HOW TO IDENTIFY AND SOLVE
INTERCULTURAL CONFLICT?
By Johanna Maria Stroh
Student ID: 792339
Current Semester: 9
E-Mail: johstroh@uni-potsdam.de
Program: Politik, Verwaltung und Organisation
Module: Interkulturalität – Multikulturalität – Transkulturalität
Semester: WiSe 2021/22
Lecturer: Dr. Ljuba Kirjuchina
Introduction
The irreversible process of globalisation created a world in which the traditional concept of
nation, described as the cultural entity of a country, changed in its meaning and importance,
given the increasing cultural heterogeneity within states (Zajda, 2009, p.2f.). As countries have
become more multicultural, conflict potential is rising with intercultural conflict no longer only
taking place between but also within countries. While multiculturality is not inherently the
cause for conflict it does enable a certain conflict potential that needs to be managed to avoid
active engagement in conflict behaviour (Worchel, 2005, p.742).
The essay is dedicated to the question of how to identify and solve intercultural conflict. This
is based on a social-ecological approach that addresses the different levels on which
intercultural conflict occurs as each level views the phenomenon from different standpoints. As
a result, while methods to mediate and avoid these conflicts might share their overall purpose
they are varied, stress different practices and are often interrelated. In my quest to identify
intercultural conflict I look at the individual/interpersonal level as well as the organizational,
community and international level. The paper elaborates on methods to deal with intercultural
conflict not only within the scope of individuals but also within the state and political sphere.
Most research focuses on individual levels and studies specific dynamics in these areas. Yet,
approaching the phenomenon while incorporating multiple levels enables a more detailed view
of the complex nature of intercultural conflict and the forms it can take (Oetzel et al., 2007,
p.195).
The basis for any discussion about intercultural conflict is the definition of the term of culture
and intercultural conflict, which has been conceptualized in various ways within research. After
dealing with the terminology, I continue with describing how intercultural conflict is
approached on the different levels of society and address the strategies taken to resolve and
prevent conflict. I individually address each level and discuss the tools for dealing with
intercultural conflict. Afterwards, within the conclusion, I reflect on the conflict management
tools and understanding of intercultural conflict.
What is culture and intercultural conflict?
The term ‘culture’ is frequently used within research. However, its definition is ambiguous with
no clear nor universal description of the concept existing (Zadja, 2009, p.16). While it is often
related to relevant traditions, customs, and preservation of certain knowledge it also can be
understood as collective patterns of perception, thought and behaviour. At the same time,
culture is also used to describe the differentiated understanding and conception of certain
symbols, views, and ideas across different cultural units (Nieswald & Sinanoglu, 2017, p.45f.).
Meanings and understanding of certain issues, words and concepts are shaped and constructed
by historical processes, which are inherited and shared within societies. This leads to different
attribution of importance, relations, and meanings to certain things, be it wildlife or specific
social practices. Intercultural conflict occurs in case of perceived incompatibility of these
practices, values, and world views (Hall & Noguchi, 1993, p.402; Oetzel et al., 2007, p.183).
However, while intercultural contact creates a conflict potential, it is to note that different
cultural norms and practices not inherently are the cause of conflict. Rather, people are
mobilized along these cultural divides as a multitude of factors lead to engagement in conflict
behaviour, be it violent or not (Worchel, 2005, p.742).
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Intercultural conflict and how to resolve and avoid them
To create useful tools for dealing with intercultural conflict the identification of factors is
crucial. It needs to be addressed that on each level, be it interpersonal or international, various,
and diverging factors are stressed leading to different strategies and priorities.
Intercultural conflict on the interpersonal level
When talking about intercultural conflict among individuals the focus is on how cultural norms
shape individual behaviour and specifically conflict management strategies (Oetzel et al., 2007,
p.185). Upon finding themselves in an intercultural conflict due to perceived incompatibilities
of certain world views or perceptions there are many ways to deal with this situation.
Intercultural studies outlined five different modes of interpersonal conflict behaviour, which
are based on the two-dimensional differentiation between focusing on the concern for oneself
or the other party involved. These five strategies include the dominating style, obliging style,
integrative style, avoidance style and compromising style (Elsayed-Ekhouly & Buda, 1996,
p.73f.). Within the dominating style, the individual shows little concern for others while forcing
their standpoint upon them, contrary to the obliging style in which the individual gives in to the
viewpoint of the other. Those who decide to react to conflict by compromising try to
accommodate both the concerns of oneself and the other. Besides the choice to avoid or ignore
the conflict issues, the fifth strategy is to integrate both oneself and the other in the problemsolving process through stressing cooperation. However, people rarely follow a single conflict
strategy given the complexity of interpersonal conflict. Out of this observation, the
conglomerate conflict style emerged which works with covariations of this conflict typology
(Euvema & Emmerik, 2007, p.429).
There is a strong relationship between culture and the way conflict is managed among
individuals, with Hofstede’s dimensions of culture used as the common basis for comparison.
Especially, the dimension of individualism vs. collectivism was found to be most important in
determining the conflict strategies employed (Elsayed-Ekhouly & Buda, 1996, p.72f.). For
example, individualistic cultures tend to engage more in dominating and obliging conflict styles
while individuals from collectivistic cultures react using more compromises and avoid conflict
issues (Elsayed-Ekhouly & Buda, 1996, p.78f.). Within conflict management, inclusive and
cooperative styles are considered more effective in properly dealing with intercultural conflict
than distributive ones like the dominating, obliging, or avoiding conflict modes (ElsayedEkhouly & Buda, 1996, p.74).
Given, the complexity of cultural factors in fueling conflict the acquisition of intercultural
competencies and communication skills is considered a crucial requisite for individuals to both
alleviate existing and prevent possible intercultural conflict. They include the development of
attitudes beneficial for avoiding conflicts like tolerance and open-mindedness, but also
amassing cultural knowledge alongside listening skills to properly comprehend other conflict
parties (Martincová & Lukešová, 2015, p.1255-1257). Further, the development of cultural
empathy as a sub-discipline of intercultural competence also is important for enabling more
cooperative and inclusive styles of conflict management (Euvema & Emmerik, 2007, p.438).
Intercultural conflict within organizations
On the organizational level, the focus wanders from interpersonal conflict to conflict within
multicultural groups, which are embedded in organisational culture (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.187).
The actor, responsible for identifying and managing intercultural conflict, changes from the
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individual to the group leader or the organization. Further, within the organizational setting
intercultural conflict is not necessarily considered a problematic issue as it feeds into greater
productivity and creativity of a multicultural team (Okesch et al., 2016, p.351f.: Chua, 2013,
p.1545). Rather, it is something inevitable that needs to be reduced to enable and realize the full
potential of such a team (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.187).
Group leaders need to attend to issues that go beyond the interpersonal level as the group setting
introduces group dynamics that shape the development and outcome of a conflict. The spillover that happens within group dynamics because of conflict between members affects all
members and impedes productivity and performance output. This not only includes overt
conflict between group members but also covert one, which is characterized by indirect
intercultural tension (Chua, 2013, p.1545f.). As a result, not only does the leader need to be
reflective of the own cultural bias in terms of conflict management but also needs to identify
both overt and covert conflict behaviour within the team. This requires extensive cultural
knowledge and expertise in the different modes of interpersonal conflict management as each
member might engage in different conflict behaviour depending on their cultural background
(Okesch et al., 2016, p.352). Intercultural training is a crucial asset for group leaders as they
need to be able to address intercultural conflict properly and confidently among members. It is
important that within their communication, the group leader should not stress cultural
differences. It not only affects the relationship with the respective group member, but due to
existing group dynamics, it can also lead to a lack of confidence and distorted common sense
within the whole group (Taylor & Bean, 2019, p.124f.).
Cultural factors like Hofstede’s culture dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
masculinity/femininity, and individualism/collectivism are relevant for understanding
intercultural conflict potential within groups. However, an even greater source of conflict lies
in the development of in- and out-group differentiation, which is not only tied to cultural
differences but also general faultlines like rural vs. urban or age (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.190). It
leads to negative stereotypes and bias towards those perceived as out-groups and creates group
tension within multicultural teams (Chua, 2016, p.1545). While the direct responsibility to
reduce intercultural conflict within teams lies in the hand of the group leader the general
organizational culture also matters, specifically regarding how it accommodates cultural
diversity to reduce faultlines. It should be a general goal to establish a multicultural
organizational culture as it enables extensive incorporation of diversity within its hierarchy and
fosters a climate for inclusion and tolerance (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.189f.).
Intercultural conflict among communities within a state
Intercultural conflict among different communities often is about more than cultural differences
but a perceived threat to their claim over resources, importance, or power due to the presence
of another rival community (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.190). The culture becomes a mobilizing frame
due to the identification and the process of distinguishing oneself through the means of in- and
out-group differentiation (Worchel, 2005, p.742). The emergence of conflict behaviour is often
explained using the two-tap model and a triggering event. This means that that there is a felt
disenfranchisement with power structures at large due to perceived maltreatment and
discrimination as well as an impression of a lacking engagement of those state institutions to
address the grievances the community perceive. A triggering event, which can range from
police violence to population movement, can then cause active engagement in conflict
behaviour. A good example would be the raging conflict among the black and white
communities in America (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.190). The role of emotions like fear and
insecurity also play an important role in shaping the impression about the incompatibility of
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two different cultures. Regardless, if the perception is backed up by reality, the perceived threat
of an out-group to their cultural identity feeds into insecurity and creates the potential for
conflict as a means to protect their culture and basis for identification (Worchel, 2005, p.748).
Conflict among communities is often the most difficult to resolve, yet, strategies exist that
attempt to manage them effectively, with intercultural dialogue often in the limelight (Oetzel et
al., 2007, p.192). This practice stresses intercultural contact and cultural exchange (Phipps,
2014, p.110) and is based on treating conflict parties with mutual respect and tolerance in the
quest to find conflict solutions. There are many ways how one can frame this dialogue. It is not
confined to specific settings or actors as it also can take place within the public sphere and
include the general citizens (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.192). One can also take different approaches
within the dialogue with an appreciative inquiry, for example, focusing on the functioning
collaboration and shared positive aspects within the different cultures instead of basing the
communication on the problems that need to be solved (Peace Corps). Another approach, the
transcendent communication style, while focusing on cultural differences attempts to move
beyond conflict issues through the exploration and reflection of both the positive and negative
aspects within the different cultures (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.192).
However, this mediation practice has its limitations and cannot be used within every
intercultural conflict situation (Phipps, 2014, p.112f.). For example, it is unrealistic to
generalize that any intercultural contact leads to a meaningful dialogue and resolution of
conflict. The attempt to make participants aware of similarities between different cultures can
also increase the existential fear as the basis for identification is being eroded. Therefore, it is
crucial to support the cultural identities within the dialogue while working on reducing the
perceived threat at the heart of the conflict. Furthermore, rather than focusing on conflict
resolution within the dialogue, it should stress the development of tolerance since the coexistence of different cultures will always hold a certain conflict potential (Worchel, 2005,
p.750-752).
It also has a fundamental flaw that ignores the politicization of establishing mutual respect and
tolerance, which is a determining factor for effective communication (Phipps, 2014, p.120) The
degree to which meaningful intercultural dialogue can flourish within a country is also
dependent on social media and political practices. In the current age, social media have become
a major platform for intercultural communication with both the potential to facilitate or hinder
a dialogue. The prevalence of hate speech within social media and related identity politics
impedes intercultural communication as it builds on discrimination and “cultural exclusivity”.
Therefore, the basis for establishing mutual respect and tolerance is lacking (Wasilewski, 2019,
p.182-184).
Intercultural conflict within the international sphere
Within the globalized world, many national conflicts have become international ones. This is
because national conflicts and events can no longer be confined to their localities as advanced
technology and communication allows sharing of news across the world (Oetzel et al., 2007,
p.192f.). For example, the killing of dolphins by fishermen on Iki Island, Japan, in the 1990s
caused outrages within other parts of the world creating an intercultural conflict that
transcended national borders and was fought out on the international stage (Hall & Noguchi,
1993, p.400-402).
Therefore, conflict management in the international sphere sees media as both a possible
instigator and mediator of intercultural conflict (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.193). On one hand, media
usually tends to focus on conflict, taboos, and negative stories to get more reactions and reap
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more rewards. This helps intercultural conflicts to either prevail or escalate as it is more
profitable. Yet, on the other hand, journalism also has the potential to contribute to international
conflict management by providing information as well as engaging in conflict analyses and
rectifying misunderstandings (Lazār, 2012, p.191f.). However, to realize the mediating
capabilities of media and minimize the potential to instigate intercultural conflict neutral
journalism is crucial. This also means adhering to journalism codes like accuracy, impartiality,
and social responsibility to produce meaningful and responsible contributions to conflict
management (Lazār, 2012, p.193f.). Furthermore, they also can support conflict resolution on
the national level by raising awareness within their own country to force the political sphere to
react (Oetzel et al., 2007, p.193f.).
Conclusion
I outlined how the different levels on which intercultural conflict occurs shape the different
tools used to solve the phenomenon. While taking different forms, what each tool has in
common, is that it tries to reduce the perceived incompatibility at the heart of conflicts. Within
intercultural competencies and training, it is about learning skills and acquiring attitudes to be
open-minded about cultural differences to negate the feeling of incompatibility. Intercultural
dialogue allows the exploration of differences and similarities to dispel notions of conflict
within a safe environment.
However, it is important to address that conflict is not necessarily something negative and will
remain inevitable given the heterogeneity of cultures, that dwell on drawing lines to
differentiate oneself from the other (Worchel, 2005, p.745). Rather, to allow peaceful coexistence it should be crucial to reduce the perception of incompatibility which is tied to
conceived threats, insecurity, and active conflict behaviour (Worchel, 2005, p.748f.). Thus,
conflict management should strive towards establishing tolerance as an end goal instead of
focusing on the notion of conflict resolution, which is grounded on the unreasonable conception
of peace as the ultimate end of all things. It should approach intercultural conflict from a
transformative approach, which not only looks at ways to end the conflict but to build something
anew out of what is given (Phipps, 2014, p.120f.)
A new actor within intercultural conflict management is media and especially new media like
social networks, video platforms and more, which I have only briefly addressed within this
essay. Yet, their impact on both intensifying conflict notions and aiding intercultural dialogue
nationally and globally deserves more attention. Especially their relation to shaping policy
processes and political trends is intriguing as the rise of hate speech within the political sphere
and right-wing parties impact intercultural interaction within states (Wasilewski, 2019, p.182f.).
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