Comparison between domestic policies of Hitler and Mao (women, economy, society, politics etc.)
Prescribed
Content
Aims and results
of economic
policies
Hitler
Aims:
Reduce unemployment, rearm, achieve autarchy
Methods:
Unemployment
● RAD (Reich Labour Service): Reich Labour Service Act 1935 → mandatory 6 months
of military training for men aged 18-25, RAD dug ditches of farms, planted forests
● Unemployment Relief Act (1935): Built hospitals, 3,500 km of Autobahn
● Robert Ley’s DAF (German Labour Front): To appease workers after abolishing trade
unions, subsidised holidays, sporting, cinemas, Volkswagen installation payment scheme
(10 million DAF holidays in 1938).
● Four Year Plan (1936-1939): Retrained key sectors of the workforce
● Public Works Project
Rearmament:
● “Guns not butter” motto → economy focussed on rearmament at expense of other
industries
● Increase number in the army and navy
● Aimed to construct 2 battleships and 21,000 aircraft
Self- Sufficiency (Autarchy):
● Hitler blamed Germany’s dependence on foreign imports of food and raw materials,
which were blockaded during the war
Food:
● Food Through the National Food Corporation, targets were set for every stage of food
production from farmers to shopkeepers
● Peasants resented these policies but they had moderate success
Industrial Raw Material
● Home production of iron, steel and coal were increased
● Germans were unable to produce rubber and oil thus, scientists were put to work to find
alternatives
● An alternative to rubber called buna was created and manufactured
Four Year Plan (1936-1939)
● Aimed to achieve Autarchy
● Increase agricultural production (subsidies for farmers)
● Government regulation of imports and exports (high tariffs on all imports)
● Achieve self-sufficiency in raw materials (scientists tried to turn coal into oil, find
alternative for rubber, petrol, cotton and coffee)
Results
Unemployment
Mao Zedong
1950 Agrarian Land Reform
● Agrarian Reform Land -Redistribution of holdings to middle/low class
peasants
● 1953: 90% agricultural land had changed holdings
First Five Year Plan (1953-57)
Goal:
Follow the Soviet model, with planning highly centralised and focused on heavy
industry
● 1952-56 - coal, steel, automobile, transport
● Growth rate → 9%, high relative to USSR in 1930s
● Sino Soviet Agreement - 10,000 economic advisors, but China had to pay
with reserves and concessions
● China had to pay high-interest loans which soured relations
between Mao and Stalin - only 5% of the capital sent to China was
genuine industrial investment
Result:
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Huge new industrial centres were built (e.g. the Anshan steel complex which
employed 35,000 workers) and factory management changed from a teambased approach to one-man management.
By Feb 1956 nationalised all Chinese private industry and business.
Boosted urbanisation (Urban population increase from 57 mill in 1949 to 100
million 1957).
Important infrastructure improvements e.g. Yangzi River Rail and Road
Bridge linking Northern and Southern China.
Heavy industry output nearly trebled and light industrial output rose 20%
Collectivisation (1950-1959)
Goal:
Increase agricultural output and fulfill their ideological aims
Result:
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1958-1960 → grain production fell from 200-143m tonnes, meat
production from 4-1m tonnes whilst terrified officials reported huge
increases.
Led to great famine and Mao resigning from state chairman in 1959.
This was due to stupid policies such as killing sparrows (Four Pests
campaign), planting winter wheat in boggy, frozen ground and planting seeds
very close to each other.
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Unemployment from 6 million (1932) to under 1 million (1939)
Some historians believe that Hitler’s success with unemployment was more due to
removing people from the count (no Jews, women, men aged 18-25 in their military
training): Historian Adam Tooze describes the ‘hidden unemployed’ and calculated that
there were still 4 million out of work in 1935
Rearmament
● 100,00 (1933) to 1,400,000 (1939) men in the army
● Only 5,000 aircraft (out of 21,000) made
● Had little to export to get materials for rearmament → national debt almost tripled
between 1928 and 1938
Self-Sufficiency:
● Food production increased by 20% (1928 - 1938)
● By 1939 Germany was self-sufficient in bread, potatoes and sugar
● This conflicted with the aim of rearmament as Germany needed high amounts of iron ore
● Imports rose from 4.5 million in 1933 to 21 million in 1938
● Still imported ⅓ of raw materials
● Migration to cities caused labour shortage (seen in farming income rise of 41%)
● In 1937 Hitler abandoned it, but not the wider aim of protecting Germany’s economy in
the event of war.
● Wanted to prioritise rearmament
Great Leap Forward (GLF - 1958-1961)
Goal:
Aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a socialist society
through rapid industrialization and collectivization. Based on two principle assumptions
● Peasants would produce a surplus of food to be sold abroad to raise money
for expansion of chinese industry
● The workers, largely through the mass production of steel, would create a
modern industrial economy, powerful enough to compete with the soviet
union and capitalist west
Reasons for:
● Slow economy and agricultural growth
● Lack of revolutionary enthusiasm
● Revolutionary momentum required to avoid capitalism
● Re-establish power after failure of Hundred Flowers
● Over take Soviet Union
Events:
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Teams of peasants mobilised for mass water and irrigation projects
Co-operative and collectives:
o End of 1958: 27,000 communes, 11 million tonnes of steel
o Destruction of family life - shared hospitals, shops, kitchens,
schools etc.
Second Five Year Plan
o -Agriculture AND Industry: backyard furnaces
o Massive effort to create industrial base, but unrealistic, idealistic
goals
o Soviet agronomist, Lysenko policies: killing birds to save grain
(stupid! mess with food chains), close cropping --> densely
planted seeds
o State owned enterprises --> centralised industry, failed due to lack
of incentives
Result:
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Quickly produced farm machinery produced in factories feel to pieces when
used.
Steel produced by the backyard furnaces were frequently too weak to be of
any use and could not be used in construction - its original purpose.
The harvest of 1959 was 170 million tons of grain - well below what China
needed.
● 1960 was 144 million tons, even lower.
Between 1959-1962 estimated 20 million people died of starvation or
diseases.
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1959-1962: Great Chinese Famine (Mao: 'I see no famine')
● 80 million lives
Peng sent private letter to Mao about concerns of GLF's shortcomings
→ Mao turned on Peng and publicly circulated the letter, dismissed Peng
of his Minister post and threatened to go to countryside to start another
peasant rebellion and overthrow CCP
Great Famine 1958-61
● as many as 80 million people died of starvation
● parents sold their children and cannibalism was rife, but China's
leadership did not act
● officials continued to claim that production targets were being
met
● speaking the truth was too dangerous
● Mao’s response
● Mao eventually came to accept what was happening
but didn't accept blame
● he blamed:
● the peasants for hoarding food
● local officials for being incompetent
● bad weather, which had affected harvests
● his reputation was tarnished and he withdrew from the
political frontline
● Outcome
● Liu and Deng, who confronted Mao, revoked Mao's
reforms
● allowed private farming to operate again
● eventually food supplies improved
● Famine came to an end
● Mao would later punish both Liu and Deng for going
against Marxist ideals
Assigned Power:
● CCP gives extensive power to mayors and party secretaries in 700-odd
municipalities
● System of promotion incentives to keep them responsive to the central
government
● Led to whatever Beijing needs, Beijing Gets, no matter the costs
to environment or human rights
Aims and results
of political
policies
Aims:
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Nazification of politics
Establishing totalitarian control of Hitler as Fuhrer
Elimination of of opposition and establishment of support
Methods:
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Gleichschaltung – the process of nazification by which Nazi Germany successively
established totalitarian control
o 1933-7 was the period with the systematic elimination of non-nazi
organisations
For workers, recreational organization called Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy)
under the German Labor Front (DAF) was set up
o This brough hobbies and private leisure under control
o 25 million members – largest Nazi Organisation
o Reichsberufswettkampf, a national vocational competition was held for
workers to compete
Sondergericht – were special courts where Jews, Slavs, Communists were tried (bias and
their outcome was predetermined)
1934 – People’s court were used to put enemies on trial, with judges only being from the
Nazi Party
Nuremberg Laws 1935 – could fire someone from their job because they were Jewish
Note: These are more rise to power but some policies he put in to consolidate political
control
o "First Gleichschaltung Law" (Erstes ;lchschaltungsgesetz, 31 March 1933),
passed using Enabling Act, dissolved the diets of all Länder except the
recently-elected Prussian parliament, which the Nazis already controlled
→ Giving control of state authority and the Nazis
o "Second Gleichschaltung Law" (Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz, 7 April
1933) deployed one Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor)
o The Law concerning the reconstruction of the ‘Reich’ (Gesetz über den
Neuaufbau des Reiches) (30 January 1934) formally did away with the
concept of a federal republic, converting Germany into a highly centralized
state. States were reduced to mere provinces, as their institutions were
practically abolished altogether. All of their powers passed to the central
government.
o The Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich (1 August 1934)
prescribed that upon the death of the incumbent president, that office would
be merged with the office of the chancellor, and that the competencies of the
former should be transferred to the "Führer und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler",
as the law stated.
Results:
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Hitler able to establish control over Germany, and declare himself Fuhrer
Established and enforced Nazi control over Germany
Hundred Flowers Campaign
● WHY did Mao launch the campaign?
o April 1956: Mao declares 'Let a hundred flowers bloom, a
hundred schools of thought contend.'
o Encouraged critical debate to promote progress in the fields of art,
literature and science.
● February 1957: speech, Mao encouraged criticism saying the CCP thought it
could learn from the people and be rectified.
● April 1957: campaign underway
● June 1957: campaign was out of hand and CCP criticised all over China for: poor policies -authoritarianism -corruption -poor living standards
● June 1957: Mao ended the campaign
● Results – Anti-Rightist Movement
o Suppressed all those that spoke out during Hundred Flowers
o End of 1957: 300,000 condemned as rightists, including writer
Ding Ling
3 Antis Campaign 1951
● The Three-anti Campaign was launched in Manchuria at the end of 1951
● It was aimed at members within the Communist Party of China, former
Kuomintang members and bureaucratic officials who were not party
members.
● Three antis imposed were:
o corruption
o waste
o bureaucracy
5 Antis Campaign 1952
● The Five-anti campaign was launched in January 1952. It was designed to
target the capitalist class
● The Communist party set a very vague guideline of who could be charged,
and it became an all out war against the bourgeoisie in China. Deng Xiaoping
warned the people "not to be corrupted by capitalist thinking"
● Five antis imposed were:
o bribery
o theft of state property
o tax evasion
o cheating on gov't contracts
o stealing state economic info
Terror
Aims:
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To control the German state
Methods:
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Reichstag Fire Decree, suspended the provisions of the German constitution that
protected basic individual rights, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and
freedom of assembly. Also permitted increased state and police intervention into private
life, allowing officials to censor mail, listen in on phone conversations, and search
private homes without a warrant or need to show reasonable cause
Results:
Aims and results
of cultural
policies
Aims:
Art
●
Hitler considered himself an art expert and wanted all forms of art to represent Nazi
ideals and ideology.
● Gain control of cultural life
● Hitler created the Reich Chamber of Culture headed by Joseph Goebbels.
Historiography
● Henry Grosshans = Adolf Hitler who came to power in 1933 (quote): "saw Greek and
Roman art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modern art was [perceived by him
as] an act of aesthetic violence by the Jews against the German spirit.
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Methods:
Paintings
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Hitler had stated clearly in ‘Mein Kampf’ where his thoughts lay with regards to modern
art as found in Dada and cubism: “This art is the sick production of crazy people. Pity the
people who are no longer able to control this sickness”
Popular themes
● the Volk at work in the fields, a return to the simple virtues of Heimat (love
of homeland), the manly virtues of the National Socialist struggle, and the
lauding of the female activities of child bearing and raising symbolized by the
phrase Kinder, Küche, Kirche ("children, kitchen, church").
Music
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Music was expected to be tonal and free of jazz influence
● regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was
considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical
German music
Nazis promoted the works of German composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig
van Beethoven, Anton Bruckner, and Richard Wagner, while banning performances of
pieces by "non-Aryans" such as Felix Mendelssohn and Gustav Mahler
The most widely-read-or displayed-book of the period was Hitler's Mein Kampf
o
o
o
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Revolutionary art
Uniting/education people
Revolutionary aims -Eliminating bourgeoisie
PLA paintings+posters → featured RED = morality, revolution
Jiang Qing
o
o
o
o
o
Model revolutionary operas and ballets
'Three Prominences' = positive characters, heroism, central
character
1960s: Opera for revolutionary purposes
Encouraged 'socialist realism' style → utopian vision, spread
revolutionary message
Destroying four olds: 'historic culture, Han Chinese, Buddhist
Tibetan, Muslims'
Religion:
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Literature
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LIN BIAO
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Marxist ideology against religion: Opium of the masses
Banned religion (religious clothing and practice were illegal), public
loudspeakers denounced religion
China = atheist state
Devotion and loyalty to CCP → Maosim=religion
Marxist ideology against religion:
o Opium of the masses
Religious Affairs Bureau (RAB)
o implicitly and, more often than not, explicitly banned religions
Wall posters, the traditional way by which Chinese governments spread their
propaganda and loud speakers at every corner kept up a running
condemnation of religion
Foreign nuns and priests were expelled from China
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Promoted writers such as writers such as Adolf Bartels and Hitler Youth poet Hans
Baumann
● Themes of War as a Spiritual Experience, Blood and Soil and historical ethnicity
● Banned ‘un-national’ literature
● Book burnings
● 1933 Book Burning (25,000 books burnt)
● 2,500 German writers left (1933-1939)
Artitecture:
● Nazi architecture adopted many elements of neoclassicism and of art deco in keeping
with Adolf Hitler's personal fascination with Ancient Rome
● favored hugeness
● designed to make the individual feel small and insignificant through its use of
high ceilings
● "Theory of Ruin Value”
● Postulated that if a society was to exist past their existence, aesthetically
pleasing art and architecture must remain
Rallies:
● Nuremberg Rallies to show German military power, glorify state
● Emphasised order and discipline
Radios:
● Controlled by Goebbels’ Reich Radio Company
● Cheap (35 marks) → 70% of population had one, good method of control
● Daily ‘hour of the nation’
● Limited range so no foreign influence
Sport:
● 1936 Berlin Olympic Games aimed to demonstrate Aryan superiority
● 10 African Americans won 13 medals, Jesse Owens broke 11 records, event backfired.
● Nazi Germany won the most medals, a total of 89, with 33 gold medals.
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Priests and monks were not allowed to wear their traditional dress
o Cases of police encouraging the public to strip the clothes off the
clergy who dared to walk abroad in their traditional distinctive
clothing
Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity all condemned and denounced in
mass propaganda
Priests, monks, temples, shrines, monasteries all forbidden/destroyed
Religious/superstitious rituals/customs replaced by political discussions held
by the CCP
Patriotic churches = allowed to stay open if they professed support for CCP
and had no other authority
Sparked clash with Vatican + Pope in Rome
Impact of Cultural Revolution
o Attacked as one of the 'four olds'
o No religious practiced permitted
o Monasteries, churches, mosques, temples destroyed
o Priests rounded up and imprisoned
o Cemeteries attacked and destroyed, vandalised
o Mao worship created as form of religion: -'Asking for guidance,
thanking for kindness and reporting back'
o Bowing 3 times, reading passages from 'Little Red Book', wishing
Mao 'ten thousand years'
o Loyalty dance - honouring his portrait
Results:
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Aims and results
of social policies
Extensive control of German life
Book burnings meant many essential texts were destroyed and humanity lost information
contained within them
Youth
Aims:
Family
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Indoctrinate with Nazi ideology
Create loyalty & willingness to sacrifice to greater good of nation
→ nationalism/anti-individualism
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"Separate spheres" → boys were to be strong fighters & girls were to bear children
Constitution: upheld traditional values BUT Maoist policies contradicted:
o Split families up via communes
o Undermined filial piety → communal living
o 'Loyalty to state and party' = children encouraged to speak out
against parents, youth told to take revolutionary action against
older generation
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1933 - Government takes over and increases in supporters → expansion of
movement
1936 - Membership and all other youth organizations banned
Camping outdoor activity, fun games → intimidation and oath to loyalty
Later, greater focus on military drills and Nazi ideology → separate for boys and girls
Health
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Life Expectancy - 1957: 57 → 1958: 68
Infant Mortality - 1954: 139/1000 → 1980: 20/1000
Hospitals in communes, barefoot doctors had 3-5 months training
Education of epidemic diseases
The Four Pests: 'rats, flies, mosquitoes, mice'
Methods:
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1926 – Hitler Youth established
o By 1933 its membership stood at 100,000, and 1936 4 million
o 1936 it was compulsory to join
Boys joined Deutsches Jungvolk which promoted military athletics
Girls joined the Bund Deutscher Madel where they were prepared to become good
housewives and mothers
By 1934 education was coordinated by the Reich
o 15% of the timetable was physical education
o History was changed to idolise Hitler
o Biology changed to make Aryans to appear like the superior race
Education
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Results:
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Successes
o
o
o
o
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95% loyal to Hitler
Rapid membership increase after 1933, plus compulsory membership
Brainwashed kids → students prepared to sacrifice themselves for Nazi
loyalty
Hitler Youth became dominant monopoly over German's Youth's spare time
Failures
o
o
o
o
o
Many youth managed to escape the "compulsory memberships" and rival
groups emerged
Many turned away from Hitler Youth in later 1930s
The Hitler Youth became less successful with more military training and Nazi
lectures etc.
Growing opposition to Hitler Youth - rejection of it + non-Nazi ideas
Universities saw a great decrease in numbers as a result of anti-intellectual
stress → Brain Drain
Other
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Volksgemeinschaft → German expression meaning "people's community which
sought to unify Germany racially and socially, and rejected Old religions, ideologies
and class divisions instead forming a united German identity based around ideas of
race, struggle and state leadership
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Mao’s view on education
o Condemned old-style education through books, Western
influence on curriculum
o Believed in education through experience
o Education: vital for building of socialist state, economic
development
o Mass literacy required for political indoctrination
Primary Education
o 1956: Less than half of children 7-16 attending school → 1976:
96% attending
o Only 6.4% of national budget spent
o Cultural Revolution undermined progress
Literacy
o 'key schools' → best teachers, difficult examinations for
students (supposedly meritocratic), though children of high
ranking officials got most places
o Higher education expanded, universities remodelled
o Students sent to USSR universities in 1950s
o 1949-1966: Peasants taught to read, simplified characters, 1500
basic characters
o 1962-66: Socialist Education Movement sent students to
countryside to organise party administration → 3 -isms
'collectivism, patriotism, socialism' and 4 clean ups 'politics,
economy, CCP ideology and organisation'
o 1966: only 10% under 45 illiterate
Cultural revolution Impact
o 1965: 'The more books you read, the more stupid you become'
~1966-1970: 130 million stopped attending school/university
o Progress undermined by new policy that all education had to be
centred around Mao and revolution
o 1966: Beijing University (and others), teachers dragged out of
classes, beaten, made to wear dunce hats, abused by students. All
universities closed for 2 years.
o
o
Impact of social
policies on
women
Women
Aims:
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Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church)
o Promote nuclear family
o Housewife
o piety
Hitler’s concern of birth rate drop
o Kinder, Küche, Kirche
o fewer women allowed in universities
o no women allowed in civil service
o abortion was made illegal
Impact of War
o abrupt change in policy
▪ conscription into army
▪ reintroduced women in the workplace
o war destroyed social conventions
Methods:
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Workplace discrimination, forced women from employment through bribes of social
benefits
o Women banned from professional posts (1933) and judicial roles (1936)
o Hitler reduced amount of women at universities to 10%
Law for the Encouragement of Marriage
o Loan of 1000 marks from government
o Money can be claimed by birth of children
o Women needed to give up job
Cross of Honor of the German Mother
o Awarded for 4+ babies
Laws against make up, hair perming/colour
Lebensborn (1936)
o SS members meet Aryan girls to impregnate and increase Aryan race
Law for Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring
o Sterilised women “unsuitable” to have children i.e. non-Aryans
German Women’s Enterprise
o All women’s societies dissolved and merged into this
o Ran “mother schools” to train housewives and mothers
1966-1976: 12 million young people sent to countryside to
experience peasant work, instead of attending school
Manual labour rather than formal education - harmed long term
success of young people, unable to graduate ~Scholars, writers,
intellectuals, teachers - all imprisoned/killed.
Marriage Act of 1950:
● arranged marriages were discontinued
● concubinage was abolished
● the paying of the bride-price was forbidden
● women and men who had previously been forced to marry were entitled to
divorce their partners
● husbands could not insist on their wives having bound feet
● all marriages had to be officially recorded and registered
● Women were legally allowed to sell land and property
o however, undermined by the collectivization program in which
ended the private holding of land by either men or women and
required people to live in communes
Results:
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many women used their new freedom to divorce and remarry
● Disruptive to society: some women had four husbands in four year
Pros for Women
● 1950-51: upsurge in divorces initiated by women
● 1954: Equal pay, education, work opportunities
● 1958-59: 3.2 → 8m - Women working in industry
● 1976: 45% female primary school students, 41% middle school, 24%
university
Cons for Women
● First 5 year plan:
o Communes: Women now worked, ate in masses therefore no need
to cook at home
o 80% field work done by women, but paid 25% less
o Less than 13% CCP members were women
o Prejudice within society still prevalent (female babies)
● Famine on Women:
o Wife/teenage daughter selling
o Mothers had to sacrifice daughters for sons
o When mothers were sold, children left abandoned → sold as
slaves
o Girl infants dumped at hospitals, railway stations etc.
o
Impact of social
policies on
minorities
Minorities:
● Jews
● Gypsies / Romani
● Black people
● Disabled people
● Homosexuals
● Anyone that was not pure “Aryan”
Methods:
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1933-1934: Exclusion of Jews from public life (banned from being civil servants, public
positions, practicing law)
1935: Legal segregation - Nuremberg Laws
Impacts:
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Hitler used the Jews as scapegoats and blamed the loss of the war on them
Similarly blamed them for the post-war economic deprivation
Jews were stereotyped as frugal and unpleasant individuals - I.e. films such as the
Eternal Jew would stereotype Jews - played in cinemas to spread anti-Jew propaganda
Prostitution became widespread → sex for food
Minorities:
● Tibetans
● Uighurs
● Hui Muslims
● Mongols
Impacts:
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No authority over themselves, Communist party firmly believed that they
knew what was best for the minorities
Promised independence during the revolution but were given “autonomy” in
the end
Given rights to develop/express culture and representation politically, with
limits
Followed Stalin’s guidelines on treatment of minority
Cultural Revolution
o 6,000 monasteries destroyed in Tibet
o 790,000 people persecuted in Inner Mongolia
o Schools destroyed, books burned
Shadian Incident
o 1,000 Hui killed by PLA
Tibet
o 1950 PLA Reunification Campaigns → Xinjiang and Tibet.
o Mao claimed that Tibet was originally part of China (but they
were actually separate in culture, race etc.)
o 1950: Within 6 months, despite 60,000 Tibetans resisting, CCP
gained control over Tibet
o 1951: CCP control over Xinjiang (Mao feared their
independence/association with S.U.)
o Reconstruction of Tibert
▪ 17 point agreement: No socialist land reform to be
carried out
▪ Wiping out Tibetan identity:
● Renamed 'Xizang'
● Tibetan language, history and teachings
of Dalai Lama prohibited → Mandarin
Chinese official language
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Those who resisted were imprisoned
Mass migration of Chinese to Tibet
→ many Tibetans ended up in Sichuan
o
o
o
Extent of
authoritarian
control
Propaganda:
● 13th March 1933 Joseph Goebbels was appointed minister for the Reich Ministry of
Popular Enlightenment and Entertainment
● The media (radio, cinema, poster, speeches, and rallies were used expansively
● “Its most important role was in strengthening the regime.” (Herzstein)
Cult of Personality:
● that he was the “messiah” or savior come to help Germany in her time of need.
● Portrayed as a great hero, with many attributes.
● This increased public awareness of the Nazi party, and made Hitler highly popular and
favorable.
● The propaganda method gave Hitler a way to instill his regime into the minds of the
nation.
● All textbooks and homes had a picture of Hitler
after reorganisation of provincial
boundaries
1955: Tibetans in Sichuan sparked open fighting in resistance to
land reform
1959: Revolt and Genocide -PLA sent to suppress
demonstrations → destroyed their religion: priests, nuns,
monasteries -March 1959: Dalai Lama fled -4 million died as a
result of the Genocidal Famine (purposely extended to Tibet
by Mao)
Tibetan Government in Exile