THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
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CRANIUM - bony structure housing the brain having EIGHT (8)
Human skeleton divided into two major divisions
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the axial skeleton (head, neck, & trunk)
the appendicular skeleton (arms, legs and girdles)
The skeleton is the one thing that all mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, birds, fish, insects and humans have in common.
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CRANIAL BONES
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to form the top and sides of the cranial cavity.
The skeletal system are the ones that gives the body support,
structure, the ability to move
❖ Occipital bone (1 bone): Forms the rear of the skull.
❖ Temporal bones (2 bones): Form the sides of the cranium
It protects the organ, reduces blood cells, and maintains
electrolytes and acid-based minerals
and part of the cranial floor; also contain
the structures of the inner and middle ear, including the:
▪ External auditory meatus (an opening into the ear)
▪ Mastoid process (a prominent lump behind the ear)
▪ Zygomatic arch (cheekbone)
▪ Styloid process (serves as an attachment point for several
neck muscles).
❖ Frontal bone (1 bone): Forms the forehead and the roof of the
eye sockets (orbits).
❖ Sphenoid bone (1 bone): Forms a key part of the cranial floor
as well as the floor and side walls of the
❖ orbits.
❖ Ethmoid bone (1 bone): Contributes to the walls of the orbits,
the roof and walls of the nasal cavity, and the nasal septum.
The skeletal system has a function of building up the bones
anatomy; bones, cartilage and ligaments.
Bones
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Technically organs due to containing more than one type of
tissue
Mostly made up of OSSEOUS (BONE) TISSUE. Along with
the cartilage, muscle, nervous and epithelial tissues.
Also maintain homeostasis & produces OSTEOCALCIN
which regulates bone formation and gives protection against
glucose and tolerant Diabetes.
Hematopoiesis- process in blood cell production generated in
the bone marrows.
The body has 270 bones at birth and 206 bones as an
adult.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bone Types
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Different bone types include flat, long short, sesamoid, and
irregular.
Classification of Bones
o Long Bone – longer than it is wide with clubby ends
o Example: arms, legs, fingers and toes
o Short Bone – not longer than they ae wide
o Example: wrist bones and proximal foot bones
o Flat Bone – flat and looks like a sheet of modelling clay that
molds onto an object
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Example: cranial bones, (skull, and ribs)
Irregular Bones – does not fit into any other categories.
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Example: vertebrae
Tendons- attach muscle to the bone
Ligaments – attach bone to bone.
Sesamoid Bones- looks like sesame seeds, helps protect
tendons
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Examples: Patella or Kneecaps
TWO
SKELETAL
BONES
TWO
SKELETAL BONES
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All flat bones
❖ Parietal bones (2 bones): Join together at the top of the head
The AXIAL SKELETON
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Consists of 80 bones comprising the (skull, cage and
vertebral column
Consists of CRANIAL BONE, FACIAL BONE, SPINAL
COLUMN, STERNUM AND RIBS, HYOID BONE
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Foramina (Foramen) – allows the passage of blood vessels
and nerves
Foramen Magnum – allows the spinal cord to exit the cranial
activity.
External Occipital Protuberance – located in occipital
bones’ posterior which is larger in males.
Ethmoid & Sphenoid – irregular bones that form the
majority of the cranial activity floor.
Cribriform Plate – perforated with many holes and allows
nerve endings to have access to the nasal cavity for the
sense of smell.
Conchae – lateral bony ridge.
Sella Turcica – found inside the sphenoid that looks like a
Turkish saddle that helps protect the pituitary glands.
FACIAL BONES - The 14 bones of the face perform
several functions. They support the teeth, provide an
attachment point for the muscles used in chewing and for
facial expression, form part of the nasal and orbital cavities,
and
also give each face its unique characteristics.
❖ Maxillae (2 bones): These bones meet to form the
upper jaw. The maxillae (singular: maxilla) form the
❖ foundation of the face; every other facial bone (except
for the mandible) articulates with the maxillae.
❖ The maxillae form part of the floor of the orbits, part of
the roof of the mouth, and part of the floor and
❖ walls of the nose.
❖ Zygomatic bones (2 bones): These bones shape
the cheeks and form the outer edge of the orbit.
❖ Mandible (1 bone): This is the largest and
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strongest bone of the face. It articulates with the
temporal
bone at the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), making it
the only facial bone that can move.
Lacrimal bones (2 bones): These paper-thin
bones form part of the side wall of the orbit.
Nasal bones (2 bones): These rectangular bones
form the bridge of the nose; the rest of the nose is
shaped by cartilage.
❖ Inferior nasal conchae (2 bones): The conchae
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bones (singular: concha) contribute to the nasal
cavity.
Vomer (1 bone): This small bone forms the inferior
half of the nasal septum. (The superior half is
formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid
bone.)
Palatine bones (2 bones): These bones form the
posterior portion of the hard palate, part of the wall of
the nasal cavity, and part of the floor of the orbit.
HYOID BONE - A U-shaped bone that sits between the
chin and the larynx. The hyoid bone—which is the only
bone that
doesn’t articulate with any other bone—serves as an
attachment point for muscles that control the tongue,
mandible, and larynx.
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Intervertebral Disk – disk located between the
vertebrae by fibrocartilage, and supports the body
weight acts as shock absorbers
Cervical Vertebrae (C1- C7)
– have typical foramina in the transverse processes,
where the vertebral arteries passes through to the head.
C1 (ATLAS) - Named for the Greek god Atlas who carried
the world on his shoulders, the role of the first cervical
vertebra is
to support the skull.
C2 (AXIS) - The C2 vertebra, called the axis, has a
projection called the dens or odontoid process. The dens
projects into the
• atlas and allows the head to swivel from side to side
(such as when saying “no.”)
THORACIC VERTEBRAE (T1 to T12)
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The thoracic cage consists of the thoracic vertebrae,
the sternum, and the ribs. These bones form a coneshaped cage that surrounds and protects the heart
and lungs and provides an attachment point for the
pectoral girdle (shoulder) and upper limbs. Expansion
and contraction of the thoracic cage causes the
pressure changes in the lungs that allow breathing to
occur.
they have smooth surfaces called COSTAL FACET.
Ribs attached to it traverses the process of these
vertebrae numbered from T1 – T12.
• Sinuses – forms cavities of the frontal, ethmoid,
sphenoid and maxilla, and is filled with air that helps
warm and moisten inspired air. In addition, it gives
resonance to the voice
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• An adult is composed of 26 bones containing
the sacrum, coccyx, 7 cervical vertebrae, 12
thoracic vertebrae and 5 lumbar vertebrae
• Vertebral Foramen – allows the spinal cords to
pass through the vertebra and spinal nerves exit the
spinal
STERNUM - The sternum has three regions.
Manubrium: This is the broadest portion; the suprasternal
notch (at the top of the manubrium between the two clavicles)
is easily palpated.
Body: This is the longest portion; it joins the manubrium at the
sternal angle (also called the angle of Louis), which is also the
location of the second rib.
Xiphoid process: An important landmark for
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), the xiphoid process
provides an attachment point for some abdominal muscles.
RIBS - Twelve pairs of ribs attach to the vertebral column.
Ribs 1 to 7, called true ribs, attach to the sternum by a strip
of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage.
Ribs 8, 9, and 10 attach to the cartilage of rib 7; these ribs, as
well as ribs 11 and 12, are called false ribs.
Ribs 11 and 12, called floating ribs, do not attach to any part
of the anterior thoracic cage.
COSTAL CARTILAGES – composed of hyaline cartilage
connective tissue
[NOTE:] The lower edges of the thoracic cage are called the
costal margins. The two costal margins meet at the xiphoid
process, forming the costal angle. The angle should
be less than 90 degrees. Pregnancy as well as lung
diseases, such as emphysema, cause the angle to
increase.
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (L1 to L5) – Are larger and
heavier than vertebral bodies in other regions. It is kidneyshaped when viewed
superiorly and is wider from side to side than from front to back
and a little thicker in front than in back with a thin cortial shell
which surrounds cancellous bones. The posterior aspect of the
vertebral body changes from slightly concave to slightly convex
from L1 to L5 with an increasing diameter due to the increased
load carried at each body.
SACRUM – composed of 5 separate bones in a fetus fusing to
become 1 adult bone. The point or spinal level where L5 meets
S1 is lumbosacral spine. The low back (lumbar spine) with
the sacrum (sacral spine) help form the lumbosacral curve,
which is integral to supporting the upper body, weight-bearing,
maintaining balance, and functional
flexibility.
COCCYX – or tailbone, is located below the sacrum.
Composed of 4-5 bones in a fetus fusing into one bone in an
adult
• The APPENDICULAR SKELETON
o Consists of 126 bones from the limbs, pelvic and shoulder
area.
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Are bones that are composed of the bones and
limbs that attach each limb to the axial skeleton
• Pectoral Girdle - bones attached to the arm bones to the axial
skeleton.
- Also called the shoulder girdle, the pectoral girdle
supports the arm. The two pectoral girdles— one on
each side of the body—consist of a clavicle
(collarbone) and a scapula (shoulder blade).
❖ Clavicle – is a slightly S-shaped bone, the clavicle
articulates with the sternum and the scapula and helps
support the shoulder.
❖ Scapula – located on the posterior portion of the thorax;
lies over ribs 2 to 7. The lateral portion of this triangle-shaped
bone has three main features.
The acromion process: This extension of the scapula
articulates with the clavicle; it is the only point where the arm
and the
scapula attach to the rest of the skeleton. THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM
The coracoid process: This finger-like process provides a
point of attachment for some of the muscles of the arm.
The glenoid cavity: This shallow socket articulates with the
head of the humerus (upper arm bone).
APPENDICULAR SKELETON: UPPER LIMB
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The upper limb, or arm, consists of the humerus
(upper arm bone), the radius and the ulna (the
bones of the lower arm), and the carpals (the
bones of the hand).
HUMERUS – is the long bone of the upper arm. It contains
these features:
Head: The enlarged end of this long bone is covered with
articular cartilage; it articulates with the glenoid
cavity of the scapula.
Olecranon fossa: This is a depression on the posterior side of
the humerus.
Olecranon process: This is the bony point of the elbow; it
slides in the olecranon fossa when the arm is
extended. (See the pull-out image of the posterior side of the
elbow.)
❖ RADIUS – is located on the same side as the thumb.
• The proximal head of the radius is a distinctive disc that
rotates on the humerus when the palm is turned forward
and back.
• The radial tuberosity is where the biceps muscle attaches to
the bone.
❖ ULNA – is the other bone of the lower arm; it is longer than the
radius.
Interosseous membrane – connects the radius and ulna
along the length of the two bones.
❖ Carpals – 8 short bones in the wrist
Arranged into two rows of four bones from the wrist
that allows it to move back and forth as well as side to
side.
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The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform,
trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate
Metacarpals – 5 long bones that makes up the palm,
Phalanges – 14 long bones that make up the fingers, The
phalanges are identified by the Roman numerals I through
V (beginning with the thumb) and as being proximal, middle,
or distal. For example, distal phalanx IV is the tip of the ring
finger.
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APPENDICULAR SKELETON: PELVIC GIRDLE
Each of the two large bones of the hip is called an ossa
coxae; it may also be called a coxal bone or innominate
bone. Together
they form what’s known as the pelvic girdle: the foundation of
the pelvis. The os coxae is not a single bone; rather, it consists
of three bones fused together.
Ilium: A large, flaring section you can feel under the skin.
Ischium: The lower posterior portion.
Pubis: The most anterior portion that joins with the other pubis
at the symphysis pubis, a disc of cartilage that separates the
two pubic bones.
PELVIS – The combination of the os coxae and the sacrum
is known as the pelvis. The pelvis supports the trunk, provides
an attachment point for the legs, and also protects the organs
of the pelvis (including the lower colon, reproductive organs,
and
urinary bladder). The pelvis is divided into a true (lesser)
pelvis and a false (greater) pelvis.
The true pelvis extends between what’s known as the pelvic
brim.
The pelvic outlet is the lower edge of the true pelvis. The
diameter of the pelvic outlet is measured as the distance
between the two ischial bones. The pelvic outlet is the
passageway through which an infant enters the world;
therefore, the distance between the two ischial bones must be
wide enough to allow his head to pass.
The false pelvis extends between the outer, flaring edges of
the iliac bone
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❖ PATELLA – Commonly known as the kneecap, the patella is
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a triangular sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the
knee. At birth, the patella is composed of cartilage. It ossifies
between the ages of three and six years.
FIBULA – The long and slender fibula resides alongside the
tibia and helps stabilize the ankle. It does not bear any weight.
TIBIA – Of the two bones in the lower leg, the tibia is the only
one that bears weight. Commonly called the shinbone, the
tibia articulates with the femur.
❖ FOOT AND ANKLE – The bones of the foot and
ankle are arranged similarly to those of the hand.
However, because the foot and ankle bear the weight
of the body, the size of the bones, as well as how
they’re arranged, differs.
❖ PHALANGES – The phalanges form the toes. The
great toe, called the hallux, contains only two
bones: a proximal and distal phalanx. The
I through V, beginning medially—form the middle portion
of the foot.
TARSAL – The tarsal bones comprise the ankle.
The distal row of tarsal bones consists of three cuneiforms
and the large cuboid.
The second-largest tarsal bone is the talus. The talus
articulates with three bones: the calcaneus on its inferior
surface, the tibia on its superior surface, and another
tarsal bone (called the navicular) on its anterior surface.
❖ The largest tarsal bone is the calcaneus. This bone,
which forms the heel, bears much of the body’s
weight
HISTOLOGY OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
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Histology – the study of microscopic anatomy
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of cells and tissues
Osteology – the study of bones
BONE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
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is a dynamin tissue that is highly calcified, solid,
rigid connective tissue
TYPES OF BONE CELL
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APPENDICULAR SKELETON: LOWER LIMB
the bones of the lower limb
Pelvic Girdles- connects the fibrocartilage at a joint called the
Pubic Symphysis.
FEMUR – The longest and strongest bone in the body, the
femur articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis to form a
balls and-socket joint.
remaining toes contain a proximal, middle, and
distal phalanx.
METATARSALS – The metatarsals—which are numbered
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Osteoblast - builds a bone tissue by forming a
soft matrix of protein and carbohydrate
molecules with hard mineral crystals to be
deposited n the matrix
o Hydroxyapatite – calcium phosphate
mineral salt that makes the crystal hard.
o Collagen Fibers- gives the matrix bone
flexibility, without collagen fibers, bones
become brittle.
Osteoclasts - destroys bone tissue for
remodeling
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
COMPACT BONE
- A compact bone is very dense and highly organized.
- This type of bone is found in the shafts of lone bones
and are surfaces of a flat bone.
- Compact bone tissue is arranged in a series of osteons
(Haversian systems) that appears as targets.
• Osteons (Harvasian System) –the most basic
structural unit of the bone. Cylindrical weight
baring structures that run parallel to the bones
axis.
• Harvesian canal - contains blood vessels and a
nerve.
• Lamellae - is matrix formed around the canal in
concentric layers.
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Osteocytes - are mature osteoblasts that are
found in spaces called lacunae arranged in
circles around the central canal.
• Canaliculi - are the tiny cracks in the matrix
allow the osteocytes to reach out to each other
and to the central canal for the nutrients.
CANCELLOUS BONE
- A compact bone is spongy in appearance,
characterized by delicate silver and plates of bone with
spaces
between
- This type of bone is found in the end of long bones
(epiphysis) and in the middle of flat and irregular bones
- Cancellous bone is not as organized as compact bone
and it does not have Haversian system
- The spaces between this sponge bones are often filled
with red bone marrow and blood vessels
• Trabeculae arranged in delicate silvers and plates
CARTILAGE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cartilage connective tissue, the cells are called
chondrocytes. Chondrocytes produce a matrix
of proteoglycans and water.
• Proteoglycans is basically a protein molecule
with a carbohydrate added to it. This type of
tissue lacks a blood supply
Types of Cartilage:
• Hyaline
• Elastic
• Fibrocartilage
• Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue
- This type of cartilage is found covering the ends of long
bones, in the costal cartilage of the ribs, and in the nasal
cartilages of the nose
• Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue
- This cartilage is found on the pinna of the ear (outer
ear flap) and in the epiglottis in the throat.
• Fibrocartilage Connective Tissue
- This type of cartilage is found in the intervertebral disc.
The pubic symphysis, and the meniscus of the knee.
Bone Marrow
Yellow Bone Marrow – Stores Energy as Fat (can turn
into red bone marrow in case of an
extreme anemia)
Red Bone Marrow – Produces Red Blood Cells also
white blood cells and platelets.
ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
• Epiphyses
- found on clubby ends of a long bone.
- Each epiphysis is covered by articular cartilage, which is
composed of hyaline cartilage connective tissue
• Articular cartilage provides a smooth surface for the
end a long bone to articulate with another bone.
- Articular cartilage is firmly attached to the bone.
- Cancellous bone is found in the epiphyses.
- Red bone marrow fills the spaces between the cancellous
bone’s tuberculae.
• Diaphysis
- Shaft of the long bone
- It is composed of compact bone, but it is not a solid bone.
Diaphysis is a hollow tube of compact bone filled with the
yellow bone marrow in what is called marrow
(medullary) cavity.
Periosteum a fibrous covering of diaphysis
Endosteum source of osteoblasts
Nutrient artery enters the bone through a foramen in the
diaphysis
• RED BONE MARROW is found in the spaces of cancellous
bone. This includes flat bones like sternum, irregular
bones like the vertebrae, and the epiphyses of long bones.
Red bone marrow is composed of stem cells, which
produce both red and white blood cells and platelets. THE
SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• YELLOW BONE MARROW is found in the marrow cavity of
mature long bones. The marrow cavity in a
developing long bone originally contains red marrow. By the
time the bone matures, the marrow has become
yellow marrow composed of mostly fatty tissue.
JOINTS
FIBROUS JOINTS. Fibrous joints have fibrous tissue between
the bones. There are three types of joints in this
class.
• Sutures. Immovable. A suture has a fibrous
membrane between bones until the suture is
completely closed. It can be found between cranial
bones of the skull.
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Gamphoses. Immovable. A gamphoses is formed by
fibrous ligaments holding a tooth in its socket.
• Syndesmoses. Partly movable. A syndesmoses is
formed by an interosseous membrane. It can be
found between the radius and the ulna and between
the tibia and the fibula.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS. Cartilaginous joints, have cartilage
between the bones.
• Symphyses. Little movements. The pubic symphysis
has fibrocartilage between the two pubic bones. This
joint becomes more elastic and slightly movable during the
birth process.
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Synchrondroses. Partly movable. Synchrondoses can
be found in the long bones of children. A
synchondrosis is the cartilage joint between an
epiphysis and diaphysis of a long bone.
The knee is a prime example of synovial joint and the femur,
tibia and patella form the knee joint. Five ligaments
connect the bones to help support the knee:
SYNOVIAL JOINTS. Synovial joints have a joint cavity. This
joint space is formed by a joint capsule that surrounds
and seals the joint space. The joint space is lined by a synovial
membrane, which produces a very slippery
synovial fluid. This fluid lubricates the joint, reducing the heat
of friction as the bones articulate.
• Hinge. Very movable in one direction, like a door hinge. Cshaped surface of one bone swings about the
rounded surface of another bone. Found on
• Ball and socket. Very movable in all direction. Ball of one
bone fits into a socket of another. Hip;
shoulder
• Saddle. All movements possible, but rotation is limited.
Concave surface of two bones articulates with one
another. Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
• Gliding. Up-and-down wave of the hand at the wrist. Two
opposed flat surfaces of bone glide past one
another. Carpal bones
• Ellipsoid. All movement but rotation severely limited; sideto-side wave of the hand at the wrist. Reduce
ball and socket. Reduce ball and socket THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Pivot. Rotation. Ring of bone articulates with a post of
bone. Atlas on the odontoid process.
• Medial and lateral collateral ligaments it attaches the
epicondyles of the femur to the epicondyles of the tibia and
fibula. They prevent side-to-side movement at the knee.
• Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments attach the femur to
the tibia. They cross to form an X between the femur’s
condyles, and they are named for their attachment relative to
the tibia: the anterior cruciate ligament attaches to the tibia’s
anterior, and the posterior cruciate ligament attaches to the
tibia’s posterior side. These ligaments prevent the femur from
sliding forward or backward relative to the tibia.
• The patellar ligament, sometimes called the patellar tendon,
attaches the patella to the tibia. It qualifies as a tendon and a
ligament because it attaches muscle to bone and bone to bone.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Mineral deposition- Bone matrix is synthesized by a layer of
osteoblasts on the bone surface.
Osteoblasts are mononucleate cuboid cells that are
responsible for bone formation. They produce the collagen
fibers at bone’s hydroxyapatite crystals. They simply allow
hydroxyapatite to be deposited. Calcium phosphate is
dissolved in body fluids and blood.
BONE DEVELOPMENT
Intramembranous ossification
BONE GROWTH
Endochondral Growth- In this process, the osteoblasts
are continuing to deposit bone in the epiphyseal plates.
-the chondrocytes continue to expand the plates with
cartilage.
- race of the two types of cells happens here until it
reaches puberty.
Appositional Bone Growth -occurs in all types of bone.
-In this process, it does no longer makes the bone
longer, but it makes it more massive wherein,
Osteoblasts of the periosteum deposit more bone on the
bone’s shaft and the osteoblasts of the cancellous
bone’s trabeculae in the epiphyses deposit more bone
along the bone’s lines of stress.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
❑ SUPPORT- provides rigidity which gives the body
shape and supports the weight of the muscles and
organs.
❑ MOVEMENT- the skeletal bones are held together
by ligaments, and tendons attach the muscles to the
bones of the skeleton. The muscular and skeletal
systems work together as the musculoskeletal
system, which enables body movement and
stability. When muscles contract, they pull on bones
of the skeleton to produce movement or hold the
bones in a stable position
❑ PROTECTION- The skeleton protects the internal
organs from damage by surrounding them with
bone. Bone is living tissue that is hard and strong,
yet slightly flexible to resist breaking. The strength
of bone comes from its mineral content, which is
primarily calcium and phosphorus.
❑ ACID- BASE BALANCE- maintaining normal blood
pH is very important for maintaining homeostasis.
❑ ELECTROLYTE BALANCE- bone serves as a
reservoir for the electrolyte calcium, which is
important for maintaining homeostasis.
❑ BLOOD FORMATION- red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets are produced by stem cells in
the red bone marrow.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE REMODELING
-A process in which matrix is resorbed on one surface of
a bone and deposited on another
-bone undergoes remodeling, in which resorption of old
or damaged bone takes place on the same surface
where osteoblasts lay new bone to replace that which is
resorbed. Injury, exercise, and other activities lead to
remodeling.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The ratio of deposition and reabsorption changes as we
age. In general,
Estrogen and Testosterone – hormones that
serves as a lock on calcium in the bone.
When the levels of these hormones are decreased,
it is much easier for osteoclasts to reabsorb bone.
The effects of the decreased bone mass and
density with age is many:
• Each vertebra becomes thinner.
• The change in posture affects the gait and balance
• Long bones lose mass but not length.
• Scapulae thin and become more porous.
• Joints stiffen and become less flexible as osteoarthritis
sets in.
• Mineral may deposit in joints.
• Phalangeal joints lose cartilage, and the bones may
thicken slightly.
Ways to Reduce the Effects of Aging:
• Proper Nutrition with ample Calcium and Vitamin D
• Along with exercise
FRACTURES ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
A fracture is a break in bone. It can result from injury or
trauma, like a fall, or it can result from a disease process that
weakened the bone.
X-ray can be used to view fractured bones.
Types of Bone Fractures
1. Closed Fracture – (formerly called a simple fracture)
does not cause a break in the skin.
2. Open Fracture – (formerly called a compound
fracture) breaks through the skin.
3. Complete Fracture – the bone is in 2 or more pieces
4. Displaced Fracture – the bone is no longer in proper
alignment.
5. Non-Displaced Fracture – the bone is in proper
alignment.
6. Hairline Fracture – there is a crack in the bone.
7. Greenstick Fracture – the bone has broken through
one side but not completely through the other side.
8. Depressed Fracture – the bone has been dented.
9. Transverse Fracture – the bone is broken
perpendicular to its length.
10. Oblique Fracture – the break in the bone is at an
angle.
11. Spiral Fracture – the break in the bone spiral ups in
the bone.
12. Epiphyseal Fracture – the break occurs at the
epiphyseal plate in a child.
13. Comminuted Fracture – the bone is broken into 3
or more pieces (commonly referred to as shattered)
14. Compression Fracture – may occur in the
vertebrae, cancellous bone has been compressed.
Fracture Healing
A Closed Reduction – sets the edge of the fracture in
proper alignment by manipulating the bone without
surgery.
An Open Reduction – sets the bone in proper alignment
through surgery.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS FOR SKELETAL
SYSTEM
Common Diagnostic Tests for Skeletal System
Skeletal System Disorders
Osteoporosis
“Porous Bones”
A severe lack of bone density.
Breakdown of down ˃ Formation of new bones =
porous bones
It affects all bone but is more evident in cancellous
bone. Causes: a diet deficient in calcium and vitamin
D, lack of exercise, and diminished estrogen and
testosterone due to aging.
Effects: back pain, height loss, and Kyphosis or a
hunched back
Two types of Osteoporosis
1.) Postmenopausal – decrease estrogen level leads to
increase bone resorption
2.) Senile – osteoblasts just gradually lose the ability to
form bones while osteoclasts keep doing their thing
unabated.
Diagnostic tools such as X-rays, bone scans, and bone
density tests can help diagnose osteoporosis and
determine
its severity
Osteomyelitis
Is a bone infection that can reach the bone from the
blood, from surrounding tissues, or from trauma that
exposes the bone to a pathogen (such as a bacterium or
fungus)
- The infection may be acute or it may be chronic.
Treatment may include antibiotics and/or surgery to drain the
area and remove damaged bone.
-
A cleft is usually treated with palate repair
surgery. Other treatments, such as speech
therapy and dental care,
may also be needed.
Mastoiditis
Cancers Affecting the Skeletal System
Osteosarcomas
-
Are malignant bone tumors that occur in immature bone
at any age. Although they tend to be more common in
people between the ages of 10 and 15. It is usually found
at the end of long bones, often around the knee. It is
usually found at the end of long bones, often around the
knee.
-
Treatment: involves chemotherapy and surgery
Chondrosarcomas
-
Are cancerous tumors that occur in cartilage. Most
chondrosarcomas are primary tumors, which means that they
originate in cartilage, not from a tumor located in another organ or
tissue within the body.
-
-
Treatment: involves surgical removal of the tumor
Gout
- is a form of inflammatory arthritis that develops in some people
who have high levels of uric acid in the blood
The acid can form needle-like crystals in a joint and cause sudden,
severe episodes of pain, tenderness, redness,
warmth and swelling.
Gout is commonly treated with anti-inflammatory drugs and
colchicine, which helps relieve the arthritis symptoms.
If necessary, health care professionals may also prescribe
medications that help treat hyperuricemia.
Cleft Palate
-
an opening or split in the roof of the mouth that
occurs when the tissue doesn't fuse together
during development in the womb. A cleft palate
often includes a split (cleft) in the upper lip (cleft
lip) but can occur without affecting the lip
Risk factors
1. Family history.
2. Exposure to certain substances during
pregnancy.
3. 3. Having diabetes.
4. Being obese during pregnancy.
Complications
1. Difficulty feeding.
2. Ear infections and hearing loss.
3. Dental problems.
4. Speech difficulties.
5. Challenges of coping with a medical
condition.
is an infection of the mastoid process of
the temporal bone in the skull. This
condition is usually caused by an
untreated middle-ear infection that has
spread to the mastoid process.
Symptoms include pain, fever,
redness, tenderness and swelling
near the mastoid process
The infection is usually treated with
antibiotics intravenously. If the infection
has caused an abscess or pus- filled
cavity to form within the mastoid
process, surgery may be required to
drain the infection.
•
Bursitis
Bursitis is inflammation of the bursa. Bursitis cause pain,
tenderness, and swelling, especially with
movement or pressure on the affected body part. Areas of
the body commonly affected by bursitis are
the knee, elbow, shoulder and hip.
• Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of a joint. There are more than
100 types of arthritis and some of them can
affect other tissues beyond the joints. And according to the
CDC arthritis is the most common cause of
disability in the United States, with over 19 million adults
affected.
• Osteoarthritis
is the most common form of arthritis. It usually occurs in
people over the age 40, and 85% of people over
the age of 70 show some signs of this condition.
• Crepitus
is the creaking sound that may be heard during the
movement of osteoarthritic joints.
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
is an immune disease that can happen to anyone at any age.
Children may develop juvenile RA.
• Osteogenisis imperfect
- common called brittle bones
- a congenital defect in which bones are lack of collagen fibers. With
this defect, the bones are very brittle and can
break easily.
•
Rickets
- is a childhood disorder in which an inadequate number of mineral
crystals is deposited in the bone. The bones are
therefore, too soft