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Latin - Wikipedia
Latin
Latin (lingua Latīna, [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈtiːna] or Latīnum, [la
ˈtiːnʊ̃]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch
of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a
dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as
Latium) around present-day Rome,[2] but through the
power of the Roman Republic it became the dominant
language in the Italian region and subsequently throughout
the Roman Empire. Even after the fall of Western Rome,
Latin remained the common language of international
communication, science, scholarship and academia in
Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional
vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance
languages) supplanted it in common academic and political
usage, and it eventually became a dead language in the
modern linguistic definition.
Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct
genders, six or seven noun cases, five declensions, four verb
conjugations, six tenses, three persons, three moods, two
voices, two or three aspects, and two numbers. The Latin
alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek
alphabets.
By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been
standardised into Classical Latin used by educated elites.
Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken at that time
among lower-class commoners and attested in inscriptions
and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and
Terence[3] and author Petronius. Late Latin is the written
language from the 3rd century; its various Vulgar Latin
dialects developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the
modern Romance languages. Medieval Latin was used
during the Middle Ages as a literary language from the 9th
century to the Renaissance, which then used Renaissance
Latin. Later, New Latin evolved during the early modern era
to eventually become various forms of rarely spoken
Contemporary Latin, one of which, Ecclesiastical Latin,
remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman
Rite of the Catholic Church at Vatican City.
Latin has also greatly influenced the English language and
historically contributed many words to the English lexicon
after the Christianization of Anglo-Saxons and the Norman
conquest. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
Latin
lingua Latīna
Latin inscription, in the Colosseum of
Rome, Italy
Pronunciation
[laˈtiːna]
Native to
Latium
Roman Kingdom /
Republic / Empire
(before), Vatican
City and
Italy(nowadays)
Region
Originally in the
Italian Peninsula,
and the zone of
influence of the
Roman Empire.
Today, it is official
in Vatican City,
although Italian is
the working
language there.
Ethnicity
Latins, Romans
Era
7th century BC –
18th century AD
Language family
Indo-European
Italic
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still used in English descriptions of theology, science
disciplines (especially anatomy and taxonomy), medicine,
and law.
LatinoFaliscan
Latin
Writing system
Contents
History
Old Latin
Classical Latin
Vulgar Latin
Medieval Latin
Renaissance Latin
New Latin
Contemporary Latin
Legacy
Inscriptions
Literature
Influence on present-day languages
Education
Official status
Phonology
Consonants
Vowels
Syllables
Orthography
Alternative scripts
Official status
Regulated by
Antiquity: Roman
schools of
grammar/rhetoric[1]
Today: Pontifical
Academy for Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-1
la (https://ww
w.loc.gov/stand
ards/iso639-2/p
hp/langcodes_na
me.php?iso_639_
1=la)
ISO 639-2
lat (https://ww
w.loc.gov/stand
ards/iso639-2/p
hp/langcodes_na
me.php?code_ID=
257)
ISO 639-3
lat
Glottolog
impe1234 (htt
p://glottolog.o
rg/resource/lan
guoid/id/impe12
34)
lati1261 (htt
p://glottolog.o
rg/resource/lan
guoid/id/lati12
61)
Linguasphere
51-AAB-aa to
51-AAB-ac
Vocabulary
Numbers
Holy See
Official language in
Grammar
Nouns
Adjectives
Prepositions
Verbs
Phrases (Neo-Latin)
Latin alphabet
Example text
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Language tools
Courses
Grammar and study
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Map indicating the greatest extent of the
Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan
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Phonetics
Libraries
Latin language news and audio
Latin language online communities
Latin - Wikipedia
(c. 117 AD) and the area governed by
Latin speakers (dark red). Many
languages other than Latin were spoken
within the empire.
History
A number of historical phases of the language have been
recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in
vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There
are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars Range of the Romance languages, the
emphasize different features. As a result, the list has modern descendants of Latin, in Europe.
variants,
as
well
as
alternative
names.
The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the
beginning of Roman expansion
Recording of two fluent modern-day
classical Latin speakers talking
about the Ninfa Gardens, with
English and Latin subtitles
In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to
the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by
Protestant scholars.
After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic
people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses.[4]
Old Latin
The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the
later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest
extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was
devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a rightto-left or a boustrophedon[5][6] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script.[7]
Classical Latin
During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious
creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical
literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace
their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to
maintaining and perpetuating educated speech.[8][9]
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Vulgar Latin
Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of
Plautus, which contain fragments of everyday speech, indicates
that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi, "the
speech of the masses", by Cicero), existed concurrently with
literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written,
so philologists have been left with only individual words and
phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti.[10]
As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose
that the speech was uniform either diachronically or
geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations
developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led
to the differentiation of Romance languages.[11]
The Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin and were
originally the popular and informal dialects spoken by various
layers of the Latin-speaking population. These dialects were
distinct from the classical form of the language spoken by the
Roman upper classes, the form in which Romans generally wrote.
The Lapis Niger, probably the oldest
extant Latin inscription, from Rome,
c. 600 BC during the semilegendary Roman Kingdom
The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in
educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a
postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with
everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the
word to the masses.
Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish,
Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian. Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any
widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable
unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common
Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off
communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge
seriously.[12] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more
from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of
the Empire.
One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with
its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from
the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian
cavallo, French cheval, Spanish caballo, Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal) came from Latin
caballus. However, Classical Latin used equus. Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken
form.[13]
Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest
extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday
speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing.[14][15]
Medieval Latin
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Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion
of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin
vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into
the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the
educated and official world, Latin continued without its
natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands
that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic
nations. It became useful for international communication
between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its
allies.
The Latin Malmesbury Bible from 1407
Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had
supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic
cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and
pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead.[16]
Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been
introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail.[16]
Renaissance Latin
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a
spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists.
Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the
accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and
the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they
could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the
practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that
remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than
the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions
supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who
attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language
had been.[18][14]
Most 15th-century printed books
(incunabula) were in Latin, with the
vernacular languages playing only a
secondary role.[17]
New Latin
During the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe.
Therefore, until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic
documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a
Romance language) and later native or other languages.
Contemporary Latin
Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary
world.
Religious use
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The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasiofficial contexts is the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church
required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second
Vatican Council of 1962–1965, which permitted the use of the
vernacular. Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite. The
Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or
Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass
of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo)
is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and
often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual
gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary
language of its public journal, the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and the
working language of the Roman Rota. Vatican City is also home to
the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions
in Latin.[19] In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of
Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same
language.
In the Anglican Church, after the publication of the Book of
Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for
use in universities such as Oxford and the leading "public schools"
(English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted
to be conducted in Latin.[20] There have been several Latin
translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 USA
Anglican Book of Common Prayer.[21]
The signs at Wallsend Metro station
are in English and Latin, as a tribute
to Wallsend's role as one of the
outposts of the Roman Empire, as
the eastern end of Hadrian's Wall
(hence the name) at Segedunum.
Use of Latin for mottos
In the Western world, many organizations, governments and
schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with
formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture.[22]
Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and
most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria
Cross is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the
inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual,
the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the
Latin Pro Valore.
The polyglot European Union has
adopted Latin names in the logos of
some of its institutions for the sake
of linguistic compromise, an
"ecumenical nationalism" common
to most of the continent and as a
sign of the continent's heritage
(such as the EU Council:
Consilium).
Spain's motto Plus ultra, meaning "even further", or figuratively
"Further!", is also Latin in origin.[23] It is taken from the personal
motto of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as
Charles I), and is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus
ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to
legend, this inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks on both sides of the Strait of
Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto
following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of
taking risks and striving for excellence.
Several states of the United States have Latin mottos, such as:
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Arizona's Ditat dues ("God enriches");
Connecticut's Qui transtulit sustinet ("He who transplanted sustains");
Kansas's Ad astra per aspera ("Through hardships, to the stars");
Colorado's Nil sine numine ("Nothing without providence");
Michigan's Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice ("If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look
about you"), is based on that of Sir Christopher Wren, in St. Paul's Cathedral;
Missouri's Salus populi suprema lex esto ("The health of the people should be the highest law");
New York (state)'s Excelsior ("Ever upward");
North Carolina's Esse Quam Videri ("To be rather than to seem");
South Carolina's Dum spiro spero ("While [still] breathing, I hope");
Virginia's Sic semper tyrannis ("Thus always to tyrants"); and
West Virginia's Montani Semper Liberi ("Mountaineers [are] always free").
Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as:
Semper Paratus ("always ready"), the motto of the United States Coast Guard;
Semper Fidelis ("always faithful"), the motto of the United States Marine Corps;
Semper supra ("always above"), the motto of the United States Space Force;
Per ardua ad astra ("Through adversity/struggle to the stars"), the motto of the Royal Air Force
(RAF); and
Vigilamus pro te ("We stand on guard for thee"), the motto of the Canadian Armed Forces.
A law governing body in the Philippines have a Latin motto, such as:
Justitiae pax opus ("justice and peace work"), the motto of the Department of Justice (Philippines);
Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University's motto is
Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue.
Other modern uses
Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is
no room to use all of the nation's four official languages. For a similar reason, it adopted the
international vehicle and internet code CH, which stands for Confœderatio Helvetica, the country's
full Latin name.
Some films of ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made
with dialogue in Latin for the sake of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its
association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost
("Jughead"). Subtitles are usually shown for the benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There
are also songs written with Latin lyrics. The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor
Stravinsky is in Latin.
The continued instruction of Latin is often seen as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts
education. Latin is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most
common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico,
the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium.
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Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast
in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany,
YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until
it was shut down in June 2019),[24] and Vatican Radio &
Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other
material in Latin.[25][26][27]
A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli'
('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the
use of spoken Latin.[28] Moreover, a number of university classics
departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies
in their Latin courses. These include the University of Kentucky,
the University of Oxford and also Princeton University.[29][30]
QDP Ep 84 – De Ludo "Mysterium":
A Latin language podcast from the
USA
There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has
more than 130,000 articles.
Urdaneta City's motto Deo servire populo sufficere ("It is enough for the people to serve God") the
Latin motto can be read in the old seal of this Philippine city.
Legacy
Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan, Romansh and other Romance languages are
direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian,[31] as well
as a few in German, Dutch, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish. Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a
city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church.
Inscriptions
Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume
series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is
about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and
relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the
field of epigraphy. About 270,000 inscriptions are known.
Literature
The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in
substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of
the field of classics. Their works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing
and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library,
published by Harvard University Press, or the Oxford Classical Texts, published by Oxford University
Press.
Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe,
Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, The Adventures of Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince,
Max and Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales,
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"fabulae mirabiles", are intended to garner popular
interest in the language. Additional resources include
phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday
phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's
Latin Phrasebook.
Influence on present-day languages
The Latin influence in English has been significant at
all stages of its insular development. In the Middle
Ages, borrowing from Latin occurred from
ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of
Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the
Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is
Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman
one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the
language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English
Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic
writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words
style of this patrician general has long been
from Latin and Greek words, dubbed "inkhorn terms",
taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially
as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these
spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman
words were used once by the author and then
Republic.
forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as
'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common
polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words
make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies.[32][33][34] Those
figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included.
The influence of Roman governance and Roman technology on the less-developed nations under
Roman dominion led to the adoption of Latin phraseology in some specialized areas, such as science,
technology, medicine, and law. For example, the Linnaean system of plant and animal classification
was heavily influenced by Historia Naturalis, an encyclopedia of people, places, plants, animals, and
things published by Pliny the Elder. Roman medicine, recorded in the works of such physicians as
Galen, established that today's medical terminology would be primarily derived from Latin and Greek
words, the Greek being filtered through the Latin. Roman engineering had the same effect on
scientific terminology as a whole. Latin law principles have survived partly in a long list of Latin legal
terms.
A few international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua is
sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. Latino sine Flexione, popular in
the early 20th century, is Latin with its inflections stripped away, among other grammatical changes.
The Logudorese dialect of the Sardinian language is the closest contemporary language to Latin.[35]
Education
Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who
wished to join literate circles. This also was true in the United States where many of the nation's
Founders obtained a classically-based education in grammar schools or from tutors.[36] Admission to
Harvard in the Colonial era required that the applicant "Can readily make and speak or write true
Latin prose and has skill in making verse . . ."[37] Latin Study and the classics were emphasized in
American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era.[38]
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Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today's world, a large
number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock's Latin:
The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient
Authors. This book, first published in 1956,[39] was written by
Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard
University. Wheelock's Latin has become the standard text for
many American introductory Latin courses.
The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same
way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken
A multivolume Latin dictionary in the
and written communication. It is available in Vatican City and at
University of Graz Library in Austria.
some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky
and Iowa State University. The British Cambridge University
Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as
the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell
& Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus.
In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the
study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and
grants. The University of Cambridge,[40] the Open University,[41] a
number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton,
Harrow, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, Merchant Taylors'
School, and Rugby, and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis,[42] a
London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in
Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to
further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National
Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which
encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the
National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to
continue their study of the classics into college. The league also
sponsors the National Latin Exam. Classicist Mary Beard wrote in
The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning
Latin is because of what was written in it.[43]
Official status
Latin and Ancient Greek at Duke
University in Durham, North
Carolina, 2014.
Latin was or is the official language of European states:
Hungary – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to
the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844. The best
known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.
Croatia – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the
19th century (1847). The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions (Congregatio
Regni totius Sclavonie generalis) – held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273.
An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists. Latin is still used on Croatian coins on even years.[44]
Poland, Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used[45][46][47][48] between the
10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language
among some of the nobility.[48]
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Phonology
The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction
are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient
etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of
Romance languages.[49]
Consonants
The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows:[50]
Plosive
Fricative
Labial
Dental
voiced
b
voiceless
p
Nasal
Velar
plain
labial
d
ɡ
ɡʷ
t
k
kʷ
Glottal
(z)
voiced
voiceless
Palatal
f
s
m
n
Rhotic
r
Approximant
l
h
(ŋ)
j
w
/z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century
BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to
Classical Greek [dz] or [zd]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨Z⟩ between vowels always counts as
two consonants for metrical purposes.[51][52] The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when
⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend
together. So, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, and ⟨th⟩ are all sounds that would be pronounced as [kh], [ph], and [th]. In
Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the vowel ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kw] sound.[53]
In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase,
and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented
both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be
seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article.
The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally
use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in
the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used.
Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below:
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Notes
Latin
grapheme
Latin
phoneme
⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩
[k]
Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/)
⟨t⟩
[t]
As t in stay (/steɪ/)
⟨s⟩
[s]
As s in say (/seɪ/)
[ɡ]
Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/)
[ŋ]
After ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/)
[n]
As n in man (/mæn/)
[ŋ]
Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/)
[l]
When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as "light L", [l̥ ] in link ([l̥ ɪnk]) (l exilis)[54][55]
[ɫ]
In all other positions, as "dark L", [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis)
⟨g⟩
⟨n⟩
⟨l⟩
English examples
⟨qu⟩
[kʷ]
Similar to qu in squint (/skwɪnt/)
⟨u⟩
[w]
Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/)
[j]
Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jɑɹd/)
[ij]
"y" (/j/), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate
syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/)
[ks]
A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/)
⟨i⟩
⟨x⟩
In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant
sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus
"year" (and in Italian anno) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed. (In English,
distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or
morphemes, as in that example.)
Vowels
Simple vowels
Front
Central
Back
Close
iː ɪ
ʊ uː
Mid
eː ɛ
ɔ oː
Open
a aː
In Classical Latin, ⟨U⟩ did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form ⟨V⟩ was used to
represent both a vowel and a consonant. ⟨Y⟩ was adopted to represent upsilon in loanwords from
Greek, but it was pronounced like ⟨u⟩ and ⟨i⟩ by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words
by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as sylva and ὕλη.
Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. Then, long vowels, except for ⟨I⟩, were
frequently marked using the apex, which was sometimes similar to an acute accent ⟨Á É Ó V́ Ý⟩. Long
/iː/ was written using a taller version of ⟨I⟩, called i longa "long I": ⟨ꟾ⟩. In modern texts, long vowels
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are often indicated by a macron ⟨ā ē ī ō ū⟩, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is
necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a breve ⟨ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ⟩. However, they
would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating
the vowel twice in a row.[53] The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress,
as in Spanish, rather than length.
Long vowels in Classical Latin are, technically, pronounced as entirely different from short vowels.
The difference is described in the table below:
Pronunciation of Latin vowels
Latin
grapheme
⟨a⟩
⟨e⟩
⟨i⟩
⟨o⟩
⟨u⟩
⟨y⟩
Latin
phone
modern examples
[a]
similar to the last a in part (/paɹt/)
[aː]
similar to a in father (/fɑːðəɹ/)
[ɛ]
as e in pet (/pɛt/)
[eː]
similar to e in hey (/heɪ/)
[ɪ]
as i in pit (/pɪt/)
[iː]
similar to i in machine (/məʃiːn/)
[ɔ]
as o in port (/pɔɹt/)
[oː]
similar to o in post (/poʊst/)
[ʊ]
as u in put (/pʊt/)
[uː]
similar to ue in true (/tɹuː/)
[ʏ]
does not exist in English; as ü in German Stück (/ʃtʏk/)
[yː]
does not exist in English; as üh in German früh (/fʀyː/)
This difference in quality is posited by W. Sidney Allen in his book Vox Latina. However, Andrea
Calabrese has disputed that short vowels differed in quality from long vowels during the classical
period, based in part upon the observation that in Sardinian and some Lucanian dialects, each long
and short vowel pair was merged. This is distinguished from the typical Italo-Western romance vowel
system in which short /i/ and /u/ merge with long /eː/ and /oː/. Thus, Latin 'siccus' becomes 'secco'
in Italian and 'siccu' in Sardinian.
A vowel letter followed by ⟨m⟩ at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨s⟩ or ⟨f⟩,
represented a short nasal vowel, as in monstrum [mõːstrũ].
Diphthongs
Classical Latin had several diphthongs. The two most common were ⟨ae au⟩. ⟨oe⟩ was fairly rare, and
⟨ui eu ei⟩ were very rare, at least in native Latin words.[56] There has also been debate over whether
⟨ui⟩ is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians,
and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. hui ce to huic, quoi to cui, etc.) not matching or being
similar to the pronunciation of classical words if ⟨ui⟩ were to be considered a diphthong.[57]
The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ also represented a sequence of
two vowels in different syllables in aēnus [aˈeː.nʊs] "of bronze" and coēpit [kɔˈeː.pɪt] "began", and ⟨au
ui eu ei ou⟩ represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels /j w/, in
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cavē [ˈka.weː] "beware!", cuius [ˈkʊj.jʊs] "whose", monuī [ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː] "I warned", solvī [ˈsɔɫ.wiː] "I
released", dēlēvī [deːˈleː.wiː] "I destroyed", eius [ˈɛj.jʊs] "his", and novus [ˈnɔ.wʊs] "new".
Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The
Old Latin diphthong ⟨ai⟩ and the sequence ⟨āī⟩ became Classical ⟨ae⟩. Old Latin ⟨oi⟩ and ⟨ou⟩ changed
to Classical ⟨ū⟩, except in a few words whose ⟨oi⟩ became Classical ⟨oe⟩. These two developments
sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical poena
"punishment" and pūnīre "to punish".[56] Early Old Latin ⟨ei⟩ usually changed to Classical ⟨ī⟩.[58]
In Vulgar Latin and the Romance languages, ⟨ae oe⟩ merged with ⟨e ē⟩. During the Classical Latin
period this form of speaking was deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.[56]
Diphthongs classified by
beginning sound
Front
Close
Back
ui /ui̯ /
ei /ei̯ /
eu /eu̯ /
Mid
oe /oe̯ /
ou /ou̯ /
ae /ae̯ /
au /au̯ /
Open
Syllables
Syllables in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and vowels. The number of syllables is
the same as the number of vowel sounds.[53]
Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When
there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An
exception occurs when a phonetic stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to
be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.[53]
Length
Syllables in Latin are considered either long or short. Within a word, a syllable may either be long by
nature or long by position.[53] A syllable is long by nature if it has a diphthong or a long vowel. On the
other hand, a syllable is long by position if the vowel is followed by more than one consonant.[53]
Stress
There are two rules that define which syllable is stressed in the Latin language.[53]
1. In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable.
2. In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases.
If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress.
If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed
instead.[53]
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Orthography
Latin was written in the Latin alphabet, derived from the Etruscan
alphabet, which was in turn drawn from the Greek alphabet and
ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.[59] This alphabet has
continued to be used over the centuries as the script for the
Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Finnic and many Slavic
languages (Polish, Slovak, Slovene, Croatian, Bosnian and Czech);
and it has been adopted by many languages around the world,
including Vietnamese, the Austronesian languages, many Turkic
languages, and most languages in sub-Saharan Africa, the
Americas and Oceania, making it by far the world's single most
widely used writing system.
The number of letters in the Latin alphabet has varied. When it
was first derived from the Etruscan alphabet, it contained only 21
letters.[60] Later, G was added to represent /ɡ/, which had
previously been spelled C, and Z ceased to be included in the
alphabet, as the language then had no voiced alveolar fricative.[61]
The letters Y and Z were later added to represent Greek letters,
upsilon and zeta respectively, in Greek loanwords.[61]
The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th
century BC, is one of the earliest
known Old Latin texts. It was found
on the Quirinal Hill in Rome.
W was created in the 11th century from VV. It represented /w/ in Germanic languages, not Latin,
which still uses V for the purpose. J was distinguished from the original I only during the late Middle
Ages, as was the letter U from V.[61] Although some Latin dictionaries use J, it is rarely used for Latin
text, as it was not used in classical times, but many other languages use it.
Classical Latin did not contain sentence punctuation, letter case,[62] or interword spacing, but apices
were sometimes used to distinguish length in vowels and the interpunct was used at times to separate
words. The first line of Catullus 3, originally written as
lv́géteóveneréscupꟾdinésqve ("Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids")
or with interpunct as
lv́géte·ó·venerés·cupꟾdinésqve
would be rendered in a modern edition as
Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque
or with macrons
Lūgēte, ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque
or with apices
Lúgéte, ó Venerés Cupídinésque.
The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts,
an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Most
notable is the fact that while most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, spaces were
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avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era.
Alternative scripts
Occasionally, Latin has been written in other scripts:
A modern Latin text written in the Old Roman
Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets, the
oldest surviving handwritten documents in
Britain. The word Romani ('Romans') is at
bottom left.
The Praeneste fibula is a 7th-century BC pin with an
Old Latin inscription written using the Etruscan
script.
The rear panel of the early 8th-century Franks
Casket has an inscription that switches from Old
English in Anglo-Saxon runes to Latin in Latin script and to Latin in runes.
Grammar
Latin is a synthetic, fusional language in the terminology of linguistic typology. In more traditional
terminology, it is an inflected language, but typologists are apt to say "inflecting". Words include an
objective semantic element and markers specifying the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of
root meaning and markers produces very compact sentence elements: amō, "I love," is produced from
a semantic element, ama-, "love," to which -ō, a first person singular marker, is suffixed.
The grammatical function can be changed by changing the markers: the word is "inflected" to express
different grammatical functions, but the semantic element usually does not change. (Inflection uses
affixing and infixing. Affixing is prefixing and suffixing. Latin inflections are never prefixed.)
For example, amābit, "he (or she or it) will love", is formed from the same stem, amā-, to which a
future tense marker, -bi-, is suffixed, and a third person singular marker, -t, is suffixed. There is an
inherent ambiguity: -t may denote more than one grammatical category: masculine, feminine, or
neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities
by an analysis of context. All natural languages contain ambiguities of one sort or another.
The inflections express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, a process called
declension. Markers are also attached to fixed stems of verbs, to denote person, number, tense, voice,
mood, and aspect, a process called conjugation. Some words are uninflected and undergo neither
process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections.
Nouns
A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected
forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun.
The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of a, is signified by the genitive singular
ending of -ae.
The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of us, is signified by the genitive singular
ending of -i.
The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of i, is signified by the genitive singular
ending of -is.
The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of u, is signified by the genitive singular
ending of -ūs.
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The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of e, is signified by the genitive singular
ending of -ei.
There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's
syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, word order is not as important in Latin as
it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can
therefore vary. The cases are as follows:
1. Nominative – used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative. The thing or person
acting: the girl ran: puella cucurrit, or cucurrit puella
2. Genitive – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the
man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when it
is translated into Latin. It also indicates the partitive, in which the material is quantified: "a group of
people"; "a number of gifts": people and gifts would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are
genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. (Poculum plēnum vīnī est.) The
master of the slave had beaten him. (Dominus servī eum verberāverat.)
3. Dative – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain
prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the
stola to the woman. (Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.)
4. Accusative – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject and as the object of a
preposition demonstrating place to which.: The man killed the boy. (Vir puerum necāvit.)
5. Ablative – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause,
agent or instrument or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial: You
walked with the boy. (Cum puerō ambulāvistī.)
6. Vocative – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often
the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in -us. The us becomes an -e in the vocative singular. If it ends in -ius (such as fīlius), the ending is just -ī (filī),
as distinct from the nominative plural (filiī) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave.
("Domine!" clāmāvit servus.)
7. Locative – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less
common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and
islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words domus (house), humus (ground), and
rus (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the
genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of
the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative (Athēnae becomes Athēnīs, "at Athens"). In
the fourth-declension word domus, the locative form, domī ("at home") differs from the standard
form of all other cases.
Latin lacks both definite and indefinite articles so puer currit can mean either "the boy is running" or
"a boy is running".
Adjectives
There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second-declension and third-declension.
They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and
third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms.
There are also a number of Latin participles.
Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See Numbers below.
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First- and second-declension adjectives are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine
forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for
mortuus, mortua, mortuum (dead), mortua is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as
puella (girl)), mortuus is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as dominus
(lord, master)), and mortuum is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as
auxilium (help)).
Third-declension adjectives are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few
exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is -ia (omnia (all, everything)),
and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is -a or -ia (capita (heads),
animalia (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter
nominative singular.
Participles
Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of
participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and
Future Passive Participles.
Prepositions
Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most
prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the
boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy),
"puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few adpositions, however, govern a noun in the genitive
(such as "gratia" and "tenus").
Verbs
A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main conjugations. A conjugation is "a class of verbs
with similar inflected forms."[63] The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present
stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -re (-rī in deponent verbs) ending from the
present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in -ā-re or -ā-ri (active and passive
respectively): amāre, "to love," hortārī, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by -ē-re or -ē-rī:
monēre, "to warn", verērī, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by -ere, -ī: dūcere, "to lead," ūtī, "to use";
of the fourth by -ī-re, -ī-rī: audīre, "to hear," experīrī, "to attempt".[64] The stem categories descend
from Indo-European and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European
languages.
Irregular verbs are verbs that do not follow the regular conjugations in the formation of the inflected
form. Irregular verbs in Latin are esse, "to be"; velle, "to want"; ferre, "to carry"; edere, "to eat"; dare,
"to give"; ire, "to go"; posse, "to be able"; fieri, "to happen"; and their compounds.[64]
There are six general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future
perfect), three moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle,
gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and
plural), two voices (active and passive) and two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Verbs are
described by four principal parts:
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1. The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood
form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person
singular.
2. The second principal part is the present active infinitive.
3. The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first
principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular.
4. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect
passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle
or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine and -um for neuter) in the nominative
singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive.
Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but
many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth
principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made
passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs.
The six tenses of Latin are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the
present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect,
pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person,
number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (I,
we) and second (you) persons except for emphasis.
The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in
all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations,
and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations:
Tense
Singular
Plural
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person
Present
-ō/m
-s
-t
Future
-bō, -am
-bis, -ēs
-bam
Imperfect
Perfect
Future Perfect
Pluperfect
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person
-mus
-tis
-nt
-bit, -et
-bimus, -ēmus
-bitis, -ētis
-bunt, -ent
-bās
-bat
-bāmus
-bātis
-bant
-ī
-istī
-it
-imus
-istis
-ērunt
-erō
-eris/erīs
-erit
-erimus/-erīmus
-eritis/-erītis
-erint
-eram
-erās
-erat
-erāmus
-erātis
-erant
Deponent verbs
Some Latin verbs are deponent, causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active
meaning: hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum (to urge).
Vocabulary
As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, ultimately from the ancestral
Proto-Indo-European language. However, because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only
adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin alphabet but also borrowed some Etruscan words
into their language, including persona "mask" and histrio "actor".[65] Latin also included vocabulary
borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language.
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After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began Hellenising, or adopting features of Greek
culture, including the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol),
and balineum (bath).[65] This Hellenisation led to the addition of "Y" and "Z" to the alphabet to
represent Greek sounds.[66] Subsequently, the Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and
philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek skilled and educated persons to Rome
and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific and philosophical
words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as ars
(craft) and τέχνη (art).[67]
Because of the Roman Empire's expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the
Romans borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic
origin, and bracae (breeches), of Celtic origin.[67] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking
regions of the former Roman Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions.
The dialects of Latin evolved into different Romance languages.
During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part
of the language, either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings or as Latin neologisms.[68] Continuing into
the Middle Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old
English and other Germanic languages.
Over the ages, Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns, and verbs by affixing or
compounding meaningful segments.[69] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens, "allpowerful," was produced from the adjectives omnis, "all", and potens, "powerful", by dropping the
final s of omnis and concatenating. Often, the concatenation changed the part of speech, and nouns
were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and adjectives.[70]
Phrases (Neo-Latin)
The phrases are mentioned with accents to show where stress is placed.[71] In Latin, words are
normally stressed either on the second-to-last (penultimate) syllable, called in Latin paenultima or
syllaba paenultima,[72] or on the third-to-last syllable, called in Latin antepaenultima or syllaba
antepaenultima.[72] In the following notation, accented short vowels have an acute diacritic, accented
long vowels have a circumflex diacritic (representing long falling pitch), and unaccented long vowels
are marked simply with a macron. This reflects the tone of the voice with which, ideally, the stress is
phonetically realized; but this may not always be clearly articulated on every word in a sentence.[73]
Regardless of length, a vowel at the end of a word may be significantly shortened or even altogether
deleted if the next word begins with a vowel also (a process called elision), unless a very short pause is
inserted. As an exception, the following words: est (English "is"), es ("[you (sg.)] are") lose their own
vowel e instead.
salvē to one person / salvēte to more than one person – hello
havē to one person / havēte to more than one person – greetings
valē to one person / valēte to more than one person – goodbye
cūrā ut valeās – take care
exoptātus to male / exoptāta to female, optātus to male / optāta to female, grātus to male / grāta to female,
acceptus to male / accepta to female – welcome
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quōmodo valēs?, ut válēs? – how are you?
bene – good
bene valeō – I'm fine
male – bad
male valeō – I'm not good
quaesō (roughly: ['kwaeso:]/['kwe:so:]) – please
amābō tē – please
ita, ita est, ita vērō, sī, sīc est, etiam – yes
nōn, minimē – no
grātiās tibi, grātiās tibi agō – thank you, I give thanks to you
magnās grātiās, magnās grātiās agō – many thanks
maximās grātiās, maximās grātiās agō, ingentēs grātiās agō – thank you very much
accipe sīs to one person / accipite sītis to more than one person, libenter – you're welcome
quā aetāte es? – how old are you?
25 (vīgintī quīnque) annōs nātus sum by male /25 annōs nāta sum by female – I am 25 years old
ubi lātrīna est? – where is the toilet?
scīs (tū) ... – do you speak (literally: "do you know") ...
Latīnē? – Latin?
Graecē? – Greek?
Anglicē? – English?
Theodiscē?/Germānicē? – German? (sometimes also: Teutonicē)
Gallo-romanicē? – French?
Russicē?/Ruthēnicē – Russian?
Italiānē? – Italian?
Hispānicē?/Castellanicē? – Spanish?
Polonicē? – Polish?
Lūsītānē? – Portuguese?
Dāco-rōmānice? – Romanian?
Suēcicē? – Swedish?
Cambricē? – Welsh?
Sīnicē? – Chinese?
Iapōnicē? – Japanese?
Corēānē? – Korean?
Hebraicē? – Hebrew?
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Arabicē? – Arabic?
Persicē? – Persian?
Hindicē? – Hindi?
Bengalicē? – Bengali?
amō tē / tē amō – I love you
Numbers
In ancient times, numbers in Latin were written only with letters. Today, the numbers can be written
with the Arabic numbers as well as with Roman numerals. The numbers 1, 2 and 3 and every whole
hundred from 200 to 900 are declined as nouns and adjectives, with some differences.
ūnus, ūna, ūnum (masculine, feminine, neuter)
duo, duae, duo (m., f., n.)
trēs, tria (m./f., n.)
quattuor
quīnque
sex
septem
octō
novem
decem
quīnquāgintā
centum
quīngentī, quīngentae, quīngenta (m., f., n.)
mīlle
I
II
III
IIII or IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
VIIII or IX
X
L
C
D
M
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
fifty
one hundred
five hundred
one thousand
The numbers from 4 to 100 do not change their endings. As in modern descendants such as Spanish,
the gender for naming a number in isolation is masculine, so that "1, 2, 3" is counted as ūnus, duo,
trēs.
Example text
Commentarii de Bello Gallico, also called De Bello Gallico (The Gallic War), written by Gaius Julius
Caesar, begins with the following passage:
Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani,
tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis,
legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et
Sequana dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque
humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant
atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, proximique sunt Germanis,
qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii
quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis
contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt.
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Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano,
continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et
Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus
oriuntur; pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni; spectant in septentrionem et
orientem solem. Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem
Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.
The same text may be marked for all long vowels (before any possible elisions at word boundary) with
apices over vowel letters, including customarily before "nf" and "ns" where a long vowel is
automatically produced:
Gallia est omnis dívísa in partés trés, quárum únam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquítání,
tertiam quí ipsórum linguá Celtae, nostrá Gallí appellantur. Hí omnés linguá, ínstitútís,
légibus inter sé differunt. Gallós ab Aquítánís Garumna flúmen, á Belgís Mátrona et
Séquana dívidit. Hórum omnium fortissimí sunt Belgae, proptereá quod á cultú atque
húmánitáte próvinciae longissimé absunt, miniméque ad eós mercátórés saepe commeant
atque ea quae ad efféminandós animós pertinent important, proximíque sunt Germánís,
quí tráns Rhénum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Quá dé causá Helvétií
quoque reliquós Gallós virtúte praecédunt, quod feré cotídiánís proeliís cum Germánís
contendunt, cum aut suís fínibus eós prohibent aut ipsí in eórum fínibus bellum gerunt.
Eórum úna pars, quam Gallós obtinére dictum est, initium capit á flúmine Rhodanó,
continétur Garumná flúmine, Óceanó, fínibus Belgárum; attingit etiam ab Séquanís et
Helvétiís flúmen Rhénum; vergit ad septentriónés. Belgae ab extrémís Galliae fínibus
oriuntur; pertinent ad ínferiórem partem flúminis Rhéní; spectant in septentriónem et
orientem sólem. Aquítánia á Garumná flúmine ad Pýrénaeós montés et eam partem
Óceaní quae est ad Hispániam pertinet; spectat inter occásum sólis et septentriónés.
See also
Accademia Vivarium Novum
Classical compound
Contemporary Latin
Greek and Latin roots in English
Hybrid word
International Roman Law Moot Court
Latin grammar
Latin mnemonics
Latin obscenity
Latin school
Latino sine flexione (Latin without Inflections)
List of Greek and Latin roots in English
List of Latin abbreviations
List of Latin and Greek words commonly used
in systematic names
List of Latin phrases
List of Latin translations of modern literature
List of Latin words with English derivatives
List of Latinised names
Lorem ipsum
Romanization (cultural)
Toponymy
Vulgar Latin
References
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2. Sandys, John Edwin (1910). A companion to Latin studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Retrieved 15 February 2016. "In Italy, all alphabets were originally written from right to left; the
oldest Latin inscription, which appears on the lapis niger of the seventh century BC, is in
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7. Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z (http
s://archive.org/details/languagevisibleu00sack/page/80). London: Broadway Books. p. 80 (https://
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31. Sawicka, Irena. "A Crossroad Between West, East and Orient–The Case of Albanian Culture." (htt
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2. Instytut Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 2013. Page 97: "Even according to Albanian
linguists, Albanian vocabulary is composed in 60 percent of Latin words from different periods...
When albanological studies were just emerging, it happened that Albanian was classified as a
Romance language. Already there exists the idea of a common origin of both Albanian and
Rumanian languages. The Rumanian grammar is almost identical to that of Albanian, but it may
be as well the effect of later convergence within the Balkan Sprachbund.."
32. Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered Profusion; studies in dictionaries and the
English lexicon. C. Winter. ISBN 978-3-533-02253-4.
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(Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121-130)
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34. Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook (https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/475
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36. Of the eighty-nine men who signed the Declaration of Independence and attended the
Constitutional Convention, thirty-six went to a Colonial college, all of which offered only the
classical curriculum. Richard M. Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical
Tradition, p.66 (1963).
37. Meyer Reinhold, Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States, p.27
(1984). Harvard's curriculum was patterned after those of Oxford and Cambridge, and the
curricula of other Colonial colleges followed Harvard's. Lawrence A. Cremin, American Education:
The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783, pp. 128–129 (1970),and Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A
History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636, pp.31–32 (1978).
38. Id. at 104.
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slatin.com/). The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
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y/undergraduate/course/a297.htm). .open.ac.uk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140427
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7/does_latin_trai.html) on 14 January 2012. "No, you learn Latin because of what was written in it
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lies at the very heart (not just at the root) of Western culture."
44. "Coins" (https://www.hnb.hr/en/currency/coins). Croatian National Bank. 30 September 2016.
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45. Who only knows Latin can go across the whole Poland from one side to the other one just like he
was at his own home, just like he was born there. So great happiness! I wish a traveler in England
could travel without knowing any other language than Latin!, Daniel Defoe, 1728
46. Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence,
Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-300-06078-5, Google Print, p.48
47. Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0-31333125-1, Google Print, p.115
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51. Levy 1973, p. 150
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External links
Language tools
"Latin Dictionary Headword Search" (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?lang=la).
Perseus Hopper. Tufts University. Searches Lewis & Short's A Latin Dictionary and Lewis's An
Elementary Latin Dictionary. Online results.
"Online Latin Dictionary with conjugator and declension tool" (https://www.online-latin-dictionary.co
m). Olivetti Media Communication. Search on line Latin-English and English-Latin dictionary with
complete declension or conjugation. Online results.
"Latin Word Study Tool" (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?lang=la). Perseus Hopper.
Tufts University. Identifies the grammatical functions of words entered. Online results.
Aversa, Alan. "Latin Inflector" (https://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/latin/). University of Arizona.
Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.
"Latin Verb Conjugator" (https://www.verbix.com/languages/latin.shtml). Verbix. Displays complete
conjugations of verbs entered in first-person present singular form.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
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"Online Latin Verb Conjugator" (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518085747/https://stranica.net63.
net/verba_latina). Archived from the original (https://stranica.net63.net/verba_latina) on 18 May
2016. Retrieved 30 September 2014. Displays conjugation of verbs entered in their infinitive form.
Whittaker, William. "Words" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060618211448/https://lysy2.archives.n
d.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe). Notre Dame Archives. Archived from the original (https://lysy2.archives.
nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe) on 18 June 2006. Identifies Latin words entered. Translates English
words entered.
"Alpheios" (https://alpheios.net). Alpheios Project. Combines Whittakers Words, Lewis and Short,
Bennett's grammar and inflection tables in a browser addon.
Latin Dictionaries (https://curlie.org/Reference/Dictionaries/World_Languages/L/Latin/) at Curlie
Dymock, John (1830). A new abridgment of Ainsworth's Dictionary, English and Latin, for the use
of Grammar Schools (https://books.google.com/books?id=2sIDAAAAQAAJ) (4th ed.). Glasgow:
Hutchison & Brookman.
"Classical Language Toolkit (https://docs.cltk.org/en/latest/latin.html) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20160524154553/https://docs.cltk.org/en/latest/latin.html) 24 May 2016 at the Wayback
Machine" (CLTK). A Natural language processing toolkit for Python offering a variety of
functionality for Latin and other classical languages.
"Collatinus web (https://outils.biblissima.fr/en/collatinus-web/index.php)". Online lemmatizer and
morphological analysis for Latin texts.
Courses
Latin Lessons (https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/latol) (free online through the Linguistics Research
Center (https://web.archive.org/web/20160523020601/https://www.utexas.edu/cola/lrctr/) at UT
Austin)
Free 47-Lesson Online Latin Course (https://web.archive.org/web/20150503145706/https://www.l
earnlangs.com/latin/#Lessons), Learnlangs
Learn Latin (https://learn101.org/latin.php) Grammar, vocabulary and audio
Latin Links and Resources (https://frcoulter.com/latin/links.html), Compiled by Fr. Gary Coulter
der Millner, Evan (2007). "Latinum" (https://latinum.org.uk). Latin Latin Course on YouTube and
audiobooks. Molendinarius. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus" (https://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/latin/simplicissimus.pdf)
(PDF). The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Retrieved 20 April 2011. (a course in
ecclesiastical Latin).
Harsch, Ulrich (1996–2010). "Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae" (https://www.hs-augsburg.de/
~harsch/Ludus/lud_port.html). Bibliotheca Augustana (in Latin). Augsburg: University of Applied
Sciences. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
Beginners' Latin (https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/beginners/default.htm) on The National
Archives (United Kingdom)
Grammar and study
Bennett, Charles E. (2005) [1908]. New Latin Grammar (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1566
5) (2nd ed.). Project Gutenberg. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0.
Griffin, Robin (1992). A student's Latin Grammar (https://archive.org/details/studentslatingra00grif)
(3rd ed.). University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-38587-9.
Lehmann, Winifred P.; Slocum, Jonathan (2008). "Latin Online" (https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/lato
l). The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin
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Ørberg, Hans (1991). LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA – Pars I FAMILIA ROMANA.
ISBN 87-997016-5-0.
Ørberg, Hans (2007). LINGVA LATINA PER SE ILLVSTRATA - Pars II ROMA AETERNA.
ISBN 978-1-58510-067-5.
Allen and Greenough (1903). New Latin Grammar. Athanæum Press.
Phonetics
Cui, Ray (2005). "Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin" (https://la.raycui.com/). Ray Cui.
Retrieved 25 June 2010.
Wilkins, Augustus Samuel; Conway, Robert Seymour (1911). "Latin Language" (https://en.wikisou
rce.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Latin_Language). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Vol. 16 (11th ed.). pp. 244–257.
Ranieri, Luke. "Latin Pronunciation (for Classical Latin)" (https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtub
e/20211027/eH8E5RKq31I). YouTube. Archived from the original (https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=eH8E5RKq31I) on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
Libraries
The latin library (https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/), ancient Latin books and writings (without
translations) ordered by author
LacusCurtius (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/), a small collection of Greek
and Roman authors along with their books and writings (original texts are in Latin and Greek,
translations in English and occasionally in a few other languages are available)
Latin language news and audio
Ephemeris (https://ephemeris.alcuinus.net/), online Latin newspaper: nuntii latini universi = news
in Latin of the universe (whole world)
Ephemeris archive
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190830212232/https://ephemeris.alcuinus.net/), archived copy of
online Latin newspaper
Nuntii Latini (https://yle.fi/radio1/tiede/nuntii_latini/), from Finnish YLE Radio 1
Nuntii Latini (https://www.bremenzwei.de/themen/nuntii-latini-100.html), monthly review from
German Radio Bremen (Bremen Zwei)
Classics Podcasts in Latin and Ancient Greek (https://web.archive.org/web/20150129091342/http
s://www.haverford.edu/classics/audio/), Haverford College
Latinum Latin Language course and Latin Language YouTube Index (https://sites.google.com/site/
janualinguae/latin)
Latin language online communities
Grex Latine Loquentium (http://www.alcuinus.net/GLL/) (Flock of those Speaking Latin)
Circulus Latinus Interretialis (https://web.archive.org/web/20130520083843/https://circuluslatinusi
nterretialis.co.uk/) (Internet Latin Circle)
Latinitas Foundation, at the Vatican (https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/institutions_connected/la
tinitas/documents/index_en.htm)
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Latin Discord Forum (https://discord.com/invite/latin)
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