15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Limbic System: Definition, Parts,
Functions, and Location
By Olivia Guy-Evans (Olivia-Guy-Evans.html), published April 22, 2021
 Fact checked
by Saul Mcleod, PhD (saul-mcleod.html)
The limbic system is a collection of structures involved in processing emotion and
memory, including the hippocampus (hippocampus.html), the amygdala
(amygdala.html), and the hypothalamus. The limbic system is located within the
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
1/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
cerebrum of the brain, immediately below the temporal lobes, and buried under the
cerebral cortex (what-is-the-cerebral-cortex.html) (the cortex is the outermost part of the
brain).
The limbic system was originally called the rhinencephalon (meaning ‘smell brain’)
because it was thought to be primarily involved with the sense of smell.
Psychologists now recognize that the limbic system serves a lot more functions than
previously believed. These structures are known to be involved in the processing and
regulating of emotions, the formation and storage of memories, sexual arousal, and
learning.
The limbic system is thought to be an important element in the body’s response to stress
(stress-biology.html), being highly connected to the endocrine and autonomic nervous
systems (autonomic-nervous-system.html).
There are two widely accepted structures of the limbic system: the hippocampus and the
amygdala. There are differing opinions as to which other structures are included in the
system, and what only interacts closely with it.
The nerve cells (neuron.html) (neurons) within the limbic system are structured
differently to those in the cerebral cortex. In the cerebral cortex, the cells are mostly
neocortical, meaning they are formed into six layers.
Within the limbic system, the cells are either arranged in fewer layers or are more
jumbled. As there is less complexity of the cells within the limbic system, this had led
people to believe that this system is evolutionarily older than the cerebral cortex itself.
Substructures of the Limbic System
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
2/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Hippocampus
There are two hippocampi (hippocampus.html), located in each hemisphere of the
brain. They are seahorse-shaped and are structures mainly associated as being the
memory centres of our brains.
Episodic memories (episodic-memory.html) are formed in the hippocampus and
then filed away into long-term storage throughout other parts of the cerebral cortex.
The hippocampus always plays a role in spatial navigation and has also been
associated with learning and emotions (Tyng, Amin, Saad, & Malik, 2017).
The hippocampus is also known as a site where neurogenesis occurs
(neurogenesis.html) – this means that new nerve cells are made here from adult
stem cells.
Due to the hippocampus’s involvement in memory, damage to this area can lead to
severe memory impairments.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
3/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Damage can also be detrimental to spatial memory, for instance, remembering
directions to locations that should be familiar to the individual.
Amygdala
The amygdala (amygdala.html) is an almond-shaped structure, located right next to
the hippocampus. The main function of the amygdala is in emotional responses,
including feelings of happiness, fear, anger, and anxiety.
This area is also key for the formation of new memories. The amygdala interacts with
the hippocampus by attaching emotional content to memories.
It has a role in how memorable memories can be – memories that have strong
emotional components tend to stick, rather than those with little emotional content.
‘Fear learning’ is also an element of the amygdala.
Fearful memories can be formed after only a few repetitions, which can result in
avoidance of certain fearful stimuli. Therefore, the amygdala is also linked with the
fight-or-flight response, as stimulating activity in the amygdala can influence the
body’s automatic fear response.
Damage to the amygdala can result in more aggression, irritability, loss of control of
emotions, and deficits in recognising emotions, especially recognising fear.
There are also links of amygdala differences in those with Autism, depression,
posttraumatic stress disorder, and bipolar disorder.
The following structures are not structures of the limbic system, but form complex
networks and interact closely with the limbic system, aiding in many functions.
Cingulate Gyrus
The cingulate gyrus is part of the cingulate cortex of the brain and is thought to be an
integral part of the limbic system.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
4/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
This area is believed to be helpful in regulating emotions, behavior, and pain, as well
as being responsible for controlling autonomic motor function.
This area is thought to be involved in fear and the prediction and avoidance of
negative stimuli, through monitoring the body’s response to unpleasant experiences.
Damage to the cingulate gyrus can result in emotions being inappropriate, having a
lack of fear, impaired sense of pain, and learning impairments.
This region has also shown differences in structure in those with Autism, depression,
obsessive compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and bipolar disorder,
due to its role in emotional processing (Yucel et al., 2003).
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus’ most basic function is in homeostasis (maintaining a steady
internal state).
This region controls most autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, body
temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and sexual activity. The hypothalamus also
serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in
the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior.
The hypothalamus also has a role in controlling the body’s response to stress. In
order to control these many functions, the hypothalamus integrates information
from other parts of the brain and is responsive to a variety of stimuli, such as light,
odor, stress, and arousal.
If the hypothalamus is impaired, this can lead to aggressive behavior, feeling overstressed, hypothermia, hyperthermia, fatigue, weight gain/loss, and an active/under
active sex drive.
Differences in the hypothalamus have also been associated with conditions such as
depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
5/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of structures, situated at the base of the forebrain and
top of the midbrain.
Its main functions are to regulate voluntary movements, including eye movements,
help with balance as well as posture.
There is a limbic region of the basal ganglia which has multiple components (nucleus
accumbens (nucleus-accumbens.html), ventral tegmental area, and ventral
pallidum).
These areas have shown to be involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, and
with having a role in rewards and reinforcements (operant-conditioning.html).
Because of this, it can be linked with addictive behaviors and the formation of habits.
Damage to the basal ganglia in general can result in tremors, involuntary muscle
movements, abnormal posture, and links to movement disorders (Parkinson’s and
Huntington’s disease).
In relation to the limbic system, the basal ganglia may also contribute to depression
(Stathis et al., 2007).
Damage to the Limbic System
Damage to the limbic system is dependant on which region is affected. Amygdala damage
could affect a person’s fear processing (what-is-fear.html) (especially in being unable to
recognize fearful situations), which could result in more risk-taking behaviors and
putting themselves in dangerous situations.
Damage to the hippocampus could lead to deficits in being able to learn anything new, as
well as affecting memory.
Hypothalamus damage can affect the production of certain hormones, including those
which can affect mood and emotion.
Below is a non-exhaustive list of symptoms associated with limbic system damage:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
6/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Uncontrolled emotions – more aggression, anxiety (anxietydisorders.html), and agitation.
Olfactory impairments
Memory impairments
Abnormal sexual behavior – high/low sex drive
Abnormal biological rhythms
Below are some cognitive disorders which have shown to be connected to the limbic
system:
Depression
Olfactory impairments
Obsessive compulsive disorder
Anxiety
Posttraumatic stress disorder
Schizophrenia
Bipolar disorder
Autism spectrum conditions
Alzheimer’s disease
Movement disorders – Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease
A potential treatment for limbic impairments is deep brain stimulation (DBS). Successful
treatment of some cognitive disorders such as anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder
has come from DBS of the amygdala.
DBS has also shown to be useful in targeting the nucleus accumbens (part of the basal
ganglia) in relation to drug addiction (Bari, Niu, Langevin, & Fried, 2014).
Similarly, the use of antidepressant medications (what-are-the-major-classes-ofantidepressants.html) has shown links with restoring the underlying physiological
differences in the limbic system in major depressive disorder (Maletic et al., 2007).
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
7/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Research Studies
Okun et al., (2004) examined the emotional changes following deep brain
stimulation of the dentate gyrus (an area which is interactive with the hippocampus).
The researchers found that stimulation of this area caused participants to smile
spontaneously, as well as reporting feelings of euphoria.
Milner, Corkin & Teuber (1968) found that people with damage to the hippocampus
lose the ability to learn anything new. For these people, ‘yesterday’ to them is always
the time before their brain damage occurred.
Sergerie, Chochol & Armony (2008) investigated the amygdala’s response to positive
and negative emotional visual stimuli. The results showed that the amygdala
responded more strongly to faces which showed emotion, rather than other visual
emotional stimuli.
Grèzes, Berthoz & Passingham (2006) found that there was increased amygdala
activity when participants watched themselves being deceived, compared to a control
group.
This could be due to the personal involvement by participants when they make
emotional judgments involving themselves. The participants may have seen deceit as
a personal threat, therefore leading to increase amygdala activity as a result.
Morris et al., (1996) found that some patients who had damage to their amygdala
were unable to recognize fear in a person’s face or voice.
Sahin et al., (2015) investigated patients who has multiple sclerosis (MS) using
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It was found that a high number of patients had
damage in limbic areas, which may explain why people with MS commonly
experienced memory deficits and emotional dysfunction.
DelBello, Adler & Strakowski (2006) investigated the neurophysiology of childhood
and adolescent bipolar disorder. They found structural and neurochemical
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
8/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
abnormalities in the limbic areas of the amygdala and hippocampus in young people
with this disorder.
White et al., (2008) investigated the limbic structures and networks with children
and adolescents with schizophrenia.
They found that the cingulate cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala had observable
differences in structure. They also found that difference in white matter (what-iswhite-matter-in-the-brain.html) volumes tended to be more focal to the limbic
system.
Maletic et al., (2007) conducted a literature review regarding the neurobiology of
major depressive disorder. They concluded that the literature showed that the limbic
areas showed to be associated with emotion regulation.
Lepage et al., (2018) investigated the limbic structures of former NFL football
players, of which, a condition called chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) tends
to be diagnosed (this is a neurodegenerative disease associated with repeated head
impacts).
Compared to a control group, the former NFL players had reduced volumes of the
amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate gyrus. Therefore, this may be a potential
indicator of neurodegeneration in those at risk of developing CTE.
Milner (2003) found that the inferior (lower) temporal cortex is responsible for
visual perception, therefore lesions in this area can lead to an inability to recognize
faces (also known as prosopagnosia).
There may be a link between the temporal lobes and dyslexia. As dyslexia affects
reading ability and giving meaning to language, people with dyslexia may have
reduced activity in their left temporal lobes.
Valdois et al., (2019) found that impaired attentional systems within the temporal
lobes can be associated with developmental dyslexia.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
9/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Lowndes & Savage (2007) proposed that the earliest neuropsychological
identification of Alzheimer’s disease may lie in the medial temporal lobe.
Due to the superior temporal sulcus’ (STS) role in interpreting social and speech
input, Redcay (2008) suggested that impairments in STS function may underlie
many of the social and language difficulties in those with Autism Spectrum
Disorders.
Kasai et al., (2003) used neuroimaging techniques (neuroimaging.html) on patients
with Schizophrenia and found structural abnormalities in their superior temporal
gyrus.
There may also be a link between auditory cortex damage/deficits and schizophrenia,
as damage in this area is linked to major symptoms of schizophrenia (e.g. hearing
voice and auditory hallucinations).
About the Author
Olivia Guy-Evans obtained her undergraduate degree in Educational Psychology at
Edge Hill University in 2015. She then received her master’s degree in Psychology of
Education from the University of Bristol in 2019. Olivia has been working as a support
worker for adults with learning disabilities in Bristol for the last four years.
How to reference this article:
Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 22). Limbic system: definition, parts, functions, and
location. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
APA Style References
Bari, A., Niu, T., Langevin, J. P., & Fried, I. (2014). Limbic neuromodulation:
implications for addiction, posttraumatic stress disorder, and memory. Neurosurgery
Clinics of North America, 25(1), 137–145.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
10/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
DelBello, M. P., Adler, C. M., & Strakowski, S. M. (2006). The neurophysiology of
childhood and adolescent bipolar disorder. CNS Spectrums, 11(4), 298-311.
Grèzes, J., Berthoz, S., & Passingham, R. E. (2006). Amygdala activation when one is the
target of deceit: did he lie to you or to someone else?. Neuroimage, 30(2), 601-608.
Lepage, C., Muehlmann, M., Tripodis, Y., Hufschmidt, J., Stamm, J., Green, K., ... &
Koerte, I. K. (2019). Limbic system structure volumes and associated neurocognitive
functioning in former NFL players. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 13(3), 725-734.
Maletic, V., Robinson, M., Oakes, T., Iyengar, S., Ball, S. G., & Russell, J. (2007).
Neurobiology of depression: an integrated view of key findings. International Journal of
Clinical Practice, 61(12), 2030-2040.
Milner, B., Corkin, S., & Teuber, H. L. (1968). Further analysis of the hippocampal
amnesic syndrome: 14-year follow-up study of HM. Neuropsychologia, 6(3), 215-234.
Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., & Dolan,
R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy
facial expressions. Nature, 383(6603), 812-815.
Okun, M. S., Bowers, D., Springer, U., Shapira, N. A., Malone, D., Rezai, A. R., Nuttin, B.,
Heilman, K. M., Morecraft, R. J., Rasmussen, S. A., Greenburg, B. D., Foote, K. D. &
Goodman, W. K. (2004). What's in a “smile?” Intra-operative observations of
contralateral smiles induced by deep brain stimulation. Neurocase, 10(4), 271-279.
Sahin, N., Selouan, R., Markowitz, C. E., Melhem, E. R., & Bilello, M. (2016). Limbic
pathway lesions in patients with multiple sclerosis. Acta Radiologica, 57(3), 341-347.
Sergerie, K., Chochol, C., & Armony, J. L. (2008). The role of the amygdala in emotional
processing: a quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies.
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(4), 811-830.
Stathis, P., Panourias, I. G., Themistocleous, M. S., & Sakas, D. E. (2007). Connections of
the basal ganglia with the limbic system: implications for neuromodulation therapies of
anxiety and affective disorders. Operative Neuromodulation, 575-586.
Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The influences of emotion
on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1454.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
11/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
White, T., Cullen, K., Rohrer, L. M., Karatekin, C., Luciana, M., Schmidt, M.,
Hongwanishkul, D., Kumra, S., Schulz, C. & Lim, K. O. (2008). Limbic structures and
networks in children and adolescents with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(1),
18-29.
Yücel, M., Wood, S. J., Fornito, A., Riffkin, J., Velakoulis, D., & Pantelis, C. (2003).
Anterior cingulate dysfunction: implications for psychiatric disorders?. Journal of
Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 28(5), 350.
Related Articles
Sapolsky, R. M. (2003). Stress and plasticity in the limbic system. Neurochemical
research, 28(11), 1735-1742.
(https://dept.wofford.edu/Neuroscience/NeuroSeminar/pdfSpring2008/Sapolsky2003.pdf)
Central Nervous System (central-nervous-system.html)
Neuroscience (neuroscience.html)
What is a Synapse? (synapse.html)
Brain Plasticity (brain-plasticity.html)
Phineas Gage Brain Injury (phineas-gage.html)
Google Site Search

Home (/) | About Us (about.html) | Privacy Policy (privacy.html) | Advertise
(https://simplypsychology.org/direct-sales.html) | Contact Us (about.html)

Back to top
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
12/13
15/01/2023, 09:32
Limbic System: Definition, Parts, Functions, and Location - Simply Psychology
Simply Psychology's content is for informational and educational purposes only. Our
website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis,
or treatment.
© Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved
https://www.simplypsychology.org/limbic-system.html
13/13