Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
SHEEP IN ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE
Author(s): K. G. Sheshadri
Source: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , Vol. 95 (2014), pp. 24-49
Published by: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26493973
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SHEEP IN ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE
AND CULTURE
By
K. G. Sheshadri
Introduction
Goats and sheep have been domesticated by humans almost 8700
years ago. On the basis of archaeological evidence Zeuner summarized
the complex picture presented by the history of domesticated sheep. The
original centre of domestication of sheep is the Aralo-Caspian steppe and
Turkestan1. From there, sheep-keeping spread early into Iran and later
into Mesopotamia and Baluchistan. Domestication of sheep and goat thus
took place in the pre-agriculture phase when nomadic man with the aid
of dog brought sheep and goat under his control. Though sheep were first
domesticated in these regions, they came to the plains rather early in the
history of civilization and served a useful purpose in the economy of the
Mesopotamian and North Indian civilization. They provided milk, meat
and clothing for the inhabitants of the cold north. There exist three
species of wild sheep in the mountainous regions of Asia and Europe.
These are namely the Ovis Musimon Pallas (known as Mouflon), Ovis
orientalis vignei Blyth (known as Urial) and Ovis Ammon Linn. (known
as Argali).2 The Argali is a very large sheep with a shoulder height of up
to 120 cm and further occurs farther East and Northeast Asia than the
Urial ranging from Bokhara through the Altai mountains and Tibet to
Northern China. In the mountain ranges of the Himalayas and in Tibet,
there are other breeds of sheep which betray Urial descent. These breeds
include the Hunia (is tall, strong and carries salt over the passes), Barwal
(Rams have massive horns the bases of which touch almost each other
and used for fighting purposes) and Dumba (Occurs from Turkestan to
Western India and Pakistan and is a fat-tailed breed). The remains of
Asiatic Urial have been identified at Harappa sites.3 They have also been
found at Hastinapur and Maski sites as well as Mohenjodaro, Rangpur
1
Dubey-Pawaiya 2003: 84-89.
Nath 1961: 336-367.
3
Prashad 1936: 9, 50-53.
2
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
25
and Brahmagiri. Whether the goat or sheep was domesticated first is not
yet clear because of the fragmentary nature of skeletal remains and
difficulty of distinguishing sheep and goat bones. There are also
representations of sheep or goat motifs found on Harappan pottery.4
However sheep figurines are not found on Harappan seals. The remains
of a variety of domestic sheep with short horn have been reported from
Lothal, Rangpur, Rupar and other sites. The domestic race of wild sheep
was in the first instance the Askal which belongs to the species of the
Urial. In so far as sheep kept in India, Tibet and other countries of the
East and South Asia, they are of Western derivation and basically of
Urial stock. Argali breed has however introduced repeatedly a few sheep
that ensured a permanent meat supply and also improved the supply of
raw materials of skins, hair, fat, bones and wool. The Wild sheep are
ancestors of domestic sheep. ‘Zackel’ sheep are old domesticated breeds
as it is also seen in Mohenjodaro seals5. The hair of sheep was woven
into cloth and beaten into felt.
Ancient Vedic texts mention animals as part of Cosmic law and
further indicate domestication of animals. A study of ancient Sanskrit
literature gives us interesting insights into sheep that are significant both
from a religious, mythological and a scientific aspect. Ancient Indians
had observed characteristics of sheep and mention the use of their
products in several rites that were recorded in their literature from the
earliest period. The characteristics, myths and uses of products of sheep
as gleaned from these texts is presented in the present paper that will
allow one to admire at the keen sense of observations made regarding to
this animal. These observations range from regarding their origin, their
bodily color or structure, the qualities of their products, the omens they
forebode when used in various sacrificial rituals as dealt in some texts
and traditions associated with sheep in Indian culture presented in
suitable contexts.
Sheep in Vedic Literature
Several ancient authors refer to sheep domestication in India. Among
them, the Greek accounts flourish details of sheep. Ktesias states that in
India, sheep and goats bigger than asses were domesticated.6 The tails
grew to such size that those of them were cut off. Sheep were shorn of
wool once in six months. Sheep are mentioned as early as in the Vedic
4
Mackay 1937-38, Vol. 2: 146, 212. See Plate LXVI (No.23) and XCIX (No. A).
Hermanns, M. 1952.:150
6
Jain 2011, Vol. 1: 9
5
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26
Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
texts. They are termed by the word avi, which has special significance in
some hymns. The Puruṣasūkta (ṚV 10.90.10) mentions that goats and
sheep were born from the Supreme Person. The text also states that
sheep were domesticated for flesh and wool and sacrificed in honour of
Gods. ṚV 1.126.7 and 4.37.4 mention that sheep of Gāndhāra regions is
famous for wool. ṚV 1.114.9 is a hymn stating shepherds returning their
sheep to their owners. ṚV 9.78.1 mentions that a strainer for Soma juice
is made of sheep wool. ṚV 8.67.3 has a Dānastuti of gifting hundred
sheep. ṚV 10.26.6 states Pūṣan is said to weave raiment from wool of
sheep. The term urā as a name for sheep occurs in the Ṛgveda. One
occurrence is the epithet for wolf as urāmathin (a killer of sheep). The
Paruṣṇī country is famous for its wool.
YV 3.43 is a hymn calling cows, goats and sheep nearer to men. In
the context of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice (YV 30.11) it is stated that a
shepherd is to be sacrificed for the quality of manliness
(vīryāyāvipālaṁ). YV 30.2 states that sheep were protected for strength.
The YV also has several words denoting domestic animals and their age.
Though some of them denote the age of cattle, taking into account other
texts, one finds that some words cannot be taken to refer to cows only.
These include tryavi - sheep that are one and half years old that belongs
to gāyatrī metre, pañcāvi - sheep that is two and half years old belongs to
triṣṭubh metre, and dityauhī - sheep that are 2 years old belongs to jagatī
metre. TS 4.7.10.1 also has these terms as it reads: garbhāś ca me vatsāś
ca me tryaviś ca me tryavī ca me dityavāṭ ca me dityauhī ca me yajñena
kalpatām. The text also mentions that goats give birth to two or three
kids but sheep give birth even to a larger number as in TS 6.5.10.1:
tasmād dvau trīn ajā janayaty athāvayo bhūyasīḥ. TS 5.1.7.4 also
mentions that one accomplishes fumigation and consecration rituals by a
sheep. Sheep-milk was also used in various rituals. However, YV
1.7.170 prohibits drinking of sheep-milk. Sheep are also mentioned in TS
2.1.2.2. MS 3.10.2 states that the Gods immolated man as a victim and
the sap (medhas) went out of him and entered a horse. When it was
immolated, sap entered a cow which then departed and entered a sheep.
From sheep, the sap entered a goat. This indicates a succession of
organisms. The goats and sheep are symbolically stated to be born
through upāṁśu and antaryāma cups used in sacrificial rituals mentioned
at TS 6.5.10.1. This must be taken in a context similar to that in the
Puruṣa Sūkta of Ṛgveda wherein the devas are said to perform a sacrifice
and goats and sheep are said to have originated from the Supreme Person
through sacrifice. TS 2.1.1.5 while mentioning the characteristic features
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
27
of different beings states that sheep have sheep-like hooves - yad avyā
iva śaphās tad avīnām. TS 2.1.2.2 states that when Svarbhānu, a demon
pierced the sun, the Gods desired atonement for him. The first darkness
struck by them became black sheep, the second became a reddish colored
one and the third became a white sheep. What they cut from upper part
of the bone became the barren ewe (avivasā). ūrṇa in Vedic texts not
only meant sheep-wool but also included goat’s hair. The term
ūrṇamradas is used to indicate soft as wool. Woollen thread is denoted
by the term ūrṇasūtra in YV 19.80, MS 3.11.9 and Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā
YKS 38.3.
The Pariśiṣṭas are texts compiled for elaborating various subjects
discussed in the Vedic Brāhmaṇa and Sūtra texts. Each Veda has got its
own Pariśiṣṭa. The twelfth Pariśiṣṭa of the śukla Yajurveda is titled as
Mūlyādhyāya and comprises of seven kārikās. It has elaborate details of
items which have been prescribed to be given as regular and extra
dakṣiṇā used in sacrifices. In this context the value of dakṣiṇā for sheep
is deemed better than that for goats probably because a sheep yields
fleece.
The SV, Pūrvārcika, 6.2.7 states that filtered Soma flows through the
long wool of the sheep - somaḥ punāna ūrmiṇāvyaṁ vāraṁ vi dhāvati.
References to the long wool of sheep are also found in SV Uttarārcika,
4.1.2; 4.2.1 and 8.2.12. The wolf is also regarded as one who attacks sheep
as in the SV Uttarārcika, 8.2 - vṛkaś cid asya vāraṇa urāmathirā vayuneṣu
bhūṣati | semaṁ na stomaṁ jujuṣāṇa ā gahīndra pra citrayā dhiyā.
Rich information about sheep is obtained in the AV. The
śatrusenātrāsana Sūkta (AV 5.21.5) states that goats and sheep run
fearing the wolf- yathā vṛkād ajāvayo dhāvanti bahu bibhyatīḥ. AV
8.8.25 states that certain herbs are known to goats and sheep. AV 2.8
also mentions that after the sap departed from the horse, cow, sheep, goat
and so on, the gods dismissed these animals as no more fit for the
sacrifice. AV 3.29 termed as Avi Sūkta attributed to sage Uddālaka has
interesting details of sheep. White footed sheep are termed as śitipāda
avi in AV 3.29.1 and was given as ancestral offerings. AV 3.29.3 also
states that he who gives a white footed sheep commensurate with his
world, ascends unto the firmament - yo dadāti śitipādam aviṁ lokena
saṁmitam | sa nākam abhy ārohati yatra śulko na kriyate abalena
balīyase. A complete hymn, Pañcaudāna Ajasūkta by sage Bhṛgu to goats
in the sacrificial ritual is seen in the AV. The hymn deals on bringing in
the goat to the sacrificial place, slaughtering and cooking of a goat. The
hymn AV 9.5.1 conducts the goat with a prayer to step to the third
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
firmament- mahāntyajo nākamā kamatāṁ tṛtīyam. The goat is to be
offered with five rice dishes (pañcaudāna) as in AV 9.5.8 and such an
offering is made so that it may ascend to the world of well doing without
difficulty AV 9.5.9. Similar to the Pañcaudāna Ajasūkta (for goats),
there is a mention of offering white footed sheep with five cakes (apūpa)
that is laid on the victim in Sava sacrifices. The first six verses of the
Pañcaudāna Ajasūkta are quoted by the KS 64.6-16 in connection with
bringing in, circumambulating Agni, slaughtering, sprinkling of waters
on its feet and cooking as well as offering it with five rice dishes with the
setting of a cake on each quarter of the animal offered and one on its
navel. AV 11.2.21 invokes Rudra seeking him to roll forth his missile
and smite progeny of mockers for those being greedy for kine, men, goat
and sheep.
The Brāhmaṇa texts mention goats being associated with Agni and
the sacrificial ritual. The legend of the MS 3.10.2 mentioning that the
Gods immolated man as a victim and the sap (medhas) entering a list of
animals including that of a sheep is also supported by the AB 2.8 as well
as SB I.2.3-6. AB 7.7 gives the number of domestic species as seven and
the Ṣadguruśiṣya Bhāṣya on it lists these animals as cow, horse, sheep,
goat, man, ass and camel- sapta vai grāmyāḥ paśavaḥ. SB 4.5.5.4
observes that when sheep and goats are together, the goats go first and
the sheep behind them- tasmād saha sato ajāvikasyobhayasyaivājāḥ
pūrvā yanti anūcyo avayaḥ. SB 4.5.5.6 also pays attention to the walking
style of goats and sheep stating that sheep walk with their heads down as
if in a digging pose- tasmād imā avayo avācīm aśīrṣṇyaḥ khanantya iva
yanti. The sheep are also mentioned in SB 6.2.1.18. Elsewhere while
describing the Sautrāmaṇi yajña, it states that Soma is purified with a
strainer made of goat’s hair and sheep wool. SB 12.7.1.3 states that ram
is the vigour of Indra that flowed from his nostrils that became a sheep,
the animal namely a ram- nāsikābhyāṁ evāsya vīryaṁ asravat. so aviḥ
paśur abhavan meṣaḥ. SB 2.5.2.15 uses the term anaiḍakīr ūrṇaḥ for
wool not coming from the eḍaka species of sheep. TB 2.6.4 also refers to
the use of wool from sheep. The myth of TS 2.1.2.2 is also upheld by PB
VI.6.8 in context of the color of strainers for Soma drinking. It states that
the Gods resorted to sage Atri and he repelled the darkness by Bhāsa
sāman. The part of darkness he repelled first became black sheep, the
second time it became silvery sheep and third time it became reddish
sheep and with what arrow he set free its original appearance (color),
that became white sheep. PB 16.1.10 includes goats among donkeys and
sheep. PB 10.2.6 states that the fifteen and twenty one fold stomas are
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
29
connected with bṛhat. After these, cow and sheep were created. Likewise
PB 2.7.8 states that there are seven kinds of domestic animals of which
sheep are one among them. PB 24.9.5 states that Pṛsthyastomas are
united together. Therefore cattle, goats and sheep walk together during
the ārbhava pavamāna laud of the fourth day. PB 2.11.3 states filtered
Soma flows through the wool of sheep. The Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa
mentions the three kinds of sheep as in the myth of TS 2.1.2.2 as kṛṣṇa,
dhūmra and phalguṇa. Hence the strainer is white for Soma. JB 1.69
places sheep along with śūdras stating that both of them live by serving
feet - tasmād upādāvanejyenaiva jijīviṣati.
The Bṛhaddevata (III.140f) of śaunaka states that king Svanaya, son
of Bhayavya gave Kakṣīvat number of chariots, steeds, goats, sheep,
cows and bulls along with maidens. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.4
mentions that sheep and goats are reared for wool, meat and milk.
Ritual associations of sheep are elaborated more in the śrauta Sūtras.
ApSS 18.3.4 mentions that the animals given as dakṣiṇā in the Vājapeya
yajña include sheep. KSS 19.2.12 in context of Surā purification ritual
states that the pavitra for purifying milk was made of hair of goat and
sheep. In context of the Sautrāmaṇi sacrifice (especially on the fourth
day) and the Rājasūya sacrifice the animals to be offered include a
reddish white he-goat to Aśvins, ewe with teats and dewlap to Sarasvatī
and bull to Indra, KSS states 19.3.2-4 and KSS 15.10.1 respectively aśvino ajodhūmraḥ. sārasvato meṣaḥ. aindra ṛṣabhaḥ. Likewise in the
Sautrāmaṇi rite, the Adhvaryu purifies milk in a vessel of reeds by
means of a sieve made of the hair of goat and sheep at the northern altar
as in KSS 19.2.12 - uttarasyāṁ payo vaitase ajāviloma pavitreṇa. LSS
2.10.1 states that one must mentally meditate on the horse, goats and
sheep, rice and barley with a stoma hymn. SKSS 9.23.4 mentions that the
sheep is one among the five sacrificial animals such as man, goat, ox and
horse. BaSS 24.5 also on the same lines as AB mentions that there are
seven domestic animals (grāmyapaśu). BSS 14.4.7 prescribes goats,
sheep and other items given as sacrificial fees. In a rite of BSS 8.7.3-5,
the figurines of sheep made from karambha flour, a ram prepared by
Adhvaryu and a ewe (meṣī) by Pratiprasthātṛ is placed into the āmikṣā
Varuṇapraghāsa.
The other Kalpasūtras also have some valuable details of sheep. GGS
3.1.7 states that during Chūḍākaraṇa ritual the dakṣiṇā given by a Vaiśya
consists of a pair of sheep. DGS (also known as Khādira Gṛhyasūtra
(KGS)) 2.5.3 states that sheep is one of the animals used as sacrificial
fee. KGS 4.3.16 states that one desirous of cattle should sacrifice
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
thousand oblations of excrement of male and female calf. If he is
desirous of flocks then one must do so with a male and female sheep.
GDS 7.157 while discussing the rules to be followed by people in
times of adversity states that one may not trade in sheep. GDS 12.25
states that in case of property damage by sheep and goats, the fine is 2
māṣas (equivalent to weight of 0.97 grams and a coin of this weight paid)
for each. Sheep is one of the animals being the inheritance share of the
youngest son according to GDS 28.7. GDS 15.15 states that flesh of
sheep satisfies the Manes for several years. GDS 17.24 forbids the milk
of sheep in rites. VDS 17.448 states that the youngest person in the
family gets goats, sheep and house in partitioning of an estate. BDS
1.12.119 also forbids the drinking of milk of sheep. It however differs
from VDS in case of inheritance stating that among the four social
classes, the special share of the eldest is cow, horse, goats and sheep as
stated in BDS 2.3.9. BDS 2.6.34 also considers the dust coming from
sheep as dirty. ADS 1.3.710 states that sheep skin is suitable for all
classes and so is a shawl made of sheep wool. ADS 1.17.22 forbids
drinking the milk of sheep.
The Smṛtis give several other aspects of sheep with regards to
several rites. MSM 11.6711 forbids the slaughter of goats, sheep along
with other animals such as ass, horse, camel, deer and elephant. The
śātātapa Smṛti 2.5312 states that by killing a lamb, one is born with
jaundice. For purification, he should present unto a brāhmaṇa one pala
(a measure equal to 27.2 grams) of musk (kastūrī)- urabhre nihate caiva
pāṇḍurogaḥ prajāyate. Kasturikā-palaṁ dadyād brāhmaṇāya viśuddhaye. The Atri Smṛti13 states that the four classes of Vipras who sell
sheep should never be adored even if they are equal to Bṛhaspati in
learning. YVS (Acārādhyāya, Dānaprakaraṇa I.258) mentions the
offering of meat of sheep in śrāddha rite that yields unending fruits
satisfying the Manes for a period of four months but forbids the milk of
sheep (YVS I.170). According to the Viṣṇu Smṛti14 80.4 the flesh of
sheep is used as dietary article for satisfaction of Manes. The Parāśara
7
Olivelle 2000: 89, 99, 124, 104 and 109.
Olivelle 2000: 295.
9
Olivelle 2000: 152, 172 and 182.
10
Olivelle 2000: 10 and 28.
11
Jha 1939: Vol. 2, 390.
12
Singh, Nag Sharan 1988: 606.
13
Singh, Nag Sharan 1988: 385.
14
Singh, Nag Sharan 1988: 522.
8
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
31
Smṛti15 11.11-12 states that even unknowingly drinking milk of sheep by
a Brāhmaṇa causes sin fit for expiation. One should fast for three nights
and consume pañcagavya (five products of cow). The text at 6.14 also
states that a killer of sheep must fast for the entire day and break the fast
with food that has not been produced by tillage of land (aphālakṛṣṭam
aśnīyāt). The Nārada Smṛti section on non-payment of wages at 6.15
states that if goats and sheep are attacked by wolves and the keeper does
not go to repel the attack, he shall be responsible for every one of them
which a wolf shall kill. Elsewhere the Nārada Smṛti section on contests
regarding boundaries at 11.31 states that a king should compel the
proprietor of goats and sheep trespassing with young to pay a fine of half
a māṣa. Pāṇinī in his Aṣṭādhyāyī16 mentions goats and sheep together. A
flock of rams is referred to as aurabhraka at 4.2.39. A shepherd is
termed as mahājābāla in 5.4.28.
Sheep in Epic and Puranic Texts
The VR has several references to sheep. In the Ayodhya kāṇḍa 77.3,
the text states that white goats and sheep were given as gifts along with
cows by Bharata during the performance of the rites of twelfth day of
śrāddha of king Daśaratha. The same text narrates the story of Vātāpi, a
demon who used to assume the form of a ram and tricked the sages of
Daṇḍakāraṇya. The text also speaks about the Praveṇa species of goat
āraṇya kāṇḍa 43.36 as lord Rāma exclaims that the skin of sheep or
species of deer can be compared with that of Mārīca’s disguise - na
kadalī na priyakī na praveṇī na cāvikī. The SM also mentions the sheep
as a domestic animal. The Vana parvan 188.21 mentions that in the
Kaliyuga people will milk the goats and ewes (aja and eḍaka) as cows
will not be available. The Sabhā parvan [śiśupālavadha parvan] also
mentions that the Kāmbhojas as well as several other kings gave tributes
of fleeces of Eḍa sheep as well as goats during the Rājasūya Yajña. In the
Virāṭa parvan Nakula hides the weapons of the Pāṇḍavas in the tree and
as he came down, the Pāṇḍavas saw several cowherds and shepherds
grazing the cattle and sheep entering the city asking them to claim that
the corpse hung was that of an aged mother. In the Bhīṣma parvan,
Bhīma having killed fourteen sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra, licked the corners of
his mouth like a wolf in the midst of sheep. This parvan also lists seven
domestic animals that include goats but does not mention sheep. The
Droṇa parvan states that having lost Bhīṣma, the Kauravas filled with
15
16
Singh, Nag Sharan 1988: 671.
Agrawala 1963: 220-221.
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
anxiety resembled a herd of sheep without shepherd. The Karṇa parvan
(section Bālhīkamadrakakutsana) has Karṇa stating to the Madra king
śalya asking him as to when he shall gorge upon large number of sheep
and pork, beef, meat of fowls, asses and camels. He adds that those who
do not eat sheep live in vain. He also claims to drink the milk of sheep,
camels and asses - gaurībhiḥ saha nārībhir bṛhatībhiḥ svalaṅkṛtāḥ.
palāṇḍugaṇḍūṣatān khādante caiḍakān bahūn. vārāhaṁ kaukkuṭaṁ
māṁsaṁ gavyaṁ gārdabham auṣṭrakam. eḍaṁ ca ye na khādanti teṣāṁ
janma nirarthakam.
Several Purāṇas mention various aspects of goats. The Matsya
Purāṇa 154.531-536 while describing the śivagaṇas states that some of
them had faces or heads like goats and sheep as well as other animals.
The Kūrma Purāṇa 1.7.54 states that sheep were created from chest of
Prajāpati. The Viṣṇu Purāṇa 1.5.46f states that several beasts were born
from Brahman’s body of which sheep were born from his chest - avayo
vakṣasaś cakre mukhato ajāḥ sa sṛṣṭavān. The śiva Purāṇa 7.1.26-77
varies in the origin of animals from body of Brahman and states that
sheep were born from his mouth. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa 3.10.22 includes
the sheep among the list of other animals that have split-hooves
(dviśapha). The Vāyu Purāṇa 1.9.42 also mentions that sheep are
included among rural domestic animals. At 2.16.17, it also mentions that
milk of ewes is to be avoided by a wise man in ancestral rites. The text at
1.80.15 states that the milk of sheep is taboo in śrāddha ceremonies
performed for the manes thus echoing a similar view of Yajurveda
Saṁhitā. The Vāyu Purāṇa also states that at the end of Kaliyuga people
will keep aja (goat), eḍaka (ewe), khara (ass) and uṣṭra (camel) as pets
similarly to that mentioned by the Mahābhārata in Vana parvan 188.21.
The Padma Purāṇa 1.9.151-164 while listing the list of dietary articles
for Manes during śrāddha rites states that the flesh of lamb provides
satisfaction for a period of eight months. The Vāmana Purāṇa 95.42
states that goat and sheep are to be donated to please lord Keśava. The
Agni Purāṇa 231.12 states that goats and sheep, elephants, parrot, buffalo
and crow are both wild and domestic in nature. It also mentions Rudra
homa performed with libations of sacrificial porridge or clarified butter
stamps out and arrests spread of plague or any epidemics among goats
and sheep. The Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa states that Sugrīvi, the daughter of
Tāmra who was wife of sage Kaśyapa gave birth to goats, sheep and
rams. The Nāradapurāṇa states that the expiation for killing sheep is half
that of the Prājāpatyavrata. The Garuḍapurāṇa 1.114.41 states that dust
from ass, camel, goat and sheep is inauspicious. It also states that one
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
33
who steals cotton is reborn as sheep. The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa
recognises sheep as one of the seven domestic animals.
Sheep in Post-Vedic Texts
Some interesting details of sheep are mentioned in some Post-Vedic
texts. Sheep are known by several synonyms according to AK and other
kośas. These synonyms are eḍaka, avika, uraṇa, urabhra, bahuroman,
lomaśa, romaśa and saṁphāla. Female sheep are known by terms such as
eḍī. Balin is said to be a kind of sheep. Thick tailed sheep are known by
the term dumbaka. Sheep butchers are denoted in Post-Vedic texts by the
term aurabhrika. The fever in goats or sheep are denoted by the term
prāleya. The five products (pañcāvika) of sheep are namely milk, curds,
meat, wool and urine. A single ewe going in front of a flock of sheep is
known as gaḍḍarika. The Suśruta Saṁhitā at Sūtrasthāna 45.54 and at
45.224 refers to various medicinal qualities of sheep milk and sheep
urine respectively. Sheep’s blood is mentioned in the text at
Uttarasthāna, śoṣapratiśedha 41.49. Sheep’s ghee produced from its milk
is used in treating eye diseases (Uttarasthāna 17.33). Sheep is also
termed as avi or urabhra (Sūtrasthāna 46.85). Goat hairs (ajaroman) are
used along with hairs of camel and sheep in fumigation of child troubled
by spirits (Uttarasthāna Skandha-grahapratiṣedha 28.6).
The Charaka Saṁhitā at Sūtrasthāna 1.93 and 1.100 mentions the
properties of sheep urine. The text at Chikitsasthāna, Trimarmīyacikitsā
26.185 mentions that sheep’s urine cures diseases of head (krimija
śiroroga). It is also used in treating epilepsy and insanity wherein a
collyrium (añjana) made of various ingredients along with sheep urine is
used (apasmāra-cikitsā).
The MD of Mādhava, son of Chakradatta also mentions the efficacy
of sheep curds, ghee, urine, flesh and milk as follows: aurabhraṁ
madhuraṁ snigdhamuṣṇaṁ vātakaphāpaham. guru śuddhe anile pathyaṁ
kāse cānilaśoṇite (MD V.6). kopanaṁ kaphavātasya durnāmnāṁ
cāvikaṁ dadhi. mahābhiṣyandi madhuraṁ kaphamedovivardhanam
(VI.10). pāke laghvāvikaṁ sarpir na ca pittaprakopaṇam. kaphe'nile
yonidoṣe śophe kaṁpe ca taddhitam (IX.7). plīhodaraśvāsakāsaśothavarcograhe hitam. sakśāraṁ tiktakaṭukam uṣṇaṁ vātaghnam āvikam
(XIV.6). bṛṁhaṇaṁ māṁsam aurabhraṁ pittaśleṣmakaraṁ guru
(XIX.8).
Several āyurveda Nighaṇṭus give the properties of sheep products that
are not elaborated but only listed in the present context. The Dhanvantarī
Nighaṇṭu at Suvarṇādivarga 163 gives properties of milk of sheep, at
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
Suvarṇādivarga 185 of the curds of sheep and at Suvarṇādivarga 488 of
sheep urine. The Madanapāla Nighaṇṭu of king Madanapāla at
Māṁsavarga 26-27 gives the synonyms and properties of flesh of sheep.
The RN of Narahari Paṇḍita in Siṁhādivarga 19.46-47 mentions the
characteristics of aja, chāga and meṣa stating that goats of different places
have different characteristics indicating that ancient Indians were aware of
the species variations. It also mentions sheep and its synonyms in this
context - meṣo bheḍo huḍo meṇḍhraḥ ūrṇāyur uraṇas tathā. eḍakaḥ
śṛṅgiṇo aviḥ syād urabhro romaśo balī. nānādeśaviśeṣeṇa meṣā nānāvidhā
amī. The RN in Kṣīravarga 14 lists the properties of milk of sheep, in
Kṣīravarga 43 the properties of its curd, of urine at Kṣīravarga 101 and
that of ghee at Kṣīravarga 80-81. The text also mentions the properties of
flesh of sheep at Māṁsavarga 40-41.
The BS of Varāhamihira also gives the details about sheep. The text
at 55.17 states that for increasing yields of flower and fruits of trees,
creepers and shrubs they should be sprinkled with mixture of powder of
dung of goats (ajaśakṛccūrṇa) and sheep along with other ingredients in
suitable measures as stated. The text also speaks of ascertaining the price
of goats and sheep from plantains at BS 29.7. A thunder or hurricane in
the (first watch of the day) period of three hours after sunrise destroys
goat and sheep according BS 39.2. In the context of describing
Aṅgavidyā especially on the signs of predicting food eaten, BS 51.34
states that one who has eaten flesh of sheep touches his hair.
KA 2.29.41, while specifying the duties of the Superintendent of
cattle states that the wool of goats and sheep had to be removed halfyearly. KA 2.29.25 states that in case of animals dying through a valid
cause especially goats and sheep, they shall be delivered by the mark (of
identification) on their ears made by the owner. KA 13.4.18 makes
interesting observations about sheep stating that sheep-dung was mixed
with chemicals to make inflammable balls while storming a fort and was
a good retainer of fire. The text states that one droṇa (a measure) of
sheep milk will produce one half prasthas (measure) more of butter than
cow’s milk when churned. Aromatic herbs are despised by sheep. It
further states that in the case of division of shares among sons of the
same wife, the special share of the eldest in case of Vaiśyas is sheep.
King Aśoka’s Pillar (Edict V)17 states that twenty six years after his
coronation, several animals including sheep and pigs which are with their
young or lactating animals up to age of six months are to be protected.
17
Nikam and Mckeon 1959: 55-56.
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
35
The Pañcatantra of Viṣṇuśarman narrates the story of Jackal being
crushed between two rams who were fighting with their horns. The
Mātakabhaṭṭa Jātaka (Jātaka No. 18.) narrates the story of a Brahmin
offering a feast to the dead with a ram sacrifice. The ram first started to
laugh loudly followed by loud weeping and narrated its previous birth.
Bāṇabhaṭṭa in his Harṣacharita chapter 3 mentions about troops of camel
and flocks of sheep under the guardianship of camel keepers. The
śātavāhana king Hāla in his Gāthāsaptaśatī (Gāthā No. 172) uses the term
vaga in the sense of flock. A flock of sheep is known as bagga and
sheep-pen is known as vagari in the Sangli-Kolhapur regions of
Maharastra. Bhāsa in his AVM mentions that the sons of a Sauvīra king
lived as sheep-killer (avimāraka) due to a curse and thus the work is also
titled based on this theme. References to sheep in several other Kāvyas is
rare and descriptions of sheep and shepherds are yet to be gleaned from
untapped literary sources.
The MAN, an encyclopaedic text of the western Chālukyan king
Someśvara III in the chapter titled Meṣayuddhavinoda describing ram
fights outlines the characteristics of goats and rams. It states that a ram
born with a head turned away is never defeated: parāṅmukho ya utpanno
yuddhe na sa parājitaḥ. A ram with a black head is brave. It also states
there are three kinds of rams- colika, jaṭila and śoṇavarṇa. A colika ram
has eyebrows, feet, belly, tail, ears and mouth black in color. A special
ram named as utsāhacholikā has the above mentioned parts of the body
being white in color instead of black. the jaṭila ram has big fat hairs in
the neck and breast, soft, dense and smooth hairs of any color on its
body. A śoṇavarṇa ram is red colored with fat horns with small and
sharp hairs throughout the body. bhruvau pādāś ca jaṭharaṁ puccham
āsyaṁ śrutidvayam. iti yasya bhavet kṛṣṇaṁ colikaḥ sa udāhṛtaḥ. etair
eva bhavec chvetaiḥ kṛṣṇaś cotsāhacolaikā. romāṇi sthūladīrghāṇi teṣāṁ
kaṇṭhe stane tathā. yena kenāpi varṇena yasorṇā sarvagātrajā. mṛdulā
gumphitā ślakṣṇā jaṭilaḥ sa prakīrtitaḥ. bandhuraḥ skandhadeśe tu sthūla
saṅgataśṛṅgakaḥ. hrasvāṇi sthūlaromāṇi sarvāṅgīṇāni yasya tu lohito yaś
ca varṇena śoṇaḥ sa parikīrtitaḥ. (viṁśati IV.8.1239 - 1244)
The STR of Keladi Basavaraja (kallola 7, XIII. 188-190) while
enlisting the animals that are to be kept in horse stables to avert evil eye
or any other calamity includes sheep. The MPS of Jain author
Hamsadeva dated to 13th c. A.D. mentions features of eḍakas (Great
Tibetan sheep) at chapter XIV, verses 644-654. They have different
colors for different limbs, are always noisy and contented, possess a fat
belly, experts at jumping. They can endure cold, wind and hazards of
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36
Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
journeys. They are fond of dwelling in shade. Females are similar to
males but have large udders and devoid of horns. These animals yield
sweet milk, have pleasant smell, are easy to train, endowed with good
memory and affectionate towards their master. Hamsadeva states that
they become mature at the age of two years and are fit to procreate till
age of seven years.
Several ancient Indian culinary texts discuss various properties of the
milk, ghee, meat and other products of sheep. Among them the
Bhojanakutūhala of Raghunātha Sūri, states that milk of sheep is
unctuous and aggravates kapha and pitta, heavy and is wholesome in
vitiations of vāta and in cough caused by aggravated vāta. It describes
the meat of sheep is sweet, slightly heavy, strengthening, nourishing and
aggravates kapha. It is an aphrodisiac, very constipating and cooling
according to the text in its section Māṁsaprakaraṇa. In its
Dadhiprakaraṇa, it states that the curds derived from milk of sheep
alleviate kapha and pitta, heavy, and is wholesome in haematological
disorders and rheumatism and is useful in the treatment of edema and
wounds. According to Navanītaprakaraṇa, butter extracted from the milk
of sheep is healthy, good to taste and used to treat vaginal pain, vitiations
of kapha and vāta as well as haemorrhoids. The same section also states
that the butter extracted from milk of great Tibetan sheep eḍakas emits a
foul odour, is cold and heavy, lowers intellect, provides nutrition, causes
obesity, imparts intelligence and stimulates digestive fire. Ghee derived
from milk of sheep is light, does not aggravate pitta and is healthy for
gynecological disorders, vitiation of kapha and pitta, edema and tremors.
Ghee derived from milk of eḍakas is heavy and must be abandoned by
those with delicate constitution, sharpens the intellect, imparts strength
and makes the body of those who consume it foul-smelling.
The Kṣemakutūhala of Kṣemaśarman, another culinary text of the
16th c. A.D. also states at VI.90 that meat preparations of sheep are
cooked in oil containing asafetida with pepper and rock-salt added to it.
The text also gives the properties of meat of sheep similar to the
Bhojanakutūhala.
The Vṛkṣāyurveda of Surapāla at 216-217 states that the dung of
goats and sheep along with suitable measures of sesame, barley, water
and beef is allowed to set for seven nights and used for watering trees so
as to produce flowers and fruits.
The Vaimānikaśāstra of Maharṣi Bhāradvāja, a text on aeronautics
discovered in early 19th c. A. D. quotes an ancient text Kalpa Sutra while
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
37
mentioning the diet of pilots among which flesh of sheep constitutes one
of them for those bereft of three dvija castes.
Several breeds of sheep were known in the Mughal period as evident
from paintings by artists. Trained rams were used for ram-fighting as
stated in the Bāburnāma (Memoirs of Mughal emperor Babur). Sheep
were also used as tributes in the Mughal period. The Mughal emperor
Akbar appointed market inspectors to inspect the sale and purchase of
goats and sheep as well as other animals. The Mughal emperor Jahangir
in his Memoirs makes interesting observations of mountain goats and
their weight. He also mentions that he had heard from hunters that a
special worm develops in the horns of the mountain ram and this causes
an irritation which induces the ram to fight with his hind. If he finds no
rival he strikes his head against a tree or rock to allay the irritation.18 He
also draws attention to fine varieties of wool produced by sheep and
goats from Tibet and Kashmir. Modern literature also recognises several
breeds of Indian sheep. These include Chantan, Gurez, Bhakarwal,
Kaghani, Waziri, Damani, Thal, Baluchi, Khorasani, Bibrik, Dumari,
Hassan, Khathiawar, Mandya, Nellore, Jalauni, Lohi, Bikaneri,
Hastnagri, Mecheri, Chennai red, Keezha karaisal, Vembur, Nilagiri,
Deccani, Marwari, Gaddi, Boti, Bhagli, Kaijeli, Dumi, Tepli, Keri of
which their characteristics have been well dealt in various literature.19
Each of them have their own characteristics and located in specific
regions used for various purposes.
Sheep In Indian Culture
Sheep and Goat husbandry had been an integral part of early farming
village societies from 3000 B.C. Domestic sheep are depicted in stone
sculptures. Wild sheep are portrayed in Indus valley sculptures and in
narrative reliefs such as those in Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh),
Belgami (Karnataka) and greater Gandhara. These are well described in
literature.20 Several inscriptions also mention about sheep and shepherds.
In south India, Chola inscriptions of Tamil Nadu denote the gift of sheep
(sometimes numbering 90 or more) by several communities.21
Interestingly this practice of gifting sheep is mentioned so as to obtain a
service of burning a lamp in temples or providing daily supply of oil to
18
Nene 2007: 736-737.
Kaura 1942:122-125
20
Geer, Alexandra Van der. 2008.
21
Aiyyar 1993 : 336-338, 397-398.
19
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
38
these temples.22 Several taxes were also imposed on cattle and sheep.
Several nomadic groups also have various legends about origin of sheep.
Among the Kuravas of Rāyalasīma region, there exists a narrative about
origin of sheep. In the heavenly abode of Kailāsa, Goddess Pārvati asked
lord śiva for sheep as they have no children. Lord śiva creates a ram and
an eve. In course of time, the offspring grow into a big herd causing
nuisance and making gardens of Kailāsa dirty; troubling the Goddess
when she was asleep. Vexed with one of rams attempting to mate her,
she requests Lord śiva to take them away from Kailāsa who then brings
them all to cenu (lands/fields) creates an underworld, drives the sheep in
and covers its entrance with stone slab. Elangireddi, son of a Kapu
couple stuck it while ploughing the land and was asked by lord śiva who
appeared before him to rear the sheep. He ordains him to become
shepherd and leads a nomadic life in forest moving with flock of sheep.
The Gollas of Telangāṇā regions also have a similar legend in which it is
mentioned that lord śiva created a ram and ewe which then multiplied
into one and one fourth lakh sheep. The Trinities appear before Malla
Reddi, (as in legend of Kuravas) and state that these sheep are his share
of property.23 The Unni Kankanam Kuravas are so called as they are
traders in wool and specialize in weaving wollen blankets. Most of the
families rearing sheep accompany them to protect it from predators. The
herds are penned in net enclosures. As sheep cannot withstand cold and
hot seasons, various herbal Ethno-veterinary practices are taken to
ensure their safety to cure diseases. During festivals of village deities,
several villages and their folk perform sacrifices of goats and sheep.
Koṅga Vellāla men found guilty of undue intimacy with widow is
readmitted to caste by being taken to village where he is beaten and
provided with a black sheep for feast. During marriage ceremonies
among Mādigas, sheep is sacrificed to marriage pots to avert evil eye by
impressing blood on his palms on door walls. In Cuddapah regions of
Andhra, head of several sheep are offered to deity Gangamma. In
Trichinopoly district of Tamil Nadu, people make vows at festival of
Mariamma at Kannanur and leave several sheep in a compound alive. At
end of festivities, they are sold to a contractor.24 The Kurubas of South
India especially in Karnataka have a legend wherein Lord śiva appeared
in a guise stating to them that sheep were created for their livelihood and
22
Lakshmi 2008 : 117-119.
Murthy 2011: 37-52
24
Thurston 2011 : 176.
23
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
39
taught them how to milk the same.25 Likewise there are traditions among
the certain shepherd tribes in Karnataka in throwing sheep from a hillock
over the passing palanquin carrying the idol of the deity Lord
Mailāraliṅga in the belief that the herds of sheep will be protected from
diseases.26 The Paraiahs have traditions that their tribe held sheep sacred
and use their dung to plaster floors. In some places, shepherds are said to
worship sheep at full moon in month of July.27 Several magical practices
also exist related to sheep. If its horn is buried under a tree, its fruits
become ripe fast and sweet. Sheep fat in equal parts with fish fat if used
to light a wick in a lamp, till it glows the house will appear to be full of
water. The Raika sheep pastoralists of Rajasthan also have much
information regarding sheep diseases and have several ethno veterinary
practices to cure them.28 They use oil and turmeric to ease ewe labour
and improve milk yield. To cure foot and mouth diseases in sheep, the
smoke of donkey’s hoof is spread over it. To cure Thakla disease
(swelling in joints, udder problems), donkey’s dung is placed in hot
water, the mixture kept overnight and filtered, thereafter given to drink.
The Raikas also speak about haematuria (passing of red urine, yellow
urine or pregnant ewes aborting), pneumonia, enterotoxaemia (sudden
jumping of sheep caused by eating too much fodder in rainy season),
sheep pox and other diseases.
Scientific Discussion of the Observations
The description of sheep in ancient Indian literature also has some
features that are scientifically treated in some texts. These features
include the classification, physical features dealing on number of teeth,
color of body, limbs, eyes, ears and horns, their odour, mating season,
behavior attributes and qualities of their products for various purposes.
Interestingly one finds some characteristics of sheep being portrayed in
the Yajurveda Saṁhitā, Taittirīya Saṁhitā, Atharvaveda Saṁhitā and
Brāhmaṇa texts. The products of sheep like flesh, milk and wool have
also been noted in the early Vedic texts. Although one may not find
specific sections devoted to classification, these are mentioned in context
of various sacrificial rituals as discussed earlier. These text give certain
physical features of sheep that are found in the other Post-Vedic texts as
mentioned earlier. The Mṛgapakśiśāstra of Hamsadeva presents the
25
Thurston &Rangachari 1987 Vol. 4 : 139-140.
Saravanan 2014
27
Crooke 2003 : 306.
28
Geerlings 2001 : 55-64.
26
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
information about Tibetan sheep more scientifically with regard to their
physical features and behavioural attributes. It is interesting to note that
Hamsadeva makes observations regarding their behaviour such as
memory, their noisy nature and so on as found in the description of
sheep. Such features are rare in earlier texts. Some Brāhmaṇa texts
interestingly draw attention to the gait or walking behaviour of sheep as
compared to goats. Hamsadeva also gives some descriptions of the
knowledge of their pregnancy period, stages of life and age that are also
found indirectly in the descriptions of sheep in other Vedic texts. The
Smṛtis and Dharmasūtras also make some observations on the killing of
sheep and its expiation as well as forbid the use of certain sheep products
in some rites. These are to be scientifically researched on the basis as to
why some products were not used in certain rites. Although description
of sheep diseases is found less in ancient Indian literature, a knowledge
of some diseases is found in the Mānasollāsa of the western Chālukyan
king Someśvara III as it mentions sheep suffering from fever. The use of
dung of sheep has been noted in the Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra and
Vṛkṣāyurveda of Surapāla for certain purposes as mentioned signifying
that the ancient people knew its properties well and used them for these
purposes. Interestingly one finds the prescription of flesh of sheep to
pilots also in the Vaimānika śāstram. Likewise other products such as
milk, butter, ghee, curds, urine and flesh have been noted in the Vedic,
āyurvedic and culinary texts and their properties have to be scientifically
verified as stated in these texts. Thus one finds a scientific approach to
these observations of sheep.
Conclusions
Sheep and goats have been domesticated and used from ancient
times. Goats are content with sparse food, eat aromatic herbs that are
despised by other ruminants and also furnish more milk than sheep.
Sheep have served mankind in various ways for a longer period of
history. Vedic and Post-Vedic treatises are rich in the descriptions of
various aspects of sheep that must be researched in the Modern context
so as to compare them with existing several breeds of sheep. The above
discussion outlines various observations made regarding the characteristics of sheep such as their physical features dealing on color of body,
features of their body parts, mating season, behavior attributes and
qualities of their products. Early Vedic literature, the epics and Purāṇas
mention about the origin of sheep as well as group it as one among the
domestic animals. Several ancient Indian medical treatises also have
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SHESHADRI: Sheep in Ancient Indian Literature & Culture
41
highly spoken of the efficacy of sheep and its products. Although several
studies on the properties of sheep from the point of their growth, meat
production, lactational performance, birth and physico-chemical
properties of their products have been reported in modern literature,29
studies on the properties of sheep products used for various purposes in
ancient Indian texts is yet to be documented from untapped ancient texts
and researched on a grander scale. These studies will help in supporting
these observations. Goat and sheep pastoral cultures have been rich in
the Deccan plateau tending herds of goats and sheep along with dogs to
protect them. Interestingly one finds various economic and social aspects
of sheep dealt since the Vedic times. The predators of sheep, the period
of removing their wool, the aspects of trade in sheep as well as the
sacrificial fees when sheep are gifted are noted in the śukla Yajurveda
Pariśiṣṭa, Kalpasūtras, Smṛtis and Dharmasūtras. The epics and later
Post-Vedic texts also throw light on some economic aspects of trade in
sheep such as in the form of gifts and tributes which are also mentioned
in various inscriptions.
Shepherds still follow their profession in remote villages even today
after several political and social changes. It is a way of life that he loves.
In harmony with nature, he flocks his sheep oblivious of weather
vagaries. Such Shepherds of India were rich in knowledge of Ethno
veterinary practices, weather folklore and also various religious rituals
associated with sheep that needs to be documented quickly as sheep
rearing professions are dying out in vast urbanization. These have given
rise to less knowledge about the sheep that most of them are now being
reared only for sacrificing them or for its flesh or wool. Sheep have a
divine nature by themselves as stated by ancient texts and Modern
research by able veterinarians and interdisciplinary studies will reveal
much about sheep so that future generations conserve this animal for
good purposes.
The indigenous knowledge of such cultures as well as tribal folk
medicines for treating sheep diseases also needs to be documented and
studied so that a comparative study of this knowledge can be verified
with that in ancient Indian literature.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Secretary, Mythic Society, Bangalore and
Secretary, Kannada Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore for providing the
necessary references.
29
Acharya 1982
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Annals of the BORI: Vol. 95
42
References
Primary sources:
AB: Aitareya Brāhmaṇa with sadguruśiṣya bhāṣya, 1991, Vols. 1-3, Nag
Publishers, New Delhi; also See Haug 2003.
ADS: See Olivelle 2000.
AK: Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana
of
Amarasiṁha with
commentary
Vyākhyasudhā or Rāmāśrami of Bhānūji Dīkṣita, edited by Dādhimata,
M. M. Shivadatta, revised by Vāsudeva Lakṣmaṇa Panasikāra,
Chaukhambha Sanskrit Pratishtan, Delhi, 1987.
ApSS: See Thite 2004.
AV: See Joshi 2004.
AVM: Avimāraka of Bhāsa, edited by T. Ganapati Shastri, , Trivandrum
Sanskrit Series, No. XX, Govt. Press, Trivandrum, 1912.
BaSS: See Kashikar 2003.
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