Smith Gueye et al. Malaria Journal 2014, 13:286
http://www.malariajournal.com/content/13/1/286
COMMENTARY
Open Access
The challenge of artemisinin resistance can only
be met by eliminating Plasmodium falciparum
malaria across the Greater Mekong subregion
Cara Smith Gueye1*, Gretchen Newby1, Jimee Hwang1,2, Allison A Phillips1, Maxine Whittaker3, John R MacArthur2,
Roly D Gosling1 and Richard GA Feachem1
Abstract
Artemisinin-based combinations are currently the most effective anti-malarials and, in addition to vector control,
have led to significant declines in malaria morbidity and mortality. However, foci of artemisinin drug resistance have
been identified in the Greater Mekong subregion (GMS) of the Asia Pacific, threatening the major gains made in
malaria control and potentially creating a parasite pool that is more difficult to treat and eliminate. Efforts are
underway to halt the spread of artemisinin resistance, including coordination of activities and funding, and
identification of areas of suspected artemisinin resistance, now using a newly identified molecular marker. However,
targeting resources to the containment of resistant parasites is likely inefficient and monitoring impact is challenging. A
more sustainable solution is the rapid elimination of all Plasmodium falciparum parasites from the GMS. This strategy is
more efficient for several reasons. First, a subregional strategy is in line with current commitment to elimination and will
build upon the existing national political support for elimination as well as enhancing collaboration among countries.
Second, the challenge of human mobility in the GMS is subregional in scope and requires a harmonized elimination
strategy. Third, countries will need to improve and intensify malaria operations to reach elimination, and this will be a
singular goal across the subregion. Rallying around the goal of P. falciparum elimination will not only utilize existing
regional bodies to catalyze political and funding support, but will also leverage the funding already in place to achieve
this subregional goal.
Background
The Greater Mekong subregion (GMS) of the Asia Pacific, which includes the countries of Cambodia, China
(Yunnan Province), Lao People’s Democratic Republic
(PDR), Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, is the epicentre of artemisinin resistance. Foci of resistance have
been identified along the Thailand-Myanmar, ThailandCambodia, Vietnam-Cambodia, and Vietnam-Laos borders [1,2], and recently there has been a concerning
report of resistance emerging in sub-Saharan Africa,
specifically Angola [3]. Artemisinin-based combination
therapies (ACTs) are currently the most effective antimalarials [1], and, in conjunction with vector control,
have led to the significant reduction of malaria morbidity
* Correspondence: smithc1@globalhealth.ucsf.edu
1
Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California,
San Francisco, USA
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
and mortality worldwide. The continued development
and spread of artemisinin resistance threaten these gains
[4,5].
Resistance to anti-malarials has historically originated
on the Thailand-Cambodia border; Plasmodium falciparum parasites resistant to chloroquine, then sulphadoxinepyrimethamine, and finally mefloquine were first detected
in this part of the world [5]. Initial signs of chloroquine resistance appeared in the late 1950s in Southeast Asia and
spread across South Asia to East Africa by 1978 [3], then
subsequently across the continent, leading to catastrophic
increases in child morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan
Africa [1]. Artemisinin resistance could follow the same
trajectory, leading to a persistent parasite pool that is
harder to eliminate and can increase the incidence of severe or prolonged illness and mortality, particularly in
low-transmission areas with reduced population immunity
© 2014 Smith Gueye et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public
Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this
article, unless otherwise stated.
Smith Gueye et al. Malaria Journal 2014, 13:286
http://www.malariajournal.com/content/13/1/286
to malaria [6]. Given this history and the devastating potential impact of global artemisinin resistance, the new reports of the spread of resistance are of grave concern.
Current approach
Efforts are underway to contain the spread of artemisininresistant P. falciparum, guided by the framework of
the World Health Organization’s Emergency Response
to Artemisinin Resistance in the Greater Mekong Subregion
(ERAR) [1], which outlines the actions needed for improved coordination of activities and funding across
the GMS. However, ERAR is in its nascent state and
has had limited success to date. Attempts to identify
areas of suspected artemisinin resistance through traditional drug efficacy sentinel site monitoring (e.g. monitoring slide positivity on day 3 post-treatment) have
been small in scale and difficult to implement, although
this process may become easier with the newly identified
molecular marker associated with artemisinin resistance
[7]. Even so, if identification of areas with resistance is
challenging, monitoring the impact of resource-intensive
containment efforts and successfully eliminating resistant
parasites in these areas will be even more difficult. Moreover, the constant movement of people and parasites in
this part of the world translates to continually shifting
populations at risk and the ongoing potential to spread resistant infections beyond the area of containment.
In light of these challenges, operationally targeting resources to only those areas with resistant parasites has
not been effective. Instead, targeting all areas with P. falciparum malaria transmission, regardless of whether resistance has been detected, negates the need to define
drug resistance in all sites in real-time, and protects
against the spread of resistance to new areas because
Page 2 of 4
transmission everywhere is reduced. Thus, there is a
strong argument to be made that the only effective and
sustainable way to respond to the current resistance
situation is the rapid elimination of all P. falciparum
parasites from the GMS.
Recommended strategy: subregional Plasmodium
falciparum elimination
Political and financial commitment
A subregional elimination strategy is in line with the
current commitment to malaria elimination in the GMS
and will build political support and enhance collaboration across countries. Five countries in the GMS have
already declared an intention to eliminate all forms of
malaria within their borders (Figure 1). Cambodia has
defined and is actively working toward a P. falciparumspecific elimination goal, and four countries—Cambodia,
China, Thailand, and Vietnam—have made major strides
toward national elimination of all malaria species [8].
Political commitment for malaria elimination in the
GMS is considerable, facilitated by five of the countries’
partnership with, and active participation in, the Asia
Pacific Malaria Elimination Network (APMEN), a network of 15 countries across the Asia Pacific region that
have declared goals of malaria elimination [8,9]. Leveraging this commitment, a GMS P. falciparum elimination
initiative would bring together national programmes and
partners around a single, strategic, time-limited goal,
presenting an opportunity to achieve a regional public
good. A focused, subregional effort specific to artemisinin
resistance would improve coordination and harmonization of activities and funding across the six countries and
multitude of partners, through the increase of communication and information sharing, launch of operational
Figure 1 Countries in the Greater Mekong subregion and their elimination goals.
Smith Gueye et al. Malaria Journal 2014, 13:286
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collaboration in border areas, and identifying and implementing a joint research agenda.
All of the countries of the GMS have intensified their
control and elimination efforts and are, or will soon be,
receiving technical and financial support to boost their
operational capacities. Many technical partners are
working on research and implementation in the region.
Some countries, such as China and Thailand, have made
major progress in their capacity for response while
others, such as Myanmar, have some work to do to bring
the malaria program to a level necessary to meet the resistance challenge. However, well-drafted plans for intensified P. falciparum control and elimination activities
will not be impactful unless the GMS countries have the
financial resources to make those plans a reality. Funding is now available for GMS countries to increase their
capacity, a major source being the Global Fund grant to
the Regional Artemisinin Initiative (RAI) [10], but additional and more coordinated funding is necessary to ensure sustainability throughout the region. Making the
investment case for a P. falciparum-free GMS may spark
the interest of other funders in a way that containment
efforts thus far have not.
Mobile populations
A subregional effort for elimination meets the challenge
of human mobility in the GMS. The populations most at
risk for development of resistance are primarily located in relatively underdeveloped and remote border
regions. The lack of accessible services leads to inadequate detection of resistant malaria and low coverage
of preventive and curative services. National malaria
strategies typically focus on at-risk populations within
country borders, but this approach fails to address
the regional nature of migration patterns. Population
movement through remote, forested areas and across
porous borders increases the difficulty of accessing these
groups by any one country. Thus, a comprehensive subregional strategy that relies upon international coordination is essential.
Large-scale regional infrastructure developments are
underway that necessitate rapid action to prevent the
spread of drug-resistant malaria. In late 2015, the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) will
launch the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). The
AEC aims to reduce economic disparities among countries through the development of an integrated regional
economy, which will create a freer flow of goods, services, capital, and labour, increasing human mobility
in the region. Greater population movement in areas
with confirmed resistance can facilitate its spread, and
the risk will be compounded by the new transport
corridors and infrastructure that will increase access
to remote areas.
Page 3 of 4
Implementing subregional elimination
A GMS elimination goal requires that countries improve
and intensify malaria control operations and management. A recent joint assessment of containment efforts
found insufficient intensity, coverage and quality in the
delivery of malaria control interventions [11]. Regional
level guidance and technical assistance will help countries develop and maintain the more robust, sustainable
and comprehensive set of strategies required to achieve
P. falciparum elimination. Such strategies include early
diagnosis and treatment, active case detection, case investigation, and effective measures to reduce and prevent
transmission. These strategies should be implemented on
a national level with robust regional guidance. Execution
in a small, foci-based manner will not be as beneficial to
the overall health system nor the malaria program. China’s
new 1-3-7 malaria surveillance approach provides one operational model of surveillance and response; more countries in the region need to implement surveillance and
response measures as an intervention. 1-3-7 defines actions and timelines for effective surveillance activities: case
reporting within one day, case confirmation and investigation within three days and appropriate public health response to prevent further transmission within seven days
[12]. National malaria programmes must also have adequate budgets for management to ensure that all activities are efficient, well-executed and well-supervised [1]. In
addition, because the stakes are high, programmes must
be equipped to measure and demonstrate impact.
Conclusion
Rallying around an urgent and ambitious subregional P.
falciparum elimination goal is the only way to effectively
remove the historic epicentre of anti-malarial drug resistance. The newly formed Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria
Alliance (APLMA) presents a timely opportunity: one
way to signal commitment to a subregional elimination
goal is to have members of the Alliance engage with
public and private sector development partners in generating support and mobilizing resources. ASEAN is chaired
by Myanmar this year, and encouraging ASEAN to formally indicate that improvements in regional economic
trade are linked with anti-malarial drug resistance and
subregional malaria elimination would accelerate elimination efforts. This is particularly true given the potential
impact of the AEC on the spread of resistance.
Finally, proven malaria strategies with the explicit goal
of P. falciparum elimination throughout the subregion
must be aggressively implemented, without limiting their
scope to already-identified resistant focal areas or populations. Progress towards this subregional goal is underway,
with encouraging steps taken through the establishment
of the RAI, funded by the Global Fund, the Regional
Malaria and Other Communicable Disease Threats Trust
Smith Gueye et al. Malaria Journal 2014, 13:286
http://www.malariajournal.com/content/13/1/286
Fund hosted by the Asian Development Bank [13],
contributions to the ERAR from Australia, the Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, and the US Government’s
contribution to the President’s Malaria Initiative in the
GMS. However, more concerted and long-running efforts
are needed.
Abbreviations
AEC: ASEAN Economic Community; ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian
Nations; APLMA: Asia Pacific Leaders Malaria Alliance; APMEN: Asia Pacific
Malaria Elimination Network; ERAR: Emergency response to artemisinin
resistance in the Greater Mekong subregion; GMS: Greater Mekong
subregion; PDR: Lao People’s Democratic Republic; RAI: Regional Artemisinin
Initiative; WHO: World Health Organization.
Competing interests
The Global Health Group at UCSF exists in part to support global, regional
and country efforts to achieve evidence-based malaria elimination. CSG, RG
and MW are part of the APMEN Joint-Secretariat and RGAF is co-Chair of
APMEN.
Authors’ contributions
CSG, GN and JH conducted research and analysis and wrote the manuscript.
AAP, MW, JM, RDG, and RGAF provided comments on drafts and contributed
to the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
The Malaria Elimination Initiative of the Global Health Group at UCSF is
supported by grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the
Novartis Foundation for Sustainable Development. The work on APMEN at
the School of Population Health, University of Queensland, is supported by
the Australian Government. The authors declare that no funding bodies had
any role in research, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the
manuscript. The corresponding author, CSG, confirms that she had final
responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.
Page 4 of 4
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Gosling RD, Whittaker M, Smith Gueye C, Fullman N, Baquilod M, Kusriastuti
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doi:10.1186/1475-2875-13-286
Cite this article as: Smith Gueye et al.: The challenge of artemisinin
resistance can only be met by eliminating Plasmodium falciparum
malaria across the Greater Mekong subregion. Malaria Journal
2014 13:286.
Author details
1
Malaria Elimination Initiative, Global Health Group, University of California,
San Francisco, USA. 2United States Centers for Disease Control & Prevention,
Atlanta, USA. 3The School of Population Health, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia.
Received: 28 May 2014 Accepted: 16 July 2014
Published: 27 July 2014
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