ONE LISTING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH We distinguish nine primary word classes, or parts of speech, to use the traditional term. In this overview we needn't worry about interjections (wow, ah, hello, and the like), which leaves us with eight classes. They are named and exemplified below: i ii iii iv v vi vii viii Verb Noun Adjective Adverb Determinative Preposition Coordinator Subordinator He is ill. She left early. We want to help. The dog barked. Sue won easily. I love you. He's very young. I've got a sore knee. It looks easy. She spoke clearly. You're extremely fit. He works very hard The dog barked. I've got a sore knee. We need some milk. He's in the garden. It's from your uncle. We went to Paris. We saw Kim and Pat Hurry or we'll be late. It's cheap but good. I know that it's true. Ask whether it's true. I wonder if it's true. ******* TWO GERUND PHRASES Every gerund, without exception, ends in -ing. A gerund phrase will always function as a noun. Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. Read these examples: Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion. Swimming = subject of the verb has been Francisco's first love is swimming. Swimming = subject complement of the verb is Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his friend David. Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys Francisco gives swimming all of his energy and time. Swimming = indirect object of the verb gives ************** THREE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to pick out. The problem is that all present participles also end in -ing. What is the difference? Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers. Read these examples: 1. 2. 3. 4. Solving the problem, he was deeply thinking. Having solved the problem, he went to drink something Being solved, the problem looked easy. Having been solved, the problem was found to be unrealistic. ***************** FOUR INFINITIVE PHRASES • The editor in chief of the journal decided not to accept any submission from him. • I want to have read the whole report before I answer questions about it.( perfect inf.) • The headmaster was to have presented the prize.( unrealized past) (He couldn’t come on that day and…) Different forms of infinitive phrases Perfect infinitive Progressive infinitive Perfect Progressive infinitive Passive infinitive Perfect Passive infinitive to have painted to be writing to have been writing to be written to have been written When the infinitive is placed after a noun, it functions as an adjective. The assignment to do for tonight is on page 83. The desire to succeed is strong in youth. When used after an adjective, the infinitive functions as an adjective complement. We were eager to hear about his trip. This problem is difficult to do. As an adverb, the infinitive modifies an adjective, a verb, or an entire sentence. I’m sorry to let you know that you have failed. I’m leaving now to get to class on time. To keep warm at night, you should buy an electric blanket. To be frank, snow has never excited me. *********** FIVE PHRASES For each of the first six of the word classes in chapter one there is a corresponding class of phrases whose Head belongs to that class. In the following examples, the phrase is enclosed in brackets and the Head underlined: Verb phrase She [wrote some letters]. He [is still in London]. Noun phrase [The new lodger] is here. [The boss] wants to see [you]. Adjective phrase It's getting [rather late]. I'm [glad you could come]. Adverb phrase I spoke [too soon]. It's [quite extraordinarily] good. Determinative phrase I saw [almost every] card. We've [very little] money left. Preposition phrase They're [in the garden]. He wrote a book [on sharks]. i ii iii iv v vi SIX CLAUSES Every Complex sentence is made up of two parts, the dependent and the independent clauses. I. Independent clauses A .Adjective Clause Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that modify nouns or pronouns. Examples: The guitar, which was the one Elvis used to own, was found at a garage sale. Whitey broke the law which lead to his incarceration. Jeremy, who won the lottery, now lives in Malibu. B. Adverbial clauses Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that modify verbs and verb phrases. Adverbial clauses answer questions about the verb phrase that relate to time, location, purpose, and condition. Examples: Sean will accept your invitation if you promise to let his band play. The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. Adverbial Clauses are Movable The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. Because the restaurant was closed, the hostess wouldn't seat us. The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. Wherever there is enough light, the seeds will take root. C. Noun Clauses Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a preposition. Example: Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament. Shiraz City is where Sa'di & Hafez tombs are located. Now I understand why you didn't want to attend the class. SEVEN REDUCED /ABRIDGED CLAUSES: A. How to reduce Noun Clauses: 1. Noun Clauses to Gerund Phrases: When you change noun clauses to gerund phrase, you must first change the verb in the noun clause to its- ing form ; as show in the following . Examples: 1.Full: They admit that they have problems at school. Reduced: They admit having problems at school. 2.Full: They recommend that you buy a less expensive car. Reduced: They recommend you buying a less expensive car. 3.Full: I suggested that John buys a less expensive car. Reduced: I suggested John’s buying a less expensive car. 4.Full: That the peace treaty was signed was important. Reduced: The signing of the peace treaty was important. 2. Noun Clauses to Infinitive Phrases: When you change noun clauses to infinitive phrases, you must first change the verb in the noun clause to an infinitive by adding “ to” the base form of the verb, as show in the following examples: 1.Full: He claims that is genius. Reduced: He claims to be genius. 2.Full: I ask that you go first. Reduced: I ask you to go first. B. How to reduce Adjective Clauses: Adjective clauses in which the relative pronouns are the subject of the verb may be reduced to participle phrases, as shown in the following: Examples: 1.Full: Students who arrive late will not be permitted to enter the classroom. Reduced: Students arriving late will not be permitted to enter the classroom. 2.Full: The books that were sent to me by the embassy were interesting. Reduced: The books sent to me by the embassy were interesting. Reduced participle in this way can have several forms: 1.Both action happened after the other. Full: Jack, who is taking chemistry of the first time, needs a tutor. Reduced: Jack, taking chemistry of the first time, needs a tutor. Reduced: Taking chemistry of the first time, Jack needs a tutor. 2.One action happened after the other. 1. Full: Bill, who had taken chemistry in high school, offered to help him. Reduced: Bill, having taken chemistry in high school, offered to help him. Reduced: Having taken chemistry in high school, Bill offered to help him. 2.Full: Tom, who had been unjustly fired from the dependent, sued the firm. Reduced: Tom, having been unjustly fired from the department, sued the firm. Reduced: Having been unjustly fired from the department, Tom sued the firm. 3.How to reduced Adverb clauses: Adverb clauses of time and cause may also be reduce to participle phrases. This is especially true when the subject of the adverb clauses is the same as the subject of the main clause. 1.Reduction of Adverb clauses of time. Reduction of Adverb clauses of time are most common from clauses that begin with after, before, when, whenever, and while. To make the relationship between the phrase and the independent sentence very clear, the adverbial expression of time is usually kept at the beginning of the phrase: Example: Full: While they are living in the United States, many students sign several types of contracts. Reduced: While living in the United States, many students sign several types of contracts. 2. Reduction of Adverb clauses of time. The adverbial expression of cause should not be kept when a participial reduction is mad. Example: Full: Since she had moved so many times already, she did not want to be transferred to another city to work. Reduced: Having moved so many times already, she did not want to be transferred to another city to work. EIGHT Prepositional clause To whose kindness do we owe this invitation? Whose kindness do we owe this invitation to? The rats ,for which we provided standard conditions for two weeks, were proved to be stronger. The rat, which we provided standard conditions for, was proved stronger. The rat , we provided standard conditions for, were proved stronger. (Exceptions: Notwithstanding- During) NINE ********* IT (CLEFT) It was said that all the damaged cases were discarded. It was necessary that all the data were divided into three groups. It is wise to prepare ourselves for the final exam during semester. It was the editors that considered the paper’s modifications essential. TEN WHAT (Pseudo cleft) What the author needs to do for this paper is to consider the reviewers viewpoints. What the teacher is going to say refers to all the students. ELEVEN INVERSION Inversion, also known as anastrophe, is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter. These are at the most important types of inversion: Type Examples Notes 1. neg. intro Never do I sleep. Question form is obligatory. Only at night can I study. Used with all verbs. In no way could I help you with your Japanese grammar question. This one is very common on the TOEFL and somewhat common on the GMAT and GRE. I believe that only rarely will I need your help. We need to learn the various types of words and phrases that require this type of inversion. Not until I got home did I realize that my shoes were untied. 2. intro –ed Notice that sometimes the inversion occurs right after the neg. intro form and sometimes it occurs in the next subject and verb. Found in San Francisco is Lombard Street, the so-called crookedest street in the world. Inversion is obligatory. Lost among the old tables and chairs was the priceless Victorian desk. This one is very common on the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE. Located between San Francisco and Marin County is the Golden Gate Bridge. Used with be-verbs. This type of inversion usually occurs with be-verbs, but sometimes with linking verbs. Notice that the phrase is the complement of the be-verb. 3. comparatives Cheetahs run faster than do Inversion is optional. antelopes. Used with all verbs. You speak Chinese better than do I. This form of inversion is common on the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE. Jessica is more interested in Computer Science than is Benjamin. We normally only have inversion here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects. For example, in the following two sentences, we are comparing objects, carrots and potatoes, not the subject I.: I like carrots more than I do potatoes. I like carrots more than do I like potatoes. Now, in this sentence, we are comparing subjects, I and my friend Carl: I like carrots more than does my friend Carl. 4. intro comparative Bigger than a whale is the blue whale. Inversion is obligatory. Used with be-verbs. More important than your personal statement is your GPA. No less impressive than the invention of the laser was the development of the wheel. This form is more common on the GMAT and GRE than it is on the TOEFL. Notice that we can only use this form of inversion when the verb is a be-verb since in every case, the comparative is the complement of the be-verb. Remember that less than is also a comparative. 5. as Megumi is from Japan, as is Sato. Inversion is obligatory. Used with all verbs. So-eun wants to leave early today, as does Oi. We can only use inversion if we If thrown into the water, camels can swim, as can cats. are using as for comparisons. as is one of the trickiest words in English; it can have many different meanings. 6. so… that… So happy was I that I bought flowers for everybody in class. Question form is obligatory. Used with all verbs. So quickly did she leave that we did not even realize was gone. So rarely does a comet appear visible to the naked eye that when one does, it is considered a major event. This is not so common on the TOEFL, but is fairly common on the GMAT and GRE. The so… that… clause must before the verb in for this type of inversion. 7. had, should, were for ifclauses Had I remembered John's birthday, he wouldn’t be mad at me now. Inversion is obligatory. (conditionals) Note that the word if does NOT appear in the clause when inversion is used: This is somewhat common on the TOEFL and more common on the GMAT and GRE. Had I remembered = If I had remembered This type of inversion is kind of special. Notice that we can only use this type of inversion when we are using an if-clause. In other words, if is omitted: even though the word if does not appear in the clause, we still have the meaning of an if-clause. Should you need a hand, I will be more than happy to help you. Should you need a hand = If you should need a hand Were I you, I think I would study more for your exam tomorrow. Used with all verbs. For more information, see had, should, were. Were I you = If I were you 8. there is, there are, there exists, there comes, etc. There is a good restaurant nearby. There comes a time in every person’s life when she realizes that she is responsible for her own happiness, not other Inversion is obligatory. Usually used only with these verbs. This form of inversion is common on the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE, people. Scientists hypothesize that there exists a certain type of particle that can travel faster than the speed of light. 9. the bigger, the better 10. nor Most people remember there is and there are. BUT we must also remember that there are other verbs that we can use instead of is and are. The most common ones are exist, come, and go. The closer an object is to another object, the greater is the gravity between the two objects. Question form is optional. No one has volunteered for the job, nor do we expect anyone to volunteer in the future. Inversion is obligatory. Hok-ming cannot speak Portuguese, nor can José speak Cantonese. You might see this on the adaptive TOEFL if you are scoring high and it could appear on the GMAT or GRE. The zoo regulations will not permit you to touch the animals, nor would most people advise you to do so. 11. "so do I"/ "neither do I." as well as in spoken and written English. Used with all verbs. Used with all verbs. Remember that nor is considered a conjunction, but we use it between two sentences (not between any two elements like the other conjunctions). “So do I.” Inversion is obligatory. “So can Terry.” Used with all verbs. “Neither do most people I know.” You will probably not see this on the grammar section of the TOEFL or on the GMAT or GRE.
