ONE
LISTING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
We distinguish nine primary word classes, or parts of speech, to use the traditional term. In this overview we
needn't worry about interjections (wow, ah, hello, and the like), which leaves us with eight classes. They are
named and exemplified below:
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
Verb
Noun
Adjective
Adverb
Determinative
Preposition
Coordinator
Subordinator
He is ill.
She left early.
We want to help.
The dog barked.
Sue won easily.
I love you.
He's very young.
I've got a sore knee. It looks easy.
She spoke clearly.
You're extremely fit. He works very hard
The dog barked.
I've got a sore knee. We need some milk.
He's in the garden. It's from your uncle. We went to Paris.
We saw Kim and Pat Hurry or we'll be late. It's cheap but good.
I know that it's true. Ask whether it's true. I wonder if it's true.
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TWO
GERUND PHRASES
Every gerund, without exception, ends in -ing. A gerund phrase will always function as a
noun. Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct
objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
Read these examples:
Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion.
Swimming = subject of the verb has been
Francisco's first love is swimming.
Swimming = subject complement of the verb is
Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his friend David.
Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys
Francisco gives swimming all of his energy and time.
Swimming = indirect object of the verb gives
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THREE
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to pick out. The problem is that all present participles
also end in -ing. What is the difference?
Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers.
Read these examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solving the problem, he was deeply thinking.
Having solved the problem, he went to drink something
Being solved, the problem looked easy.
Having been solved, the problem was found to be unrealistic.
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FOUR
INFINITIVE PHRASES
• The editor in chief of the journal decided not to accept any submission from him.
• I want to have read the whole report before I answer questions about it.( perfect inf.)
• The headmaster was to have presented the prize.( unrealized past) (He couldn’t come
on that day and…)
Different forms of infinitive phrases
Perfect infinitive
Progressive infinitive
Perfect Progressive infinitive
Passive infinitive
Perfect Passive infinitive
to have painted
to be writing
to have been writing
to be written
to have been written
When the infinitive is placed after a noun, it functions as an adjective.
The assignment to do for tonight is on page 83.
The desire to succeed is strong in youth.
When used after an adjective, the infinitive functions as an adjective complement.
We were eager to hear about his trip.
This problem is difficult to do.
As an adverb, the infinitive modifies an adjective, a verb, or an entire sentence.
I’m sorry to let you know that you have failed.
I’m leaving now to get to class on time.
To keep warm at night, you should buy an electric blanket.
To be frank, snow has never excited me.
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FIVE
PHRASES
For each of the first six of the word classes in chapter one there is a corresponding class of phrases whose Head
belongs to that class. In the following examples, the phrase is enclosed in brackets and the Head underlined:
Verb phrase
She [wrote some letters]. He [is still in London].
Noun phrase
[The new lodger] is here. [The boss] wants to see [you].
Adjective phrase
It's getting [rather late].
I'm [glad you could come].
Adverb phrase
I spoke [too soon].
It's [quite extraordinarily] good.
Determinative phrase I saw [almost every] card. We've [very little] money left.
Preposition phrase
They're [in the garden].
He wrote a book [on sharks].
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
SIX
CLAUSES
Every Complex sentence is made up of two parts, the dependent and the independent clauses.
I. Independent clauses
A .Adjective Clause
Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that modify nouns or pronouns.
Examples:



The guitar, which was the one Elvis used to own, was found at a garage sale.
Whitey broke the law which lead to his incarceration.
Jeremy, who won the lottery, now lives in Malibu.
B. Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that modify verbs and verb phrases. Adverbial clauses
answer questions about the verb phrase that relate to time, location, purpose, and condition.
Examples:
Sean will accept your invitation if you promise to let his band
play.
The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light.
The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed.
Adverbial Clauses are Movable
The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed.
Because the restaurant was closed, the hostess wouldn't seat us.
The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light.
Wherever there is enough light, the seeds will take root.
C. Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs.
They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause
functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a preposition.
Example:
Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.
Shiraz City is where Sa'di & Hafez tombs are located.
Now I understand why you didn't want to attend the class.
SEVEN
REDUCED /ABRIDGED CLAUSES:
A. How to reduce Noun Clauses:
1. Noun Clauses to Gerund Phrases:
When you change noun clauses to gerund phrase, you must first change the verb in the noun
clause to its- ing form ; as show in the following .
Examples:
1.Full: They admit that they have problems at school.
Reduced: They admit having problems at school.
2.Full: They recommend that you buy a less expensive car.
Reduced: They recommend you buying a less expensive car.
3.Full: I suggested that John buys a less expensive car.
Reduced: I suggested John’s buying a less expensive car.
4.Full: That the peace treaty was signed was important.
Reduced: The signing of the peace treaty was important.
2. Noun Clauses to Infinitive Phrases:
When you change noun clauses to infinitive phrases, you must first change the verb in the
noun clause to an infinitive by adding “ to” the base form of the verb, as show in the
following examples:
1.Full: He claims that is genius.
Reduced: He claims to be genius.
2.Full: I ask that you go first.
Reduced: I ask you to go first.
B. How to reduce Adjective Clauses:
Adjective clauses in which the relative pronouns are the subject of the verb may be reduced to
participle phrases, as shown in the following:
Examples:
1.Full: Students who arrive late will not be permitted to enter the classroom.
Reduced: Students arriving late will not be permitted to enter the classroom.
2.Full: The books that were sent to me by the embassy were interesting.
Reduced: The books sent to me by the embassy were interesting.
Reduced participle in this way can have several forms:
1.Both action happened after the other.
Full: Jack, who is taking chemistry of the first time, needs a tutor.
Reduced: Jack, taking chemistry of the first time, needs a tutor.
Reduced: Taking chemistry of the first time, Jack needs a tutor.
2.One action happened after the other.
1. Full: Bill, who had taken chemistry in high school, offered to help him.
Reduced: Bill, having taken chemistry in high school, offered to help him.
Reduced: Having taken chemistry in high school, Bill offered to help him.
2.Full: Tom, who had been unjustly fired from the dependent, sued the firm.
Reduced: Tom, having been unjustly fired from the department, sued the firm.
Reduced: Having been unjustly fired from the department, Tom sued the firm.
3.How to reduced Adverb clauses:
Adverb clauses of time and cause may also be reduce to participle phrases. This is especially
true when the subject of the adverb clauses is the same as the subject of the main clause.
1.Reduction of Adverb clauses of time.
Reduction of Adverb clauses of time are most common from clauses that begin with after,
before, when, whenever, and while. To make the relationship between the phrase and the
independent sentence very clear, the adverbial expression of time is usually kept at the
beginning of the phrase:
Example:
Full: While they are living in the
United States, many students sign several types of contracts.
Reduced: While living in the United States, many students sign several types of contracts.
2. Reduction of Adverb clauses of time.
The adverbial expression of cause should not be kept when a participial reduction is mad.
Example:
Full: Since she had moved so many times already, she did not want to be transferred to
another city to work.
Reduced: Having moved so many times already, she did not want to be transferred to
another city to work.
EIGHT
Prepositional clause
To whose kindness do we owe this invitation?
Whose kindness do we owe this invitation to?
The rats ,for which we provided standard conditions for two weeks, were proved to be
stronger.
The rat, which we provided standard conditions for, was proved stronger.
The rat , we provided standard conditions for, were proved stronger.
(Exceptions: Notwithstanding- During)
NINE
*********
IT (CLEFT)
It was said that all the damaged cases were discarded.
It was necessary that all the data were divided into three groups.
It is wise to prepare ourselves for the final exam during semester.
It was the editors that considered the paper’s modifications essential.
TEN
WHAT (Pseudo cleft)
What the author needs to do for this paper is to consider the reviewers viewpoints.
What the teacher is going to say refers to all the students.
ELEVEN
INVERSION
Inversion, also known as anastrophe, is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is
reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter.
These are at the most important types of inversion:
Type
Examples
Notes
1. neg. intro
Never do I sleep.
Question form is obligatory.
Only at night can I study.
Used with all verbs.
In no way could I help you
with your Japanese grammar
question.
This one is very common on the
TOEFL and somewhat common
on the GMAT and GRE.
I believe that only rarely will I
need your help.
We need to learn the various types
of words and phrases that require
this type of inversion.
Not until I got home did I
realize that my shoes were
untied.
2. intro –ed
Notice that sometimes the
inversion occurs right after the
neg. intro form and sometimes it
occurs in the next subject and
verb.
Found in San Francisco is
Lombard Street, the so-called
crookedest street in the world.
Inversion is obligatory.
Lost among the old tables and
chairs was the priceless
Victorian desk.
This one is very common on the
TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE.
Located between San
Francisco and Marin County is
the Golden Gate Bridge.
Used with be-verbs.
This type of inversion usually
occurs with be-verbs, but
sometimes with linking verbs.
Notice that the phrase is the
complement of the be-verb.
3. comparatives
Cheetahs run faster than do
Inversion is optional.
antelopes.
Used with all verbs.
You speak Chinese better than
do I.
This form of inversion is common
on the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE.
Jessica is more interested in
Computer Science than is
Benjamin.
We normally only have inversion
here if we are comparing subjects
of the verb, not objects. For
example, in the following two
sentences, we are comparing
objects, carrots and potatoes, not
the subject I.:
 I like carrots more than I do
potatoes. 
 I like carrots more than do I like
potatoes. 
Now, in this sentence, we are
comparing subjects, I and my
friend Carl:
 I like carrots more than does my
friend Carl. 
4. intro
comparative
Bigger than a whale is the
blue whale.
Inversion is obligatory.
Used with be-verbs.
More important than your
personal statement is your
GPA.
No less impressive than the
invention of the laser was the
development of the wheel.
This form is more common on the
GMAT and GRE than it is on the
TOEFL.
Notice that we can only use this
form of inversion when the verb is
a be-verb since in every case, the
comparative is the complement of
the be-verb.
Remember that less than is also a
comparative.
5. as
Megumi is from Japan, as is
Sato.
Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
So-eun wants to leave early
today, as does Oi.
We can only use inversion if we
If thrown into the water,
camels can swim, as can cats.
are using as for comparisons.
as is one of the trickiest words in
English; it can have many
different meanings.
6. so… that…
So happy was I that I bought
flowers for everybody in class.
Question form is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
So quickly did she leave that
we did not even realize was
gone.
So rarely does a comet appear
visible to the naked eye that
when one does, it is considered
a major event.
This is not so common on the
TOEFL, but is fairly common on
the GMAT and GRE.
The so… that… clause must
before the verb in for this type of
inversion.
7. had, should,
were for ifclauses
Had I remembered John's
birthday, he wouldn’t be mad
at me now.
Inversion is obligatory.
(conditionals)
Note that the word if does NOT
appear in the clause when
inversion is used:
This is somewhat common on the
TOEFL and more common on the
GMAT and GRE.
Had I remembered = If I had
remembered
This type of inversion is kind of
special. Notice that we can only
use this type of inversion when we
are using an if-clause. In other
words, if is omitted: even though
the word if does not appear in the
clause, we still have the meaning
of an if-clause.
Should you need a hand, I will
be more than happy to help
you.
Should you need a hand = If
you should need a hand
Were I you, I think I would
study more for your exam
tomorrow.
Used with all verbs.
For more information, see had,
should, were.
Were I you = If I were you
8. there is, there
are, there exists,
there comes, etc.
There is a good restaurant
nearby.
There comes a time in every
person’s life when she realizes
that she is responsible for her
own happiness, not other
Inversion is obligatory.
Usually used only with these
verbs.
This form of inversion is common
on the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE,
people.
Scientists hypothesize that
there exists a certain type of
particle that can travel faster
than the speed of light.
9. the bigger,
the better
10. nor
Most people remember there is
and there are. BUT we must also
remember that there are other
verbs that we can use instead of is
and are. The most common ones
are exist, come, and go.
The closer an object is to
another object, the greater is
the gravity between the two
objects.
Question form is optional.
No one has volunteered for the
job, nor do we expect anyone
to volunteer in the future.
Inversion is obligatory.
Hok-ming cannot speak
Portuguese, nor can José speak
Cantonese.
You might see this on the adaptive
TOEFL if you are scoring high
and it could appear on the GMAT
or GRE.
The zoo regulations will not
permit you to touch the
animals, nor would most
people advise you to do so.
11. "so do I"/
"neither do I."
as well as in spoken and written
English.
Used with all verbs.
Used with all verbs.
Remember that nor is considered a
conjunction, but we use it between
two sentences (not between any
two elements like the other
conjunctions).
“So do I.”
Inversion is obligatory.
“So can Terry.”
Used with all verbs.
“Neither do most people I
know.”
You will probably not see this on
the grammar section of the
TOEFL or on the GMAT or GRE.