Chapter One
1.1
Background to the study
Adolescence is defined as a stage of development that lasts a long time, nominally defined as
between eleven to twenty-one years old (21) (Adeusi, 2013). Adolescence is the stage of life
that occurs between childhood and adulthood. It is distinguished by changes in the body,
intellect, and social interactions; in other words, the transition is as much social as it is
biological. Between the beginning of sexual maturation (puberty) and adulthood comes
adolescence. It is a period of psychological development during which a person's behaviour
becomes more "adult-like." According to Andrew, Foulkes& Blakemore (2020), adolescence
is the period of life between ages 10 and 24 years, is often associated with increased risk
taking, an increased need for social connection and peer acceptance, and a heightened
sensitivity to peer influence. Blackmore (2019) viewed adolescence as the time hallmarked
by change: changes to hormones and the body, changes in the social environment, and
changes to the brain and the mind
The well-being of theadolescent has a big impact on a country's future. Adolescents have
always been difficult to deal with for both parents and experts. According to Henderson
(2009) the exact cause of a behavioural disorder such as anti-social behaviour is unknown,
but a number of factors such as genetic or biological factors, family, parental, child abuse,
peer pressure, socioeconomic status, lack of supervision, inconsistent discipline, and
environmental factors may all play a role in its development. According to the American
Psychiatric Association (APA) (2007), anti-social behaviour is defined as a pattern of
behaviour that infringes others' rights or violates significant age-appropriate societal norms or
rules have been broken. Anti-social behaviour, according to Adeusi (2013), is a long-term
repeated pattern of behavioural disturbance that violates people's basic rights and displays no
regard for others' property. It was also discovered that terms such as disorderliness,
1
rebelliousness, and deception are all highly linked to anti-social behaviour.Research has
indicated that the prevalence of anti-social behaviour peaks during the adolescent period.
Antisocial behaviour, personality disorder or conduct disorder, a term synonymous with
delinquency was defined by Wachikwu and Ibegbunam (2012) as crimes committed by
young people below the age of eighteen years usually characterized by violation of existing
social norms and values.Antisocial behaviour in adolescents usually persist to a large extent
and manifests in adult criminal activities (Hanrahan, 2006). Hence, a high rate of antisocial
behaviour among the adolescents gives rise to a corresponding high rate of criminal activities.
This probably explains the high crime wave prevalent in our society in recent times as both
adult and adolescent criminals through their nefarious activities create the following
unpalatable conditions in the country.
Scholars, counselors, academics, policymakers, and other professionals have been
increasingly concerned about the rising frequency of anti-social behaviours among Nigerian
youth. These stakeholders have never stopped talking about the anti-social behaviour and its
consequences for young adults and the general public. However, the issue of antisocialbehaviour among adolescents persists. Anti-social behaviour is a big concern in any
community, and our society is no exception. Anti-social behaviour is a worldwide problem
that requires immediate response. Deviance or criminality is unavoidable in any community
where there is an acceptable way of life or behaviour (Antwi, 2016). Deviance and crime are
seen as a threat to the peace that people of a society or country enjoy (Bernburg, 2019). Aside
from the slow moral deterioration that criminals endure when they engage in deviance and
violence, there is also a huge economic cost to the nation dealing with criminal issues. Many
individuals are concerned about the training of these criminal children as a result of this
delinquent deed perpetrated by young people. As a result, anti-social behaviour is one of the
most serious societal problems that all countries face. The reason for this is because nearly
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50% of the world population are youths and children. There are 1.2 billion 15 to 24 years old
in the world and one billion in developing countries. This is often referred to as the ‘youth
bulge’ as young people constitute a high and peaking proportion of many populations. The
youth bulge represents both a challenge and an opportunity for development (Odoh, Eugene
&Eme, 2014).
These range from disregard for community safety, such as reckless driving or intoxicated and
disorderly behaviour, to misuses of public space, including fighting or drug usage and
dealing. According to Gale Encyclopaedia of Children's Health (2018), a child's temperament
and irritability, cognitive ability, level of involvement with troubled peers, exposure to
violence, and lack of cooperative problem-solving abilities all have an impact on their
antisocial behaviour. This could also have effect on the grownups in the society as many
adolescent becomes delinquent, disobedient and unruly which was noted by Crawford (2009)
saying the preoccupation with governing anti-social behaviour has foregrounded a concern
with (adult) perceptions of insecurity as an important object of policy in its own right and a
focus on early and pre-emptive intervention, to forestall the potential escalation of bad
behaviour at both an individual and community level.
One of the most significant and influential figures in a child's life are their parents. The most
crucial factor in a child's social development, according to Kumpfer and Magalhes (2018), is
their parents. Parents play a crucial impact in their children's behaviour as a socializer and a
controlling force. Monitoring plays a key role in parental control. To ensure that children
adhere to social standards and values, parents must strengthen their child's instruction and
adopt the necessary parenting techniques. Parenting styles are the methods parents use to
instruct, nurture, and direct their children.Spera (2005) is of the opinion that adolescents
interact with and are influenced by multiple socialization agents, including their parents. Bi,
yang, Wang, Zhang &Deater-Deckard(2018) speaking about parenting style and adolescents
3
use of drugs, noted that there are four types of parenting styles which was identified as
authoritative, neglectful, indulgent and authoritarian, and all these parenting styles plays
significant functions in the attitude and behaviour of adolescents to drugs. The adolescents
anti-social behaviour as influenced by several factors has become a problem identified in the
society and for this purposes a remedial initiative was put in place in order to bring correction
and curb such behaviours and for this purpose correctional facilities was set up.
Correctional facilities are physical structures in a geographical location where a number of
people living under highly specialized condition, adjust to the alternatives presented to them
by the unique kind of social environments. Okunola (1986) conceived correctional facilities
as a place where people are highly secluded from the rest of the world with entirely new
order and control. This conceptualizations advanced by scholars are limited towards
understanding that, prison is a physical environment and could be described geographically
or spatially.
Correctional facilities are delivered traditionally as government-owned and governmentoperated facilities as it applies to Nigeria or alternatively as government using the private
sector as a mechanism for procuring prison facilities as in developed countries like Australia,
USA, and UK, etc (Love, Wood, Picken&Confoy, 2000). Correctional facilities are unique in
design and construction, usually surrounded by fencing, walls or other barriersin order to
control movement and activity of inmates within the facility (Wikipedia, 2014). Indeed,
correctional facilities must be secured, effective and fit for purpose. They should be safe from
attack and compliant with current legalization while meeting the standard requirements
regarding health, ventilation, floor space, heat and lighting (UNODC, 2014).
Correctional facilities comprise of accommodation that allows access to the person with a
disability and should have flexible accommodation layout that allows for fluctuations in the
4
numbers of inmates as well as their classification and status. There must also be facilities for
visitors and children in custody, library and educational facilities, mail rooms, telephone
rooms, prison store, furniture, supply of potable water, secured physical perimeter space,
contraband facilities, and security post, as well as kitchen layout design that allows for
observation of staff activity (Consoli, 2005)
Correctional facilities are intended to assist young individuals in self-reform and
rehabilitation. Remand homes are the term used to describe adolescent correctional facilities
in Nigeria's Children and Young Persons Law (Adeyeye&Ogunwuyi, 2021). According to
Nigerian law, a kid who has broken the criminal law or the children and young people's law
is considered aadolescent delinquent. According to Alemika and Chukwuma (2011), there are
three categories of individuals that can be brought before aadolescent court. They include
minors who have been charged with crimes, minors who require care and protection, and
minors who are not being watched after by their parents. These are the kinds of kids who
require rehabilitation in a jail or prison. A correctional home is a place created to help with
healing, reconstruction and reintegration of inmates.
Specialists who have obtained training in the fields of deviant rehabilitation and reform
supervise the youngsters. Observations suggest that the goal of placing them in those
homeshave been unsuccessful because some of the teenagers leave the institutions with a
harder exterior. It might occur as a result of using untrained personnel or inexperienced
handling. Inmates will benefit greatly and be better equipped to reintegrate back into society
when intervention programs are provided and implemented by professionals in accordance
with specifications. When intervention programs are implemented with the intention of
altering behaviour and bolstering competencies like self-regulation, it is also not difficult to
live a better, safer, and more successful life (Adeyeye&Ogunwuyi, 2021).
5
According to Berkman (2015), a self-regulation technique is a set of actions that periodically
directs a person's behaviour in a way that promotes the development or improvement of a
goal or purpose. The ability to alter and govern one's vigor, feelings, behaviour, and
development of consciousness in order to carry out tasks in socially acceptable ways when
confronted with provocation is known as self-regulation method, also known as self-control.
For young people, self-regulation is crucial because it gives them power or control over their
behaviour and helps them make moral judgments (Adeyeye&Ogunwuyi, 2021).
Young adults in correctional facilities might benefit from self-regulation techniques that can
help curb undesirable behaviour. Young adults who are not taught how to control their
emotions, ideas, and behaviour depend on others, such as friends, instructors, parents, and
adults, to make decisions for them and frequently choose bad decisions that get them into
trouble. Adolescents who have self-regulation skills are better able to control their anger and
comprehend why certain things are off limits because of their religious, familial, or cultural
backgrounds. With sufficient self-control abilities, young adults may handle challenging
circumstances and develop tolerance, especially during a time when violence seems to be the
norm. Young adults' antisocial behaviour is also influenced by other factors, including socioeconomic position.
The drug use histories of whose parents can have a negative impact on young people from
low socioeconomic backgrounds. For instance, a study found that a child from a low socioeconomic background with positive parent drug use history is more likely to engage in risky
anti-social behaviour than a child without a negative parental drug-dependent history
(Witorsch&Witorsch, 2000). Not that drug addicts can't be loving parents; far from it.
Furthermore, compared to other young people, children of drug addicts are more likely to
participate in risky deviant behaviour (Street, Harrington, Chiang, Cairns & Ellis, 2004).
6
Numerous studies have found that children from low socio-economic status (SES)
households have higher prevalence rates or mean symptom counts of behavioural disorders
(Miller, Yu, Chen & Brody, 2015). The strength of the association between socioeconomic
factors and antisocial behaviour measures has, however, varied greatly among studies and has
not always been found. Previous reviews have examined the relationship between SES and
child development, among these studies was a meta-analysis (Letourneau, Duffet-Leger,
Levac, Watson, & Young-Morris, 2013).
In order to achieve long-term sustainability, it is necessary to find a multilateral stakeholder
solution to any social development problem, including gender-related problems (Etuk and
Etuk 2011). NGOs, also known as non-profit, voluntary, independent, civil society, or citizen
organizations, collaborate with the government and profit-based business to provide social
services for the benefit of society. As a result, the third sector includes NGOs. NGOs develop
as a result of experiences, passions, and ideas as well as a natural drive to address or satisfy
social problems or desires. NGOs can be multinational, national, regional, or communitybased, depending on their financial resources, networking capabilities, and goals
(Omofonmwan and Odia 2009). They perform their roles through collaboration and
partnership with donor organisation and networking with other NGOs. The NGOs have been
described as one of the most significant forces in the field of development assistance
(Todaro& Smith, 2009).Non-governmental organizations, or NGOs, were first called such in
Article 71 in the Charter of the newly formed United Nations in 1945. While NGOs have no
fixed or formal definition, they are generally defined as nonprofit entities independent of
governmental influence (although they may receive government funding).The difference
between nonprofit organizations (NPOs) and NGOs is slim. Generally, the NGO label is
given to organizations operating on an international level although some countries classify
their own civil society groups as NGOs (Candid learning, 2020).
7
NGO activities include, but are not limited to, environmental, social, advocacy and human
rights work. They can work to promote social or political change on a broad scale or very
locally. NGOs play a critical part in developing society, improving communities, and
promoting citizen participation (Candid learning, 2020).
NGOs can speak for particular national and international organizations with interests as
varied as emergency relief, child health protection, boosting food production, advancing
women's rights, eradicating poverty, preserving the environment, and offering rural credit to
small farmers and regional enterprises. NGOs construct homes, hospitals, schools, and roads.
NGOs carry out research on boosting farm yields, work in family planning clinics and
refugee camps, and teach in classrooms and colleges (Brienkerhoff, Smith and Teegen,
2007). NGOs include associations of devoted physicians, nurses, engineers, agricultural
scientists, and economists as well as religious organizations, for-profit foundations and
charities, and research organizations. Native NGOs are increasingly seen as taking the lead in
actions for development in African nations (Omofonmwan and Odia, 2009).
In particular, the NGOs' contributions to the participatory approach to community
development demonstrate the value of their relationship. NGOs worldwide perform a wide
range of services aimed towards human wellbeing and social welfare. These organizations
relentlessly work towards development and bringing a positive change in the society. NGOs
may have different structures, activities and policies, but all NGOs are committed towards
their cause and perform their functions to achieve their respective goals.NGOs facilitate
government policies to reach remote areas and enhance the overall effectiveness of social
welfare schemes. NGOs perform a variety of services for social wellbeing either through
implementing development projects or through policy advocacy (Funds for NGO, 2022).
8
Nigeria has a significant number of NGOs working in the development sector. This is viewed
as a promising sign for reducing poverty. NGOs can aid in the mobilization of resources
outside of the governmental budget for development projects. However, this study seeks to
examine their role in combating anti-social behaviours as it relates to young adults who are
residing in correctional facilities. Domestic violence, harmful traditions and cultural
practices, such as widowhood practices, early and forceful marriages, male-child preferences,
sexual abuse, and many others have been among the anti-social behaviours that NGOs in
Nigeria have helped to combat thus far (Idowu&Muhammed, 2019).
In view of the above, the study seeks to examine the combined role of self-regulation, socioeconomic status and NGO participationin the management of anti-social behaviour of young
adults.
1.2
Statement of the problem
The increasing number of anti-social behaviours among adolescents in Nigeria has attracted
the attention of scholars, counselors, researchers, policy makers and other professionals.
These stakeholders relentlessly have not failed to discuss the non-conforming behaviours
among adolescents and the attending effects on the adolescents and the public in general.
However, the problem of non-conforming behaviours among adolescents still lingers. These
adolescents can be easily misled through role play, imitation and teaching of wrong
behaviour in their physical and social environments. Consequently, adolescents are usually
faced with several challenges such as coping with peer pressure, cyber addiction, academic
achievement, self-esteem, poverty, drug addiction, sexual risky behavior amongst others that
could impede their abilities to live a sound and meaningful life.This study seeks to find out
the impact of the socio-economic status of adolescents on their anti-social behaviour.
Correctional homes are structured to assist the juveniles in terms of reformation and
rehabilitation through several intervention programmes put in place in order to ensure
9
adjustment. This study seeks to find out if self regulation as intervention strategy would be
able to help in curbing the anti-social behaviours of adolescents in correctional homes. The
study also seeks to check the impact of the contributions from NGOs on these anti-social
behaviour.
1.3
Purpose of the Study
Having observed the impact of self-regulation as well socio-economic status on the antisocial behaviour of young adults, this study seeks to introduce another variable which will be
examined in the management of anti-social behaviour of young adults and that is the impact
of Non-governmental organizations (NGO).
1.4
Aim and Objectives
The aim of the study is to analyze the effect of self-regulation, socio-economic status and
NGO input (intervention) on anti-social behaviour of young adults in correctional homes in
Lagos state. To achieve this aim, the following objectives are outlined
1. To find out the anti-social behaviour common among the young adults in correctional
homes in Lagos state.
2. To identify the factors responsible for the anti-social behaviours among young adults
in correctional homes in Lagos state.
3. To examine the effect of self-regulation on anti-social behaviour among young adults
in correctional homes in Lagos State.
4. To examine the effect of socio-economic status on anti-social behaviour among young
adults in correctional homes in Lagos State.
5. To examine the effect of NGO input on anti-social behaviour among young adults in
correctional homes in Lagos State.
1.4
Research Questions
10
The study will be guided by the following questions.
1. What are the anti-social behaviour common among the young adults in correctional
homes in Lagos State?
2. What are the factors responsible for the anti-social behaviour common among the
young adults in correctional homes in Lagos State?
3. What is the effect of self-regulation on anti-social behaviour among young adults in
correctional homes in Lagos State?
4. What is the effect of socio-economic status on anti-social behaviour among young
adults in correctional homes in Lagos State?
5. What is the effect of NGO input on anti-social behaviour among young adults in
correctional homes in Lagos State?
1.5
Research Hypotheses
H01: Self-regulationhas no significant effect on anti-social behaviour among young adults in
correctional homes in Lagos State.
H02: Socio-economic status has no significant effect on anti-social behaviour among young
adults in correctional homes in Lagos State.
H03: NGO input has no significant effect on anti-social behaviour among young adults in
correctional homes in Lagos State,
1.6 Significance of the study
This research will be extremely useful in informing policymakers in the Federal Ministry of
YouthDevelopment, Ministries of Youth, Sports, and Social Development, Women Affairs,
Labor, Employment Agencies, and Non-Governmental Organizations on how to best address
11
the psychosocial problems that children in correctional facilities face. Additionally, it would
support the youngsters in the community in finding productive employment after they leave
the centers, reducing the occurrence of youth anti-social behaviour. Identifying young people
who would be active agents of change in the country and employing them as role models for
other young people would also be aided by this.As a result of despondency brought on by
remand at the centers, there ought to be fewer students quitting school. Youths who want to
pursue vocational training or return to school will be supported and given the tools they need
to move forward and contribute to their communities. People will see the importance of
seeking funding for their education at any level. Because they are in a better position to
understand issues as they influence their wellbeing, young people may even be selected as
ministers to manage the Federal Ministry of Youth Development.
The adolescentsthemselves will benefit much by learning how to efficiently handle their
issues while on remand and prepare for life after institutionalization. The teenagers would
start to have a more positive self-perception and the willpower to benefit both themselves and
society as a whole.
An idle mind is the devil's workshop, as the saying goes, therefore this study would also be
extremely helpful to government officials in their efforts to create effective governance,
which would assist lower the rate of poverty in the society by providing appropriate jobs to
the teeming youths. Adolescent antisocial behaviour has been linked to poverty as the root
cause of all child abandonment and suffering. It will provide counselling psychologists with
empirical data on the profiles of children in correctional centres in Lagos State. Finally it will
contribute to the body of knowledge.
12
1.7
Limitation of the Study
Like every other research, this study would have its own limitations. Considering the
sensitivity of the type of issues raised in the in order to protect their identity might have a
need to conceal some information. However, the researcher hopes that this will not be a
barrier to properly carry out the research.
Delimitation of the Study
The study will be delimited to the following factors

The use of survey research design

The use of multistage sampling technique

The use of questionnaire for data collection

The use of linear regression for data analysis.

The study will be restricted to Lagos only because of time as well as financial
constraint.
1.8
Operational Definition of Terms
Adolescence: Adolescence is defined as a stage of development that lasts a long time ten (10)
years, which is nominally defined as eleven (11) to twenty-one (21) years old
Anti-social behaviour: Anti-social behaviour is defined as a pattern of behaviour that
infringes others' rights or violates significant age-appropriate societal norms or rules have
been broken
Correctional Home: Facilities that are intended to assist young individuals in self-reform
and rehabilitation. These facilities are either government owned or private establishment.
Self-Regulation: This is a process that is concerned with what individuals choose to do and
how they go about trying to accomplish their goals
13
Non-governmental organization: NGOs, are independent, civil society, or citizen
organizations, collaborate with the government and profit-based business to provide social
services for the benefit of society
14
Chapter Two
2.1
Literature Review
Self-regulation is a broad concept encompassing a number of interdependent aspects. It
includes both affective capacities – moods, feelings and emotions – and cognitive capacities –
beliefs, perceptions and knowledge. Learning and attainment are best understood when we
acknowledge the interactions between affective and cognitive processes. Self-regulation also
includes metacognitive skills – that is, understanding one’s own cognitive skills, including
memory, attention and problemsolving. This enables learners to make the best use of their
knowledge and skills (Duckworth, Akerman, MacGregor, Salter &Vorhaus, 2009).
Self-regulation has recently been the subject of many studies. Wills, Simons, Sussman, and
Knight (2015) found that learners with low self-regulation perform poorly regardless of the
type of constraints they face when making decisions, ordering tasks, and keeping up with
learning events. In contrast, learners with high self-regulation perform well in all situations.
There is little doubt that self-direction favorably influences academic success as well as a
positive commitment to student behaviour, teaching, and self-belief (Duckworth, Akerman,
MacGregor, Salter &Vorhaus, 2009).
15
Research findings from Wills, et al. (2015) shows that self-regulation makes younger youths
feel more helpless in the face of substance use. Direct links between emotional self-control
and wellbeing and behavioural self-control were discovered in a sample of 3561 young
people with a mean age of 12.5 years old. Eniola (2007) examined the effects of two goals on
resolving aggressive behaviour in immaturity with visual improvement: emotional
intelligence following and self-direction preparation. The factorial used in the study is 3x2x2.
Forty-eight teenagers with vision impairment are the participants. The findings showed that
training in emotional intelligence and self-regulation had an impact on the participants'
aggressive behaviour.It was further discovered that the two therapies were effective methods
for changing behaviour and that they helped visually impaired teenagers exhibit less
disruptive behaviour. The process of self-control of behaviour of minors living in children's
homes with reference to peer pressure and issue conduct was the topic of the study by
Novakova and Vavrova (2015). The participants (N=15) are adolescent boys and girls
between the ages of fifteen and eighteen. The study is grounded in a useful qualitative
research methodology (phenomenological approach). The results showed a high level of selfregulation in circumstances where internal sentiments of wrongdoing are present.
According to a different perspective presented by Peterson and Seligman (2004), a child's
ability to regulate or manage his own emotions, thoughts, and behaviours is known as a selfregulation method. Children that have a strong self-control approach will be able to control
their emotions and not lose their temper easily. Whether or whether they reflect the
adolescent's realization, therapeutic improvements will occur, and the adolescent will be able
to establish strategies to accomplish them (Lampropoulos and Spengler, 2005). Moments in a
teen's regular life, including talking to a friend, watching a movie or reading a book, or even
having an odd incident, have a range of effects on us.These experiences can lead to a variety
of changes, including emotional responses, epiphanies, revelations, processing of crucial
16
information, and other changes—many of which are also objectives of conventional therapy.
Bell, Hagedorn& Robinson (2016) asserts that activities found in books can be used to
address adolescents' nonconforming behaviour.
Socioeconomic status is a factor that has been studied in relation to adolescent nonconforming behaviour. Socio-economic status according to Kumar, Panesar, Talwar, Raut,
Singh (2015) is the mix of socioeconomic factors that affect access to, acceptance of, and use
of the educational and medical facilities that are accessible as well as their affordability is
known as socioeconomic status.
The socioeconomic situation of the parents (including the family's environment, income,
educational attainment of the parents, and manner of life) has a significant impact on how
their children behave and how they develop as people (Singh and Singh, 2014). Moneyrelated status is a measure of one's employment, family's financial situation, and social
standing in comparison to others in terms of wage, education, and occupation (American
Psychological Association, 2012).Socioeconomic status suggests a deep understanding of
how society works; it refers to a person's place in the social hierarchy of importance and
frequently to the opportunities that person will have in life (Smith, 2011). A significant
element affecting quality of life over the lifespan is socioeconomic status, which also directly
affects family well-being, educational outcomes, physical and mental health, and
psychological wellness (APA, 2017).Income, education, and occupation are the three primary
socioeconomic status indicators, and all three are interrelated and do not overlap.
According to a review by Hoskins (2014), socioeconomic position has a significant influence
on both parents' psychological functioning, which in turn influences parenting style, and
adolescents' social and emotional functioning. According to the study, fathers with lower
socioeconomic status are less involved in their children's upbringing and are more restrictive
17
and punitive toward them. Futhermore Hoskins (2014) noted that they also engage in more
severe punishment, use an authoritarian style of parenting, and engage in more harsh
discipline than fathers with higher socioeconomic status. Mothers in both socioeconomic
category categories could be seen doing this.Furthermore, it is significant that overindulgent
parenting is linked to poor teenage outcomes in families with high socioeconomic status.
According to research by Lansford, Deter-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, and Pettit (2004), people
who overindulge reported having negative consequences, such as not having their emotional
needs addressed even as adults. But according to a study by Agnew, Matthew, Bucher,
Welcher, and Keyes (2008), the link between socioeconomic level and non-conforming
behaviour is not as substantial as the dominant crime theory suggests. In their research, it was
stated that rather than the socioeconomic concerns linked to socioeconomic position
causating non-conforming behaviour in adolescents, such theory rather predicted the opposite
(Ling, 2013).
Inhibiting or preventing non-conforming behaviours is the result of a confluence of various
circumstances and socioeconomic level. Family socioeconomic position is a significant
predictor of adolescents' non-conforming behaviour(Derzon, 2009). According to Hoeve,
Smeenk, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Van der Laan, Gerris, and Dubas (2008), Nwankwo
(2003), and Agbaje (2011), parental attitude and child supervision are more important in
shaping children's conduct than the socioeconomic level of their parents.
Ekpo and Ajake (2013) found that understudy guidance's financial situation had an impact on
their kids' behaviour in their study of the relationship between parental education level and
misbehaviour among optional school students in Calabar South, Cross River State, Nigeria.
Because to poverty, adversity, educational underachievement, impaired socio-emotional
development, school disengagement, and offending peers, non-conforming behaviours are
more prevalent in underprivileged communities (Dearing, McCartney and Taylor, 2006).
18
2.2
Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 Self-Regulation Theory
Self-regulation models are concerned with what individuals choose to do and how they go
about trying to accomplish their goals. In more formal terms, we can distinguish three
components of the self-regulation process: (1) goal selection, (2) preparation for action, and
(3) a cybernetic cycle of behavior (made up of several component processes) (Markus
&Wurf, 1987).
1. Goal Selection
The first stage in the self-regulation process is the goal-selection stage. Before they can
effectively regulate their behavior, people must select a goal; they must decide what they
intend to do. Many motivational theorists assume that goals arise in the context of an
expectancyvalue framework (Atkinson, 1964; Rotter, 1954). Expectancy-value models
assume that people select goals according to their expectancy of reaching the goal, in
conjunction with the positive value they place on attaining the goal and the negative
value they place on not attaining the goal. The idea here is really quite simple. If, for
example, there is a need to predict whether a person will adopt getting a Ph.D. in
psychology as a goal, there is a need to know how likely the person thought it was that
she would successfully complete the Ph.D. requirements and the value she places on
receiving versus not receiving a Ph.D.
2. Preparation for Action
Having adopted a goal, people prepare to attain it. This is the second stage in the selfregulation process. Here, people gather information, construct scenarios regarding
possible outcomes, and engage in behavioral practice (rehearsal). In short, they design
and prepare to implement a plan to achieve their goal. Of course, not all behavior fits this
19
model. As noted earlier, sometimes people act impulsively without a good deal of
forethought. Impulsive behavior of this type is not considered in this framework.
3. Cybernetic Cycle of Behavior
The third stage in the self-regulation process has been conceptualized as a cybernetic
cycle of action. Cybernetics is the study of how entities use information to regulate their
actions (Wiener, 1948). It is also called control theory, as it emphasizes negative
feedback control as the means by which machines (e.g., thermostats, guided missiles,
cruise control settings in automobiles) as well as animals adjust their behavior to match
some standard. In this context, negative feedback doesn’t mean bad or unfavorable; it
means discrepancy reducing.
The self regulation theory was adopted because it proffers ways through which adolescents
in the correctional facilities can help correct their behaviours through the three stages as
captured in the outlined processes in the theory.
2.2.2 The Marxian theory of social Conflict (Anti-Social Behaviour)
The Marxian theory of social Conflict focuses on the deprivation of the powerless by the
powerful, of the opportunity to climb all the way to the top. For this reasons, whoever goes
against the established laws and rules of the state and is not powerful enough to defend
his/her action shall be punished. Most often this punishment is by imprisonment. Thus in
bourgeoisie or capitalist states, the prison becomes an instrument of class struggle and
conflict suppression. So structurally, the society is fashioned in a way that a part of the people
are deprived of their rights and privileges and this is done when they break constituted laws
in the society. Marxian theory of social conflict is therefore adopted in this study in order to
justify the need for correctional facilities as a means to curbing anti-social behaviour.
20
2.2.3 Interest Group Theory (NGO Contribution)
Interest group theory was developed in developed countries with democratic political systems
to analyze how persons or organizations that share common interests organize themselves to
influence politics. It focuses on groups that work within the political system using strategies
such as lobbying, mobilizing citizens to sign petitions or contact public officials, public
education campaigns, efforts to influence election outcomes, and monitoring and attempting
to influence the implementation of public policy. Many interest groups push for decisions and
policies that will primarily benefit their supporters, but “public interest groups,” including
environmental organizations, work for what they see as the interests of all citizens (Knoke,
1990; Wilson, 1990; Walker, 1991; Petracca, 1992; Burstein, 1998).
The concept from interest group theory most broadly applicable to environmental NGOs in
developing countries is the “free rider problem.” According to Olson (1965), the free rider
problem occurs because rational actors have good reasons not to contribute their effort or
money to groups working for collective benefits such as clean water or fighting
desertification. If groups working for such goals are successful, both those who contributed
time or money to the effort and those who did not can enjoy the benefits, and no one person’s
contributions are likely to make much difference in whether public interest groups succeed.
This theory is relevant to this study because it portrays the interest of NGO in community
development. Even though the context is not majorly geared towards anti-social behaviour,
however it is important to note that a community where anti-social behaviour is rampart will
be deficient of several development. Hence the contribution of NGO is curbing anti-social
behaviour is also an initiative towards community development.
21
2.2.4 The sociologist Max Weber (1958) Theory of Inequality
The theory conceptualized inequality along three related tracks—class, status, and party.
Each was understood as a basis for power and influence. Whereas class focused on economic
resources and partly referred to political clout, status was understood as honor and prestige.
For Weber, status groups were hierarchically arrayed on the basis of distinctive lifestyles,
consumption patterns, and modes of conduct or action. This indicates that the socio-economic
status of individual can influence how they behave, suggestive of the fact that the anti-social
behaviour of adolescents may be directly linked to their socio-economic status. Hence the
theory is relevant to the study because it will attempt to establish a relationship between
socio-economic status and anti-social behaviour.
22
Chapter Three
Research Methodology
3.1
Research Approach and Design
Survey research design is employed in this study because the researcher intends to investigate
an existing situation on the effect of self-regulation, socio-economic status and NGO input on
the anti-social behaviour of young adults. Data collected from the respondents will be used to
describe what is obtainable regarding the effect of self-regulation, socio-economic status and
NGO input on the anti-social behaviour of young adults.
3.2
Study Area
This study will be carried out in Lagos State. Lagos State is in the south-western part of
Nigeria. She is bounded by Ogun State in the East and North, adjoins Atlantic Ocean in the
south while she is bounded on the west by the Republic of Benin. Lagos was the former
capital of Nigeria and is still the commercial nerve centre of the country. The state is densely
populated, and in her modern form, the state is a socio-cultural melting pot that has attracted
a cross-section of Nigerians from all over the Federation as well as non-Nigerians from other
African countries and the rest of the world. The peculiar nature of Lagos State as the trade
hub of the country have continued to attract an influx of people from both far and near into
the metropolis. This has put immense pressure on the existing social facilities, thereby
metamorphosing into various social problems. The state has a population of about nine
million. Although there many correctional facilities scattered across Nigeria most especially
South West Nigeria, however Lagos was chosen as the study area because of the researchers
proximity because distance and time will be a limiting factor should the researcher decide to
use correctional centers that are outside Lagos
23
3.3
Population
The population of this study consist of all the correctional facilities in Lagos State.
Table 3.1
Correctional facilities in Lagos State
S/N
Correctional Facilities
Location
1.
Ikoyiprison
Ikoyi
2.
Badagry Prison
Badagry
3.
Medium Security Prison
Kirikiri
4.
Maximum Security prison
Kirikiri
5.
Female Prison
Kirikiri
6.
Ikoyi prison
Ikoyi
7.
Lagos State Correctional Center
Onike
8.
Special Correctional Center
Opebi, Ikeja
9.
Correctional Centre for Senior Boys
Isheri
10.
Correctional Center for Girls
Idi Araba, mushin
3.4
Sample and Sampling Procedure
The multistage sampling technique will be adopted in this study. For the first stage, the
purposive sampling technique will be used to select four correctional facilities. The reason for
this is because out of all the facilities, the four was set up purposely to house inmates who fall
within the age bracket of adolescents.
24
Table 3.2 captures the name of the fatcilities.
S/N
Correctional Facilities
Location
1.
Lagos State Correctional Center
Onike
2.
Special Correctional Center
Opebi, Ikeja
3.
Correctional Centre for Senior Boys
Isheri
4.
Correctional Center for Girls
Idi Araba, mushin
For the second stage, the Simple Random Sampling technique will be adopted for this study.
A sampling frame will be obtained from the department of Statistics. Using the simple
random sampling technique, the researcher will select two correctional homes out of the four
correctional facilities. This will be done by the researcher first numbering all the elements in
the sampling frame which is the list of the four correctional facilities using a list of random
numbers. With the use of lottery method, these numbers will be placed in a bowl and shuffled
thoroughly after which two facilities will be selected. Also, the researcher will draw
representative samples from the inmates through the records obtained from the statistical
department. More so, due to the security nature of the facilities, with the aid of purposive
sampling technique, the researcher will be able to get the respondents and administer the
questionnaire. The researcher will then apply the same steps as indicated above to select
respondents.
3.5
Research Instruments
Anti-social Behaviour Questonnaire (ABQ)
The antisocial behaviour questionnaire was designed by Burt and Donnellan (2009). This
questionnaire was used to measure antisocial behaviour over three subscales: physical
aggression, rule-breaking, and social aggression. The STAB consists of 32 items scored on a
25
5-point scale (never, “hardly ever, “sometimes, “frequently”, and “nearly all the time”). The
STAB is a freely available self-reportquestionnaire that is suitable for clinical and nonclinical
samples (Burt &Donnellan, 2009). Item examples by subscale were respectively: “Had
trouble controlling temper” (physical aggression), “Stole property from school or work”
(rule-breaking), and “Made negative comments about other’s appearance” (Social
aggression). High scores on the STAB indicate a high prevalence of self-reported antisocial
behaviour. Alpha values ranged from .84 to .91 for physical aggression, from .83 to .90 for
social aggression, and from .71 to .87 for rule breaking depending on sample sort (Burt
&Donnellan, 2009). The questionnaire was chosen because the content best suit the purpose
of the study. The questionnaire will be adapted to suit the purpose of the research.
3.6
Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ)
The SRQ, developed by Brown et al. (1999), will be adopted, where part of it will be used to
provide answers to the questions under study. The questionnaire evaluates subjects’ selfregulation of behaviour, understood as the ability to plan and manage their own behaviour in
a flexible way, according to the desired outcomes. Although the questionnaire has been
adapted to educational contexts, it was initially designed within the field of addictive
behaviours. The authors, using squared multiple correlation coefficients, carried out an initial
design for 63 items (26 reverse) that constituted 7 scales: (1) informational input, which
refers to the ability of a person to obtain information from their environment on their current
state; (2) self-evaluation, for which the information is used in comparison with personal
goals, rules and expectations; (3) instigation to change, wherein the person perceives whether
or not there are discrepancies between their current state and their desired state; (4) search for
alternatives, with the aim of reducing discrepancies; (5) planning for change, referring to the
strategies or actions for carrying out the process of change; (6) implementation of strategies
for change; and (7) goal attainment evaluation plan. The instrument, in its English version,
26
has mainly been used with university students. However for the purpose of this study, test
retest reliability will be obtained using the interval of three weeks.
3.7
NGO Input Questionnaire (NIQ)
The NGO input questionnaire will be a self-designed questionnaire which will be focused on
capturing the effort of Non-governmental organization in curbing anti-social behaviour of
young adults in Lagos state. The questionnaire will be designed to look at areas of input such
as money, time, programs conducted as well as methods and approach used in executing the
programs.
3.8
Reliability and Validity Determinations of the Instruments
A pilot study will be carried out to determine the reliability of the research instruments. The
interval between the first and second administration will be three weeks. The correlation
between the two sets of scores of the instruments will be determined using Pearson‘s Product
Moment Correlation method.
In order to validate the instrument, the content validity will be ensured. The questionnaire
will be submitted to the research supervisor as well as expert in the field of test items, they
will examine the problem under study and correlate it with the questionnaire in order to
ensure if the content in the questionnaire meet the requirement for the study.
3.9
Data collection
Data collection will be carried out by the researcher and two research assistants who are to be
employed and trained. The research assistants was trained for the period of two (2) weeks in
and the purpose of the training was to engender a basic understanding of what the
questionnaire seeks to capture in the research work. Each of the research assistants will help
in each of the selected correctional facilities (i.e 1:1). The research assistants will assist in the
27
administration of the questionnaire and will also help in explaining to the respondents in case
there are areas where the respondents didn’t understand.
3.10
Method of Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass information
collected. Data collected in this study will be coded and analysed using the Statistical
Package for Social Science Software (SPSS V.22). Precisely, descriptive statistics such as
frequency count, percentage mean and standard deviation will be used to provide answers to
research questions and the hypotheses will be tested by means of Simple linear regression at
0.5 level of significance. Simple linear is the appropriate statistical method to use when
investigating the cause and effect between two variables. Multiple regression is appropriate
when examining the influence of a set of two or more variables on another variable.
Hypotheses one, two and three will be tested using simple linear regression while hypothesis
four will be tested using multiple regression.
28
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