Chapter 3: Personality Development Section 1: Introduction to Development, Personality, and
Stage Theories Section 2: Motor and Cognitive Development Section 3: Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development Section four: Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Section
5: Freud's Structural and Topographical Model Section 6: Freud's Ego Defense Mechanisms
Section 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Introduction to Development, Personality,
and Stage Theories When discussing any kind of improvement, maximum theorist spoil it down
into unique stages. These degrees are generally innovative. In different phrases, you have to
bypass through one degree before you can get to the subsequent. Think about how you learned to
run; first you had to learn how to crawl, then you may study to walk, and finally you may expand
the skills wished to run. Without the primary degrees, going for walks could be an impossibility.
In this chapter we are able to speak the maximum distinguished level theories in regard to motor
and cognitive, social improvement, development, and moral development. Most of these degree
theories are revolutionary, despite the fact that in some, which includes Erikson's psychosocial
and Freud's psychosexual, someone can fail to complete the stage even as nevertheless
continuing. This failure, but, will bring about problems later in existence consistent with the
theories. The following offers a top level view of improvement in line with the concepts of
psychology. Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood Most toddlers expand motor
competencies inside the same order and at about the identical age. In this feel, maximum agree
that those abilities are genetically preprogrammed inside all infants. The surroundings does play
a position in the improvement, with an enriched environment often reducing the studying time
and an impoverished one doing the alternative. The following chart delineates the improvement
of infants in sequential order. The a long time shown are averages and it's miles regular for those
to differ by means of a month or two in either direction. 2 months – able to raise head up on his
personal 3 months – can roll over four months – can sit down propped up with out falling over 6
months – is able to sit up with out help 7 months – begins to face even as protecting directly to
matters for aid nine months – can begin to stroll, nevertheless the usage of help 10 months – is
capable of momentarily stand on her personal with out support 11 months – can stand by myself
with more self assurance 12 months – begin walking alone without help 14 months – can walk
backward with out support 17 months – can stroll up steps with little or no support 18 months –
able to manipulate objects with ft while walking, such as kicking a ball Cognitive Development
in Children Probably the maximum noted idea in the cognitive development in youngsters is
Jean Piaget (1896-1980). As with all degree theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
continues that youngsters undergo particular levels as their intellect and ability to peer
relationships matures. These tiers are completed in a hard and fast order with all youngsters,
even those in other countries. The age range, but can range from baby to baby. Sensorimotor
Stage. This stage happens between the ages of birth and two years of age, as infants begin to
understand the information entering their feel and their ability to engage with the arena. During
this level, the kid learns to manage items even though they fail to apprehend the permanency of
those gadgets if they're no longer inside their modern sensory notion. In other words, once an
item is removed from the child’s view, he or she is not able to recognize that the item
nonetheless exists. The primary fulfillment during this level is that of Object Permanency, or the
capacity to apprehend that those objects do in fact live on. This consists of his potential to
apprehend that once mother leaves the room, she will be able to in the end go back, resulting in
an increased feel of protection and safety. Object Permanency takes place during the give up of
this level and represents the child’s capability to keep a mental photograph of the object (or
individual) without the real perception. Preoperational Stage. The 2nd stage starts offevolved
after Object Permanency is completed and occurs among the ages of to seven years of age.
During this stage, the improvement of language happens at a rapid pace. Children learn how to
have interaction with their surroundings in a greater complicated manner via using words and
pictures. This level is marked by means of Egocentrism, or the kid’s perception that everybody
sees the sector the equal way that she does. The fail to apprehend the differences in notion and
accept as true with that inanimate items have the same perceptions they do, together with seeing
matters, feeling, listening to and their experience of touch. A 2nd vital thing in this stage is that
of Conservation, that is the capability to apprehend that quantity does not alternate if the form
adjustments. In other words, if a short and huge glass of water is poured into a tall and skinny
glass. Children in this degree will perceive the taller glass as having greater water due most
effective due to it’s height. This is because of the kids’s incapacity to recognize reversibility and
to cognizance on only one thing of a stimulus (called centration), including peak, as opposed to
expertise different factors, consisting of glass width. Concrete Operations Stage. Occurring
among a while 7 and about 12, the 1/3 degree of cognitive development is marked by using a
slow lower in centristic thought and the improved capacity to cognizance on more than one issue
of a stimulus. They can apprehend the concept of grouping, understanding that a small dog and a
massive canine are nonetheless each puppies, or that pennies, quarters, and dollar bills are a part
of the bigger concept of money. They can handiest apply this new know-how to concrete items (
the ones they have certainly experienced). In different words, imagined items or the ones they've
no longer visible, heard, or touched, retain to remain fairly mystical to those youngsters, and
abstract thinking has but to develop. Formal Operations Stage. In the final stage of cognitive
improvement (from age 12 and past), children begin to broaden a greater summary view of the
sector. They are able to observe reversibility and conservation to both actual and imagined
conditions. They also increase an expanded understanding of the arena and the idea of motive
and effect. By the teenage years, they may be capable of develop their own theories
approximately the sector. This level is done through maximum youngsters, despite the fact that
failure to do so has been associated with decrease intelligence. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development Like Piaget, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) maintained that youngsters broaden in a
predetermined order. Instead of that specialize in cognitive development, however, he became
inquisitive about how children socialize and the way this influences their feel of self. Erikson’s
Theory of Psychosocial Development has eight distinct level, each with two viable results.
According to the theory, a hit final touch of each level results in a healthy persona and a success
interactions with others. Failure to effectively complete a degree can result in a discounted
capability to finish in addition ranges and consequently a more bad personality and experience of
self. These stages, but, can be resolved successfully at a later time. Trust Versus Mistrust. From a
long time beginning to 365 days, youngsters begin to learn the capability to accept as true with
others based upon the consistency in their caregiver(s). If believe develops successfully, the kid
profits self belief and protection within the global round him and is able to experience steady
even when threatened. Unsuccessful finishing touch of this degree can bring about an
incapability to consider, and therefore an experience of fear about the inconsistent international.
It may also bring about tension, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of distrust in the
international round them. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between the ages of one and 3,
youngsters begin to assert their independence, by strolling far from their mom, picking which toy
to play with, and making alternatives approximately what they prefer to wear, to consume, and
so forth. If children on this level are endorsed and supported in their improved independence,
they grow to be greater assured and steady in their own capacity to survive in the international. If
youngsters are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to claim themselves,
they start to experience inadequate of their capacity to survive, and might then come to be overly
dependent upon others, lack vanity, and feel a sense of disgrace or doubt of their personal
competencies. Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age six, kids assert
themselves extra regularly. They start to plot activities, make up games, and initiate activities
with others. If given this opportunity, youngsters broaden a feel of initiative, and sense secure in
their ability to guide others and make selections. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either
thru complaint or manage, children increase a sense of guilt. They can also feel like a nuisance to
others and could consequently continue to be followers, missing in self-initiative. Industry vs.
Inferiority. From age six years to puberty, children start to increase a sense of pleasure in their
accomplishments. They initiate tasks, see them thru to finishing touch, and experience right
about what they have got accomplished. During this time, teachers play an improved function
inside the toddler’s improvement. If children are endorsed and bolstered for their initiative, they
start to sense industrious and sense confident of their capacity to gain goals. If this initiative is
not recommended, if it's miles confined through mother and father or instructor, then the kid
starts offevolved to feel inferior, doubting his very own abilties and consequently may not reach
his ability. Identity vs. Role Confusion. During early life, the transition from childhood to
maturity is maximum important. Children are getting extra independent, and start to take a look
at the destiny in phrases of profession, relationships, families, housing, and so forth. During this
era, they discover opportunities and start to shape their own identity primarily based upon the
final results of their explorations. This feel of who they are may be hindered, which leads to a
sense of bewilderment ("I don’t realize what I need to be when I grow up") about themselves and
their position within the international. Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in Young adulthood, we
begin to proportion ourselves greater intimately with others. We explore relationships main
towards longer term commitments with a person aside from a family member. Successful
completion can result in cushty relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care inside
a courting. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can cause isolation,
loneliness, and on occasion depression. Generativity vs. Stagnation. During center maturity, we
establish our careers, settle down within a courting, begin our personal families and develop a
experience of being part of the larger photograph. We give returned to society via raising our
youngsters, being efficient at work, and becoming worried in network sports and corporations.
By failing to achieve those objectives, we emerge as stagnant and sense unproductive. Ego
Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older and become senior citizens, we have a tendency to
sluggish down our productivity, and explore life as a retired individual. It is throughout this time
that we ponder our accomplishments and are capable of expand integrity if we see ourselves as
main a a success lifestyles. If we see our lives as unproductive, experience guilt about our pasts,
or feel that we did now not accomplish our existence dreams, we end up dissatisfied with life and
expand melancholy, frequently main to melancholy and hopelessness. Freud’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the maximum widely
recognized theorist when it comes to the development of personality. Freud’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development are, like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined series
and can bring about either successful of entirety or a wholesome personality or can bring about
failure, leading to an unhealthy character. This idea might be the most well called properly
because the maximum controversial, as Freud believed that we increase through tiers based upon
a selected erogenous zone. During every stage, an unsuccessful finishing touch method that a
infant turns into fixated on that precise erogenous area and either over– or below-indulges once
he or she becomes an grownup. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral level, the kid if
focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too an awful lot or too little gratification can bring about an
Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral sports. This
sort of character may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over devour, or chunk
his or her nails. Personality sensible, these people can also come to be overly based upon others,
gullible, and perpetual fans. On the different hand, they'll also fight those urges and expand
pessimism and aggression in the direction of others. Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The
child’s awareness of satisfaction in this level is on putting off and retaining feces. Through
society’s stress, especially via dad and mom, the child has to discover ways to manage anal
stimulation. In phrases of character, after results of an anal fixation for the duration of this
degree can bring about an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and manipulate (anal retentive).
On the opposite end of the spectrum, they will grow to be messy and disorganized (anal
expulsive). Phallic Stage (a long time 3 to six). The pleasure quarter switches to the genitals.
Freud believed that during this level boy develop unconscious sexual dreams for their mom.
Because of this, he will become opponents with his father and sees him as opposition for the
mother’s affection. During this time, boys additionally broaden a fear that their father will punish
them for those emotions, including via castrating them. This organization of emotions is referred
to as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who by accident killed his father and
married his mom). Later it was introduced that ladies undergo a similar state of affairs,
developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with
this, it has been termed the Electra Complex with the aid of extra latest psychoanalysts.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the sturdy competition of his father, boys
subsequently determine to pick out with him as opposed to fight him. By figuring out with his
father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses
his sexual emotions toward his mom. A fixation at this degree could bring about sexual
deviancies (each overindulging and avoidance) and vulnerable or pressured sexual identification
consistent with psychoanalysts. Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It’s at some stage in this level
that sexual urges remain repressed and kids interact and play often with same intercourse friends.
Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual improvement starts offevolved on
the start of puberty when sexual urges are once more woke up. Through the classes learned
throughout the previous ranges, teens direct their sexual urges onto contrary intercourse peers,
with the primary cognizance of satisfaction is the genitals. Freud's Structural and Topographical
Models of Personality Sigmund Freud's Theory is quite complicated and despite the fact that his
writings on psychosexual improvement set the foundation for how our personalities advanced, it
was most effective one of five components to his overall concept of personality. He additionally
believed that specific riding forces develop in the course of those levels which play an vital
position in how we engage with the arena. Structural Model (identification, ego, superego)
According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an essential a part of our persona due to
the fact as newborns, it allows us to get our fundamental needs met. Freud believed that the id is
based on our satisfaction principle. In different phrases, the identity desires something feels true
on the time, without any consideration for the reality of the state of affairs. When a infant is
hungry, the identification wants food, and consequently the kid cries. When the kid desires to be
modified, the identification cries. When the kid is uncomfortable, in pain, too warm, too
bloodless, or just desires interest, the identification speaks up until his or her desires are met. The
id would not care about reality, about the wishes of every person else, most effective its personal
pride. If you reflect onconsideration on it, toddlers are not actual thoughtful of their parents'
needs. They don't have any care for time, whether their mother and father are sound asleep,
relaxing, ingesting dinner, or bathing. When the identity desires some thing, not anything else is
critical. Within the next 3 years, as the kid interacts increasingly more with the sector, the second
one a part of the personality begins to broaden. Freud called this part the Ego. The ego is based
totally on the fact principle. The ego understands that other humans have desires and desires and
that occasionally being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the end. Its the ego's process to meet
the wishes of the identity, at the same time as taking into consideration the reality of the state of
affairs. By the age of five, or the quit of the phallic level of improvement, the Superego
develops. The Superego is the ethical part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical
restraints positioned on us by using our caregivers. Many equate the superego with the moral
sense as it dictates our belief of proper and wrong. In a wholesome individual, according to
Freud, the ego is the most powerful in order that it is able to fulfill the wishes of the
identification, no longer disenchanted the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of
each state of affairs. Not an easy activity via any way, however if the id gets too robust, impulses
and self gratification take over the person's existence. If the superego turns into to robust, the
individual would be driven through inflexible morals, would be judgmental and unbending in his
or her interactions with the world. You'll learn the way the ego keeps control as you still
examine. Topographical Model Freud believed that the majority of what we revel in in our lives,
the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses aren't available to us at a aware degree.
He believed that most of what drives us is buried in our subconscious. If you consider the
Oedipus and Electra Complex, they had been both pushed down into the unconscious, out of our
focus because of the intense tension they caused. While buried there, however, they hold to
impact us dramatically according to Freud. The role of the subconscious is most effective one
part of the model. Freud also believed that everything we're aware of is saved in our aware. Our
aware makes up a very small part of who we're. In different phrases, at any given time, we are
handiest aware of a very small part of what makes up our persona; maximum of what we are is
buried and inaccessible. The final component is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the
part of us that we are able to get right of entry to if caused, however is not in our active
conscious. Its proper under the floor, however nevertheless buried relatively unless we search for
it. Information including our cellphone range, a few youth memories, or the call of your
excellent youth pal is saved within the preconscious. Because the subconscious is so large, and
because we are handiest privy to the very small conscious at any given time, this principle has
been likened to an iceberg, where the massive majority is buried below the water's surface. The
water, via the manner, would represent everything that we are not aware of, have not
experienced, and that has now not been integrated into our personalities, called the
nonconscious. Ego Defense Mechanisms We said earlier that the ego's task was to fulfill the
identification's impulses, now not offend the moralistic individual of the superego, at the same
time as nevertheless thinking of the truth of the situation. We additionally said that this turned
into not an easy activity. Think of the id as the 'satan for your shoulder' and the superego because
the 'angel of your shoulder.' We don't need either one to get too robust so we talk to each of
them, pay attention their attitude after which make a selection. This decision is the ego talking,
the one seeking out that healthful stability. Before we can speak greater approximately this, we
want to recognize what drives the identification, ego, and superego. According to Freud, we
handiest have drives; sex and aggression. In different phrases, the whole thing we do is
stimulated via this sort of drives. Sex, additionally referred to as Eros or the Life pressure,
represents our power to stay, prosper, and convey offspring. Aggression, also known as Thanatos
or our Death force, represents our need to stay alive and stave off risks to our life, our energy,
and our prosperity. Now the ego has a hard time fulfilling both the identification and the
superego, however it doesn't must accomplish that without help. The ego has some tools it is able
to use in its activity because the mediator, gear that assist protect the ego. These are referred to
as Ego Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a tough time making both the
identification and the superego happy, it will hire one or more of those defenses: DEFENSE
DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE denial arguing towards an tension provoking stimuli by using
declaring it does not exist denying that your physician's prognosis of cancer is accurate and
searching for a second opinion displacement disposing of impulses on a less threatening goal
slamming a door rather than hitting as person, yelling at your partner after a controversy with
your boss intellectualization keeping off unacceptable emotions by focusing at the highbrow
elements focusing at the details of a funeral as hostile to the disappointment and grief projection
putting unacceptable impulses in yourself onto a person else while losing an issue, you kingdom
"You're just Stupid;" homophobia rationalization supplying a logical or rational stating which
you were fired due to the fact you did not purpose in place of the actual reason kiss up the the
boss, while the actual motive changed into your negative performance response formation taking
the other notion because the actual notion causes tension having a bias against a selected race or
subculture after which embracing that race or way of life to the extreme regression returning to a
previous degree of development sitting in a corner and crying after listening to horrific news;
throwing a temper tantrum when you do not get your manner repression pulling into the
subconscious forgetting sexual abuse out of your childhood due to the trauma and tension
sublimation appearing out unacceptable impulses in a socially desirable manner sublimating your
aggressive impulses toward a profession as a boxer; becoming a surgeon due to the fact of your
preference to cut; lifting weights to release 'pent up' power suppression pushing into the
unconscious trying to overlook something that causes you anxiety Ego defenses are not always
bad as you could see by the examples above. In face, the lack of those defenses, or the lack of
ability to use them effectively can frequently cause issues in life. However, we sometimes
employ the defenses at the wrong time or overuse them, which may be equally destructive.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Although it's been puzzled as to whether it
implemented equally to special genders and unique cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) ranges of moral
development is the most broadly mentioned. It breaks our improvement of morality into three
tiers, every of which is divided similarly into tiers: Preconventional Level (as much as age 9):
~Self Focused Morality~ 1. Morality is described as obeying guidelines and warding off poor
consequences. Children on this level see policies set, usually through parents, as defining moral
regulation. 2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is visible as appropriate and moral.
Conventional Level (age 9 to youth): ~Other Focused Morality~ three. Children start to
recognize what's predicted of them by way of their parents, trainer, and so on. Morality is seen as
accomplishing these expectancies. 4. Fulfilling responsibilities as well as following expectancies
are seen as ethical regulation for kids on this degree. Postconventional Level (adulthood):
~Higher Focused Morality~ 5. As adults, we start to apprehend that people have extraordinary
critiques about morality and that policies and legal guidelines range from group to group and
subculture to tradition. Morality is visible as upholding the values of your organization or
tradition. 6. Understanding your very own non-public beliefs permit adults to decide themselves
and others based upon higher stages of morality. In this stage what is right and wrong is based
upon the situations surrounding an movement. Basics of morality are the foundation with
independent thought gambling an vital position.