting Famed Surrealist [Updated] Art News. Available at:
http://www.artnews.com/2019/06/07/frida-kahlo-doll-lawsuit/
[accessed 29 September 2019].
Shackleford, E. (1990). Frida Kahlo: No Feminist, New York Times. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/02/arts/l-frida-kahlo-no-feminist-864890.html
[accessed 20 February 2020].
Solá-Santiago, F. (2018). Cringeworthy 1932 Newspaper Clip Called Frida Kahlo "Wife of the Master
:
Mural Painter" Diego Rivera. Remezcla. Available at: https://remezcla.com/culture/1932-newspaper-clip-called-
frida-kahlo-wife-of-the-master-mural-painter-diego-rivera/ [Accessed 8 October 2019].
Wells, E. (2019). Holy Relics and Celebrity Mementos Put Heaven Within Reach. Aeon. Available at:
https://aeon.co/ideas/holy-relics-and-celebrity-mementos-put-heaven-within-reach
[accessed 20 November 2019].
Williams, M. (2018). Frida Kahlo – Overrated and Horrible or Brilliant and Iconic?. Woodous. Available
at: https://woodous.com/en/blog/post/5-frida-kahlo-overrated-and-horrible-or-brilliant-andiconic.html [accessed 02 October 2019].
Valentish, J. (2018). The commodification of Frida Kahlo: are we losing the artist under all that kitsch?.
The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/dec/29/the-commodification-offrida-kahlo-are-we-losing-the-artist-under-the-kitsch
[accessed 17 September 2019].
Zara, C (2012). The Myth of the Tortured Artist - and Why It’s Not a Myth. Huffington Post. Available
at: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/tortured-artists_b_1605509
[accessed 04 December 2019]
Journals
Beasley, A. (2018). For What (?) Frida Kahlo's Worth. Capstone, Washington and Lee University.
Available from: https://repository.wlu.edu/handle/11021/33972
[accessed 12 November 2019].
Budrys, V. (2006). Neurological Deficits in the Life and Works of Frida Kahlo. European Neurology,
55(1), pp.4-10. Available from: https://www.karger.com/article/fulltext/91136#
:
[accessed 20 November 2019].
[accessed 20 November 2019].
Franco, J. (2008). ‘Manhattan will be more exotic this fall’: The iconisation of Frida Kahlo. Women: A
Cultural Review, 2(3), pp.220-227 [accessed 18 October 2019].
Hackley, C and Hackley, R. A (2016) The iconicity of celebrity and the spiritual impulse, Consumption
Markets & Culture, 19:3, 269-274, DOI: 10.1080/10253866.2015.1094264. Available from
https://www-tandfonline-com.proxy.library.lincoln.ac.uk/doi/full/10.1080/10253866.2015.1094264
[accessed 16 December 2019].
Hollander, P. (2010) ‘Why the Celebrity Cult?’, Society, 47(5), pp. 388–391. Available from
https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=53479928&site=eds-live&scope=site
[accessed 20 November 2019].
Schroeder, J. (2005). The artist and the brand. European Journal of Marketing, 39(11/12), pp.12911305. [accessed 23 November 2019].
Shorthose, J. and Strange, G. (2004). The new cultural economy, the artist and the social configuration
of autonomy. Capital & Class, 28(3), pp.43-59. [accessed 23 November 2019].
Conference Proceedings
Lanka, S. and Lanka, E. (2018) The Commodification and Fetishisation of Frida Kahlo's Image. In:
Historical Materialism. London, UK, September. Sheffield, UK: SAOS. Available at:
researchgate.net/publication/327954352_The_commodification_and_fetishisation_of_Frida_Kahlo's_image [accesse
:
d 16 November 2019].