ETHICS
(GE 703)
RICHARD S. TOLEDO
Compiler/Editor
September 2020
Table of Contents
Chapter I. Fundamentals of Ethics ……………………………………………….........1
Lesson I. The Origin and Nature of Ethics ……………………………………...1
Lesson II. The Need to Study Ethics …………………………………………….3
Lesson III. Assumption of Ethics………………………………………………….4
Chapter Summary …………………………………………………………………………6
Chapter II. Man as a Person ……………………………………………………………..7
Lesson I. Philosophies of Man …………………………………………………….8
Lesson II. Person, Personality and Character …………………………………..13
Lesson III. Habits and its Moral Significance ……………………………………15
Lesson IV. Intellectual Virtues and the Effects of Vices ……………………..…17
Chapter Summary …………………………………………………………………………20
Chapter III. Morality………………………………………………………………………..22
Lesson I. Nature of Morality and the Importance of Rules…………………..…22
Lesson II. Moral Vs. Non-Moral Standards ………………………………………24
Lesson III. Moral Dilemma ………………………………………………………...28
Lesson IV. Freedom ………………………………………………………………..29
Chapter Summary …………………………………………………………………………33
Summative Test ……………………………………………………………………………34
Chapter IV. The Moral Agent ……………………………………………………………..38
Lesson I. How Culture Shapes Human Behavior ……………………………….38
Lesson II. Cultural Relativism ……………………………………………………..40
Lesson III. Universal Values ……………………………………………………….43
Lesson IV. The Filipino Way ……………………………………………………….44
Lesson V. How is Moral Character Developed ………………………………….49
Lesson VI. Stages of Moral Development ………………………………………..53
Chapter Summary …………………………………………………………………………57
Summative Test ……………………………………………………………………………58
Chapter V. The Act ……………………………………………………………………..…61
Lesson I. Forms of Acts and Components of Moral Acts ………………………61
Lesson II. Feeling as Instinctive & Trained Response to Moral Dilemmas ….65
Lesson III. Reason and Impartiality as Requirements for Ethics ……………..72
Lesson IV. Moral Courage …………………………………………………………76
Chapter Summary …………………………………………………………………………78
Summative Test ……………………………………………………………………………79
Chapter VI. Frameworks and Principles behind our Moral Disposition ……………..82
Lesson I. Virtue Ethics: Aristotle ………………………………………………….82
Lesson II. Virtue Ethics: St. Thomas Aquinas ……………………………....…..86
Lesson III. Kant and the Right Theorists ……………………………………...…90
Lesson IV. Utilitarianism …………………………………………………….….…94
Lesson V. Justice and Fairness in Promoting the Common Good ……….….97
Chapter Summary ………………………………………………………………………..102
Summative Test ……………………………………………………………………….….104
References ………………………………………………………………………………..108
Chapter I
Fundamentals of Ethics
Knowing the nature of ethics is the first basic step workers can take to
strengthen the foundation upon which to anchor themselves in their quest to live
ethically in and out of the workplace.
Workers make ethical judgements all the time when performing their work.
These judgements are frequently based on ethics.
This chapter will endeavor to present basic information about ethics.
It should be pointed out early, however, that simply knowing the nature and
business of ethics is not sufficient.
Ethics is a personal and a lifelong commitment. To be ethical does not only
require knowledge of ethics but also the willingness to live ethically.
The willingness and the moral conviction to live the virtuous life is something
this module cannot provide. We alone cultivate our moral sense as we alone make
the decision to do what is good or to refuse to do the right thing.
General Objectives:
1. Define ethics, both as a study and as an activity
2. Discuss the origin and nature of ethics
3. Explain the need to study ethics.
4. Explain the assumption of ethics
Lesson I. The Origin and Nature of Ethics
When man began to wonder about the right thing to do or about how he
should live his existence, another exciting field of Philosophy came to life.
Philosophers called it ethics, or moral philosophy. Ethics comes from the Greek word
ethos, meaning character.
Ethics, in ancient Greece, was concerned with the development of virtuous
and moral character. The Greeks believed that developing character would lead one
not only to knowing the right thing to do, but to actually doing the right thing or living
the right way of life.
Specific Objectives:
1. Give the definition of ethics
2. Explain the nature of ethics
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Lesson Outline
Ethics is mainly known as the principle of moral conduct that makes a
distinction between good and bad/ evil, right and wrong, virtue and non-virtue. It is a
branch of knowledge that governs right and wrong conducts and behaviors of an
individual, profession, group or organization. It is a core of the professional and
personal lives of people. Different scholars have defined ethics differently. However
different their definitions might be, ethics is always concerned with morality and right
vs wrong and good vs evil. It is applied universally. There is also ethics in professions
such as journalism, advertising, education, medicine, etc.
Karen L. Rich defines ethics as a systematic approach to understanding,
analyzing, and distinguishing matters of right and wrong, good and bad, and
admirable and deplorable as they relate to the well-being of and the relationships
among sentient beings.
The term ethics may refer to the philosophical study of the concepts of moral
right and wrong and moral good and bad, to any philosophical theory of what is
morally right and wrong or morally good and bad, and to any system or code of moral
rules, principles, or values. The last may be associated with particular religions,
cultures, professions, or virtually any other group that is at least partly characterized
by its moral outlook.
The terms ethics and morality are closely related. It is now common to refer to
ethical judgments or to ethical principles where it once would have been more
accurate to speak of moral judgments or moral principles. These applications are an
extension of the meaning of ethics. In earlier usage, the term referred not to morality
itself but to the field of study, or branch of inquiry, that has morality as its subject
matter. In this sense, ethics is equivalent to moral philosophy.
Nature of Ethics
Scientific Nature: Ethics is a normative science which determines norms,
moral values in a person and an individual‘s character. It is a systematic explanation
of what is right and what is wrong.
Not Art: Ethics is not art as art deals with the acquisition of skill to produce
objects, while morality deals with motive, intention, purpose and choice which are
considered right or wrong in the light of goodness.
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Variable Nature: Ethics is not static. It is not always the same. Human beings
change and the morality and ethical perspective in them also changes.
Exclusively for Human Beings: Ethics can only be applied to human beings
as we are the ones who have the capacity for moral judgement. We cannot expect
ethical behavior from animals, as they are not as intelligent as human beings are so
ethics is exclusively for human beings.
Assessment
Answer the following questions in not less than five (5) sentences.
1. Define ethics in your own point of view in relation to your future
profession.
2. Why ethics is not static?
Lesson II. The Need to Study Ethics
Ours is an age of specialization. This leads many to believe that what we
really need are the things that can make our knowledge more specialized, knowledge
that can earn us a living and secure for ourselves life‘s necessities and comforts.
Many claim that the study of ethics is unproductive and a waste of our valuable time.
So, why do we need to study ethics in the first place?
Specific objectives:
1. Explain the importance of studying ethics
2. Express how ethics affects ones profession
Lesson Outline
We study "ethics" because society cannot function without a series of
commonly-accepted moral codes that define boundaries of acceptable behavior. We
also study ethics because there is not always a consensus on what types of behavior
are acceptable.
The essence of civilization can be said to center on the emergence of a broad
consensus regarding acceptable types of behavior. Accepting constraints on our
freedoms for the benefit of the greater society is an essential condition of a
functioning society. Often, types of conduct or actions that are perceived as
threatening to the well-being of society are proscribed by law. There may be,
therefore, a considerable overlap between the law and codes of ethics. Certain types
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of professions, however, adopt codes of ethics precisely for the purpose of clarifying
and educating, for the benefit of practitioners and customers alike, the boundaries
outside of which certain activities are considered immoral and damaging to the
integrity of the profession and to the well-being of the customer. Physicians and
nurses, for example, adhere to the Code of Medical Ethics of the American Medical
Association, a non-governmental professional association that establishes ethical
standards guiding the medical practice. Similarly, members of the legal profession
adhere to a set of standards outlined by the American Bar Association, a nongovernmental organization that established a code of ethics guiding the professional
conduct of lawyers. This is true to all professions. These codes of ethics proscribe
activities that undermine the integrity of the profession and harm the interests of
clients.
The study of ethics is essential to the stable functioning of civilization. Moral
quandaries are inevitable in certain professions. Studying the origins of moral
standards and the role they play in society helps to understand the lines separating
acceptable from unacceptable types of behavior.
Ethics makes clear to us why one act is better than another. Ethics contribute
an orderly social life by providing humanity basis for agreement, understanding some
principles of rules of procedure. Moral conduct and ethical systems both the past and
the present must be intelligently appraised and criticized. Ethics seeks to point out to
men the true values of life.
Assessment
Answer the following questions in not less than five (5) sentences.
1. In a rating of 1-10 as 10 as the highest, what is your rating on the importance
of studying ethics? Defend your answer.
2. Considering your answer in number 1, how could this affects your future
profession?
Lesson III. Assumption of Ethics
Like any other discipline, ethics proceeds from some basic assumptions.
Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or statements that are accepted to be true
without the burden of proving or of proof.
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Specific Objectives:
1. Explain why man is a rational being
2. Relate the assumption that man is free in relation to the study of ethics.
Lesson Outline
Assumption of Ethics
First, that man is a rational being. This means that man is rational and acts '
with a purpose, unlike brutes who merely act out of instinct and reflex. Man is
capable of knowing both the intentions and the consequences of his actions, and is
capable of judging them as right or wrong, or as good or bad. The assumption
implies the moral awareness or the capability of man to know and distinguish right
from wrong and good from bad. .
Second that man is free. Ethics assumes that man is free to act according to
his will and he has the power to act, speak or think if he chooses to without restraints.
In general this assumption tells us that man has the capacity to exercise choice in his
actions. It implies that man has the capability to choose what to do and what is good.
If we look closely, these two assumptions are not simple presuppositions but
necessary conditions for moral judgments to be possible. Without assuming the
existence of rationality and freedom in man, it is impossible to judge acts as ethical or
unethical, and as moral or immoral. Because he thinks and is free, man is thus
responsible for his actions. These two elements could mitigate or aggravate the
degree of people‘s moral responsibility. This is the reason why we cannot rightly
judge the action of a five-year-old child, or a person who has gone insane to be
unethical, even if their acts harm or injure other people. Or judge the action of an
automated machine designed to rescue people from rubble as moral, even if it has
already saved hundreds of lives, or, the act of a carnivorous animal as immoral, even
if it has devoured an entire village. Moral responsibility is, thus, basically defined
based on these two assumptions.
Assessment
1. Explain why man is the only rational being?
2. What is the importance of the assumption that man is free in studying ethics?
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Chapter Summary

Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, meaning character.

Ethics is mainly known as the principle of moral conduct that makes a
distinction between good and bad/ evil, right and wrong, virtue and non-virtue.

Ethics referred not to morality itself but to the field of study, or branch of
inquiry, that has morality as its subject matter. In this sense, ethics is
equivalent to moral philosophy.

Ethics is Scientific in nature, Not an art, Variable in nature and Exclusively for
Human Beings.

Ethics helps us understand why one act is better than another. It is basis for
agreement, understanding some principles of rules of procedure. It also seeks
to point out to men the true values of life.

The assumptions of ethics are man is a rational being and man is free.
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Chapter II
Man as a Person
Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in
the study at values and ethics. To understand the nature of man is a courageous task
owing to his complexity. To study and judge his actions is an even more challenging
function.
It is observed that everybody is presumed to understand what man is. But
because man is different from others, it is assumed that everybody else has a
different view of a man.
Man is a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect
and emotions. He has needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a successful
and happy life. He has needs and appetites that are physiological, intellectual,
psychological or emotional, social, economic, political, moral, and spiritual in nature.
All his efforts are geared towards the fulfillment of these needs as he strives to live a
full life. He has to work for the satisfaction of these varied needs. These needs
should be fulfilled to avoid frustrations.
Man is scientifically named Homo sapiens. He has distinct characteristics
that make him different from the other creatures on earth.
Every man is born inimitable, each one different from others. An individual‘s
nature is manifested and fashioned by heredity, culture. and environment
The word ―person‖ comes from the Greek word prosophon. meaning ―mask‖--that which is used by stage actors. Its Latin equivalent personare refers to the mask
through which an actor forcefully projects his voice. We may, therefore, speak of a
person as a human being, hidden by the mask.
As Agapay (1991) concludes, a person exists distinctly and independently
from others and is capable of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and of
deciding for himself the purpose or end of his actions. He has his own set' of values
and work ethics.
Hence, man, says Palispis (1995), has to be respected as a being who can
think and act as a person. Every values teacher must address himself to the
processes of thinking (cognitive or acquiring knowledge), feeling (affective or forming
attitudes and values) and acting (psychomotor or acquiring skills).
General Objectives:
1. Discuss the philosophies of man
2. Distinguish personality from character
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3. Explain moral habits and its moral significance
4. Differentiate virtues and vices
Lesson I. Philosophies of Man
The method that we use in studying the nature of man and the meaning or
condition of being human is basically Christian. But this requires a lot of analytic
presentation of various views about man. Some of these views are pagan _ while
others are atheist. Only after presenting these views will we engage into a synthetic
Inquiry of man.
All men have the same anatomical and physiological structure. Several
philosophers and scholars present different views on how to understand man as a
person.
Specific Objectives:
1. Describe man based on different philosophical views
2. Compare the different philosophical views of man
3. Express ones philosophy on the nature of man.
Lesson Outline
Philosophy of man is an open ended-cerebral empirical activity. It is a basic
course for college students which is both extensive and comprehensive in scope.
This implies that philosophy of man is an endeavor which is not an end in itself but a
means to an end. This is why the course has a close linkage to Metaphysics, Ethics,
Sociology, Psychology, Theology, Epistemology, and Theodicy. It is connected with
Metaphysics since it studies the being of man; with Ethics since it treats of man as a
being of action; with Sociology since it considers the horizontal ‗or social dimension
of man; with psychology since it studies the nature of man as a being endowed with
reason; with Theology since it inquires the avenue of man‘s relatedness to God in the
context of faith; with Epistemology since it investigates the true notion of the human
substance; and with Theodicy since it provides an arena of questions about human
nature and human condition from the standpoint of the nature, essence, and activity
of God.
In general, philosophy of man is a course that deals , with man; man is "the
superstar in philosophy of man. If philosophy is a love or an intense desire for
wisdom then philosophy of man is one‘s desire to know who and what man is. In
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coming to grips with the question ―who he is?‖ man posits the question and answers
the question himself. No other being except man can know himself. Thus, in
philosophy of man, man asks a crucial question about himself and gradually answers
the question himself. I
As a whole, philosophy of man is a course that delves into the origin of
human life, the nature of human life, and the reality of human existence. Thus,
philosophy of man leads the students to look at the wholeness of their being since
the course guides them to see themselves and their fellowmen as persons, subjects,
and center of values.
Different Philosophical Views of a Man
Biological
Man is a complex being who behaves uniquely as a result of his hereditary,
environmental, and cultural influences. He is curious; he imitates others and has his
own interests. Man reasons and improves the adaptive nature of his behavior in
rational ways. He makes and uses tools in a variety of ways. He is self-conscious,
reflecting on his past and future and on life and death. He makes mental
abstractions, develops symbols and communicates his ideas and knowledge through
sign or oral language. Man has a sense of appreciation for arts and beauty.
Man has his religion. He believes in a Divine Being, and has superstitions and
beliefs in animistic, supernatural, or spiritual things. A human being is a moral animal
and has developed himself through the influence of heredity, environment, and
cultural factors. Thus, man becomes an integral human being Created in the likeness
of God.
Classical View
For the classical philosophers, man is a creature endowed with hierarchical
virtues whose nature is designed to serve as building blocks of society. Man is
distinct from animals as he is the sole being who possesses a physical body and a
soul. Man‘s soul is composed of intellect and will. From the point of view of Aristotle,
man is a rational and a social being. To him, man is not the center of the universe.
He is only a part of it. He is born to be a part of society. He is a political animal in the
sense that outside the political organization or the organized society, he is nothing.
He is a beast who recognizes neither law nor social structures.
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Christian View
The Judaeo-Christian philosophers considered man as the ―image‖ of God."
Genesis 1:27 (Holy Bible) states, ―God created man in mi own minim; in the image of
God He created him; male and female He created them.‖ This centers on the notion
that man is endowed with divine attributes. These divine characteristics bring all men
to a common bond forming essentially one family. We share the same basis features
that make us human and enable us to know and to love one another. As is pointed
out, biblical prophecy speaks of the peaceful unity of all men.
Existentialist View
Teilhard de Chardin (1970) says that man is a being who knows what he
knows. Martin Heideger (cited by Palispis, 1995) believes that man is responsible not
only for himself but for all men. In his book Introduction to Philosophy, Engelber Van
Crooverburg (1963), as cited by Palispis (1995), mentions the following thoughts
about man:
1. Man is raised above the abyss of nothingness.
2. He lives on the dividing line between the past, the present and the future.
3. He is embodied.
4. He is above all and subhuman.
5. He uses reason above the lower levels of his existence and teaches consciously
beyond himself into a being of which he partakes and becomes more than he is. '
Msgr. Fulton Sheen (1948)7describes man on a three-level structure: body,
soul and spirit. His body, through his senses, makes him aware of the material
universe. His soul, which Msgr. Sheen also calls mind or psyche, makes him
responsive to other people and to the arts, sciences, philosophy and law. Man‘s spirit
facilitates having a communion with God.
Karl Marx (cited by Palispis, 1995), suggests that human nature has given
potentials, the nature of which cannot be changed. Yet, man does change as a result
of developing his potentials which God has given him when he was born. This is
certified true by several studies. Van der Poel (1971) found that values have their
own ―historicity‖. And for Andres (1980), he believes in the relativity of values ―that
values are relative to cultural influences of historical changes, in the sense that the
appreciation of values is affected by these factors...since values is relative to time,
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time becomes an important indicator of one‘s values.‖ As Havighurst and Neugarten
(1976) reveal, when a society changes, its values also change.
The existentialists consider the existence of man endowed with a free will.
Not all men have the same essence.
Oriental Philosophical Views
Mencius (cited by Cruz, 1993) speaks of human nature as originally good. He
mentions the four beginnings that belong to man‘s original nature, namely:
1. jen - the feeling of commensuration, which is the beginning of the virtue of human
heartedness.
2. yi -the feeling of shame and dislike, which is the start of righteousness.
3. Li- the feeling of modesty and yielding towards the good. This is the beginning of
ritual or propriety.
4. chin -the sense of right and wrong.
Man is naturally bestowed with the knowledge of what is right and what is
wrong or what is good and what is bad. These four beginnings of man differentiate
him from the beast. Man is expected to develop these four beginnings to become
truly a man. Through the full development of his nature, man cannot only know
Heaven but also becomes one with Heaven.
The only way for man to be happy is to free himself from the slavery of his
selfishness and inordinate sexual desires. Gautama Buddha says: ―Never in this
world does hatred cease by hatred. Hatred ceases by love... Let us live happily by
not hating those who hate us. Let us live free among men who hate. Let a man
overcome anger by kindness, evil by good, and hate by love.‖
To Confucius, life is not a delusion, a curse, or a misery. It is a living reality, a
blessing, a natural priceless right and opportunity to work together with your fellows
for the common good and attain happiness. He says that man‘s perfection and
happiness is realized and achieved in social life. He advocates harmony among men
in society. The social order predicted by Confucius is patterned after the natural order
of things in the universe and the moral order reflected and embodied in the life of the
moral man. Confucius states that the life of the moral man is an exemplification of the
universal moral order. The life of the vicious man is its contradiction.
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In constantly doing what is good as commanded by his nature, man becomes
one with the natural law, is adjusted to the rhythm of the universe, and thus enjoys
peace and happiness. Confucius says ―Mans greatest achievement is to find the
central clue to our moral being that unites us with the universal order‖
Contemporary View
Man is said to be a multi-bejeweled crown of creation. He radiates the various
aspects and facets of his being which he alone possesses his physical, mental,
moral, spiritual, social, civic, economic, psychological, aesthetic, and sensual
aspects. These gifts are not mere adornments but are meant to serve a noble
purpose: to serve for the betterment and perfection not only. of himself but also of
humanity. In the end, man will be judged not only by his possession, power or
influence but also by the nature of his work (Montemayor, 1995)
Immanuel Kant Concludes that man is the only creature who governs and
directs himself and his actions. He sets up ends for hirnself and his purpose and
freely orders means for the attainment ‗of his aims. Every man is an END in himself
and should never be treated merely as a means as per the order of the Creator and
the natural order of things (Montemayor, 1995)
Man is a human being. As (a true human being-he has the power to become
the best among all creations. The Divine Providence created man in His own
likeness; gifted him with an intellect and will in order to know the truth and to make
the right decisions. With the use of these endowments, man has the capacity to learn
and be educated in the right sense of the word. Through education, man will be
equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and values needed as he explores
the world of work. Through his values, ideals, intelligent insights, and productive
efforts, man has the capacity to become progressive (Baking, 1982).
Assessment
1. Based on different philosophical views about man, give your own description
of a man.
2. Among the Philosophical views of a ma presented, choose at least 3 to
compare and contrast using Venn diagram and give brief explanation.
3. From the different Philosophical views, express your own philosophy of man.
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Lesson II. Person, Personality and Character
While character and personality are both used to describe someone‘s
behaviors, the two examine different aspects of that individual. One‘s personality is
more visible, while one‘s character is revealed over time, through varying situations.
Specific Objectives:
1. Define person, personality and character
2. Discern personality from character
3. Evaluate ones personality and character
Lesson Outline
Personality is the sum total of the factors of physique and constitution and
those enduring, underlying tendencies of a person which determine his characteristic
behavior. In the language of laymen, personality refers to those physical attributes
and mannerism of an aesthetically refined person. In psychology, those ―enduring
and underlying tendencies‖ which determine characteristic behavior are the talents,
powers, and habits which are accidental to a person. Thus, one individual is not more
of a person than another, but he may have more personality than another.
The person of a man does not grow in stature; but personality of a man
develops and enlarges itself according to the pattern of his actions, the mature use of
his powers, and the schema of his habits. Whereas person is entirely a gift and a
birthright, personality is largely a matter of one‘s achievement. There is no such thing
as the cultivation of person; but there is such a thing as the cultivation of personality.
Character is often taken as synonymous with personality. This is correct if
personality is taken as the sum-total of psychophysical systems in an individual
which enable him to adjust to his environment but character assumes a restricted
meaning. Character refers to a person‘s choice of values and this intelligent and free
conversion of such values into practical goal.
If personality is a psychological entity, character is an ethical entity. We do
not say that a man has good or bad personality, but we do say that a man has a
good character. Thus, if personality is a principle of rational action, character is a
principle of moral action. Personality might be defined as the sum-total of our rational
habits grouped around the axis of intellect. Character might be similarly defined as
the sum-total of all our moral habits grouped around the axis of will.
―Personality is easy to read, and we‘re all experts at it. We judge people [as]
funny, extroverted, energetic, optimistic, confident—as well as overly serious, lazy,
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negative, and shy—if not upon first meeting them, then shortly thereafter. And though
we may need more than one interaction to confirm the presence of these sorts of
traits, by the time we decide they are, in fact, present, we‘ve usually amassed
enough data to justify our conclusions.
―Character, on the other hand, takes far longer to puzzle out. It includes traits
that reveal themselves only in specific—and often uncommon—circumstances, traits
like honesty, virtue, and kindliness‖ (Lickerman, 2011).
While personality is easier to spot, it‘s largely static and slow to evolve. Character, on
the other hand, takes longer to discern but is easier to change. That‘s because
character is shaped by beliefs, and with enough effort and motivation, changing one‘s
perspective and view of the world can lead to a shift in one‘s character.
The malleability of character makes sense when you look at human evolution.
In order for our ancestors to survive, they had to adapt to new environments and
change with the times—and this remains true in the modern era.
If an individual deems a change in his or her surroundings to be significant, then his
or her beliefs will transform to accommodate the change.
For instance, an individual who might have a shy personality can learn to
switch his attitude toward public speaking when stepping into the role of a teacher.
The new social and external demands lead to an internal shift that changes his
demeanor.
In this way, even if an individual‘s inborn preference is to shy away from the
public, the beliefs and values that shape his behavior can evolve to reflect the values
of his immediate groups and communities. Such awareness and adaptability help
with survival (Kurtus, 2011).
The bottom line is, despite the significance of our inborn personality traits, we
can overcome them as required by personal or cultural demands.
Assessment
1. Present your own understanding of a person, personality and character.
2. Expound the statement ―If personality is a psychological entity, character is an
ethical entity‖.
3. Based on your readings, what is your personality and how will you evaluate
your character.
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Lesson III. Habits and its Moral Significance
Man is a creature of habits. He is born with a wide assortment of powers that
open up limitless horizons for development. Reason stands to the apex of the vast
array of potentialities. Man, if he must integrate all his powers in one wholesome
personality, must rely on the powers of reason. Man must for the habits of reason.
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain the moral significance of habits
2. Articulate how your habit affects your education.
Lesson Outline
Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have. Habit is either the
disposition to have something, or the disposition to act in a certain manner. The first
is called entitative habit, that which disposes a thing to have a certain nature or
quality of being, such as to be beautiful, talented or to be obese. The latter is called
operative habit, that which disposes for doing something in a certain manner, such as
painting, writing or talking. We are primarily interested with operative habits. They
may be defined as the readiness to do something.
Habits are acquired. Once acquired, they become very difficult to alter. They
are therefore relatively permanent. Acquiring habit is like starting a pathway across a
lawn. At first, our foot impressions are hardly visible but with each successive step,
as more and more people walk across the lawn, the pathway comes out clearly.
In like manner, habits are not formed in an instant. They result from
constantly repeated actions. After they are formed, they do not vanish instantly. It
would require a tremendous effort to change a habit.
Habits are largely dominant and subconscious patterns of action established
and maintained by repetition. So, habits are patterns of action, such as tying our
shoes, with three distinguishing features:
(1) Dominance
(2) Unconsciousness
(3) Repetition
(1) Dominance means that we perform the habitual actions the vast majority of the
time. In almost every case that we pick up the ends of our shoelaces, we tie our
shoes.
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(2) Sub consciousness means that we are not consciously choosing or 2 attending to
the habitual actions. We don‘t have to think about each loop and pinch in order to tie
our shoelaces.
(3) That habits are established and maintained by repetition means that we
automatize the actions by practicing them over and over again. We have all tied our
shoes a billion and one times, so now we can do it in our sleep.
Moral habits share all of these features of ordinary habits, plus one more:
moral habits arise out of a commitment to particular moral principles. We might adopt
the moral habit of consciously setting aside time to rest and rejuvenate in order to
achieve the value of being more productive while working. We might adopt the moral
habit of being aware of our emotional states in order to achieve the value of greater
clarity of thought. In other words, moral habits are habits which aim to achieve moral
values.
The Function of Habits in Life
Without habits, without the capacity to automatize frequently repeated
actions, we could never move beyond the most simple of tasks. We would barely be
able to walk, let alone perform amazing feats of multi-tasking, such as walking and
chewing gum at the same time. Our conscious mind would be wholly engaged in
tasks that, with habits, we relegate to the background.
The exact same analysis applies to moral habits. Imagine not being in the
habit of honesty. Imagine having to consciously determine, with every new fact of
which you became aware, whether to accept it or pretend that it isn‘t true. Imagine, in
every sentence of every conversation, consciously deciding whether to tell the truth
or to lie. You‘d be thinking very little and speaking even less! Only through habit, only
by automatizing these moral decisions -- so that we are always accepting facts and
always telling the truth -- can we actually go about living our lives. Having no habits,
making all moral decisions consciously and deliberately, is simply not an option.
Thus the question is not: Should I have habits? Our brains naturally form
habits, whether we deliberately cultivate them or not. The real question is: Should I
form habits consciously or unconsciously? Should I choose my own habits or have
them chosen for me?
To show why consciously-cultivated habits are so worthwhile, let‘s take a
peek at the three of benefits that well-developed and consciously-chosen moral
habits bring us, namely (1) reduction of cognitive load, (2) the disposition to act
morally, and (3) consistency between our words and our deeds.
16
Benefit #1: Moral habits reduce our cognitive load. Moral habits automatize
decisions for us, freeing us from the time and effort of deliberating most everyday
moral choices. As I mentioned, without any such automatization, we would be
mentally crippled. But more broadly speaking, our moral habits allow us to both focus
our attention on the more interesting and complex aspects of life and act quickly.
Benefit #2: Moral habits dispose us to act morally. Good moral habits make
virtuous action easy and natural, and render vice difficult and unpleasant. In forming
habits, we condition our emotions to take pleasure in acting on principle and feel pain
in acting against principle. That emotional feedback naturally inclines us towards the
right thing to do.
Benefit #3: Moral habits give us consistency between our words and our
deeds. Moral habits connect our abstract moral principles to the concrete moral
choices we face every day. As such, habits strengthen the bond between what we
say and what we do. They strengthen our integrity. However, integrity concerns more
than the ―trickle-down‖ effect from our principles to our actions. It also concerns the
―trickle-up‖ effect from our actions to our principles. To put it bluntly, what we do
affects what we think. If our actions are inconsistent with our beliefs, we will change
our beliefs in order to reconcile the two.
Assessment
1. Why do you think habit is important in relation to morality?
2. Explain how your habits affect your education.
3. Give concrete example of how a habit is form using the distinguishing
features of habits.
Lesson IV. Intellectual Virtues and the Effects of Vices
People‘s virtues are a subset of their good qualities. They are not innate, like
eyesight, but are acquired by practice and lost by disuse. They are abiding states,
and they thus differ from momentary passions such as anger and pity. Virtues are
states of character that find expression both in purpose and in action. Moral virtue is
expressed in good purpose—that is to say, in prescriptions for action in accordance
with a good plan of life. It is expressed also in actions that avoid both excess and
defect. A temperate person, for example, will avoid eating or drinking too much, but
he will also avoid eating or drinking too little. Virtue chooses the mean, or middle
ground, between excess and defect. Besides purpose and action, virtue is also
concerned with feeling. One may, for example, be excessively concerned with sex or
17
insufficiently interested in it; the temperate person will take the appropriate degree of
interest and be neither lustful nor frigid.
Specific Objectives:
1. Differentiate intellectual and moral virtue
2. State the effects of vices to personal life and education.
Lesson Outline
Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect
are called intellectual virtues. They help man acquire knowledge and perfection on
that aspect only. Those that pertain to the will are called moral virtues. They dispose
the will towards proper conduct and contribute to the perfection of the whole person.
The intellectual virtues are:
1. Understanding which is the habit of the first principles, such as, ―do good
and avoid evil‖, ―the whole is greater than the sum of any of its parts‖;
2. Science which is the habit of proximate causes, such as, concluding from
the facts of experience or inference;
3. Wisdom which is the habit of ultimate causes, such as, being aware that
the ecosystem binds both man and lower creatures;
4. Art which is the habit of making or producing things, such as, paintings,
music, sculpture;
5. Prudence which is the habit of doing or choosing from alternative values,
such as saving for the ―rainy days‖.
Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and
prudence pertain to practical intellect.
The Moral Virtues
The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are
justice, temperance and fortitude.
1. Justice is the virtue which inclines us to render to another what is due to him.
The biblical just man is one who respects himself, worships God and helps
others.
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2. Fortitude is the virtue which gives us the strength in facing dangers and
vicissitudes of life. In Filipino we refer to it as tatag ng kalooban so that we
describe a man of fortitude as matibay, matatag, or malakas ang loob.
Fortitude must be tempered by prudence. It belongs to the prudent
man to decide whether to assume a risk or to avoid it.
3. Temperance is the virtue which helps us regulate our passions and our use of
earthly goods. In the philosophy of Aristotle, temperance or moderation
provides the ―golden mean‖ so that nothing is done in excess or in defect
because anything excessive or defective constitutes a vice, it has been said
that virtue stands in the middle of both extremes, or as the Latin say, ―virtus
stat en medio‖.
The effects of Vices
A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil
act. One single act of immorality does not constitute an immoral habit. But it is no
less imputable to the subject. So much for the expression -―We don‘t hate the sinner
but the sin" .The fact is that every evil act speaks ill of the Character of the person
acting.
A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.
1. Vices opposed to prudence by excess are: cautiousness, fraud, flattery,
trickery,
etcetera;
by
defect
are:
imprudence,
precipitateness,
impulsiveness, carelessness, and stubbornness.
2. Vices opposed to justice by excess: profligacy, idolatry. fanaticism and
superstition; by defect: all forms of unjust activities by omission, such as
disrespect for elders, irreligion, non-payment of legitimate debts, etcetera.
3. Vices opposed to fortitude by excess: rashness, boldness, recklessness;
by defect: cowardice, timidity, sensitivity, and depression.
4. Vices opposed to temperance by excess: rigorousness, lack of selfconfidence, moroseness, by defect: pride, lust, hatred gluttony, vanity and
others.
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Assessment
1. Based on your own understanding, point out the difference/s between
intellectual and moral virtues.
2. Give a certain vice that you have and explain its effects to both your
personal life and education.
Chapter Summary

Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in
the study at values and ethics.

Man is a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect
and emotions. He has needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a
successful and happy life. He has needs and appetites that are physiological,
intellectual, psychological or emotional, social, economic, political, moral, and
spiritual in nature.

There are different philosophical views of a man such as: Biological, classical
view, Christian view, existentialist view, oriental philosophical view, and
contemporary view.

Personality is a psychological entity while character is an ethical entity.

Personality is a principle of rational action while character is a principle of
moral action.

Personality might be defined as the sum-total of our rational habits grouped
around the axis of intellect.

Character might be similarly defined as the sum-total of all our moral habits
grouped around the axis of will.

Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have.

Entitative habit disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being,
such as to be beautiful, talented or to be obese.

Operative habit disposes for doing something in a certain manner, such as
painting, writing or talking.

Dominance, Unconsciousness and repetition are the features of habits.

The benefits of well-developed and consciously-chosen moral habits are:
reduction of cognitive load, the disposition to act morally, and consistency
between our words and our deeds.
20

Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect
are called intellectual virtues. Those that pertain to the will are called moral
virtues.

The intellectual virtues are: Understanding, science, wisdom, art and
prudence.

Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and
prudence pertain to practical intellect.

The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are
justice, temperance and fortitude.

A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil
act.

A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.
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Chapter III
Morality
Morals refer to human behavior where morality is the practical activity and,
ethics describes the theoretical, systematic, and rational reflection upon that human
behavior (Churchill, 1982).
Moral experience begins with moral consciousness or moral sense. In fact
moral consciousness and moral experience are used as synonyms by many. But it is
good to distinguish between the two. Experience is a generic term in the sense that
whatever affects a person can be called an ‗experience‘. It can be an emotion like
love or hatred. It can be active or passive like love for a friend or love of a friend. One
can speak of one‘s progress in studies as ‗knowledge experience.‘ Any experience
leaves behind an impression or memory. Such impressions or memories
cumulatively add up to one‘s experience. The totality of such experiences contributes
to the formation of a human personality
General Objectives:
1. Explain morality and the importance of rules
2. Differentiate moral and non-moral standards
3. Discuss the different levels of dilemma
4. Explain the role of freedom in making moral decisions
Lesson I. Nature of Morality and the Importance of Rules
Ethics is the study of right and wrong. Everyone makes decisions each day
that are essentially choices. For some, choices are considered strictly personal and
no one else‘s business: Should I have a strip of bacon with my eggs? But for some,
even that simple choice has ethical ramifications: Should I eat meat? Is it anyone
else‘s concern that I eat meat? Other choices confront us as the day progresses:
Should I call in sick? Should I obey the speed laws as I drive to work? Should I
answer a friend‘s question honestly or lie and potentially hurt her feelings? Should I
be faithful to my spouse? How does one find answers to these questions? For some,
laws and religion provide the answers. But for most, those two sources are
insufficient.
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain kinds of morality
2. Explain the importance of rules
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Lesson Outline
Ethics in your profession
In life our behavior is governed by different norm systems. The word NORM
comes from Latin ―NORMA‖= yardstick. Norms dictate what we ―ought‖ or ―ought not‖
to do. The norm systems governing the behavior of a professional are:
Individual morality
This refers to individual values of a specific person and what they believe to
be right. Individual morality is influenced by how a person was raised. It is their
personal value system. The sanction for disobeying one‘s individual morality is a
guilty conscience.
Positive morality
This set of norms represents what is considered ―right‖ in society at a
particular time. The sanction for failure to obey positive morality is social sanction.
• Law (Legal Norms) laws protect society and prevent anarchy by regulating
behavior.
• Public Law – also referred to as criminal law: between the state and individual.
Private Law – also referred to as contractual law and focuses on the relationship
between persons.
Formal Law and Common Law find expression in the reported judgments of courts.
• Professional Ethics Professionals are a group of people who earn a living by
undertaking a common activity and who regulate most of these themselves.
The Role of Rules and Social Beings
To define a rule, it is a set of guidelines which has been established in all
countries and communities and has been accepted by all.
A rule is a set of guidelines which has been established in all countries and
communities to be followed by its members of members of society. Rules differ from
one country to another. The differences are affected by factors like beliefs, social
interactions, policies, and the type of government.
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Violators are dealt with according to the penalties that come with the violation
of the rules. Therefore, rules are a beneficial tool to guide and monitor the
interactions between the members of the society.
Assessment
Share to your class your own personal experience and understanding.
1. Differentiate individual morality and positive morality
2. What school rules can remember that has a different moral sense than that of
your friend? Do it affect your relationship?
3. Give examples of rules in your community that you have followed. What
particular right you have that makes you follow the rules and how does it
affect your community. Share your experience.
Lesson II. Moral Vs. Non-Moral Standards
In our daily life we encounter moral questions at every step. In our everyday
experience, we face different situations, some of which we straightaway designate as
moral or as immoral and in some other cases we may face difficulty to put the
instance in any of these two specific categories. For example – my grandfather used
to give food to birds every morning and before he died he advised me to continue this
practice. But owing to my other preoccupations I failed to follow his advice. Can we
designate this failure to follow his advice as immoral?
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain the characteristics of moral standards
2. Discern moral standards from non-moral standards
Lesson Outline
Characteristics of Moral Standards:
Moral standards are bases for moral behavior and bases for determining
whether a certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be responsible or not.
These are the guides of human behavior and decision making. These standards are
not only applied to individual persons but also to a group or corporation. Something is
unethical if it does not conform to a particular standard of morality. They may not be
written but observed and they are assumed norms of moral conduct (Articulo, 2005).
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Understanding this context, it is very clear that individuals must be guided to
act in good manner in dealing with fellow humans, society and his environment.
These standards should encourage individuals to take actions and courage.
There are certain elements differentiating moral standards to non-moral standards:
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure
or benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For
instance, following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games
but does not necessarily affect one‘s life or wellbeing.
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral
standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she
is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even
with self-interest.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal
ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to
devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she probably was not
justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one‘s dignity, but it probably is morally
wrong to do so. When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people‘s
moral duty to exercise civil disobedience.
There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time
when the injustice of an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral
noncooperation (such as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to
their owners).
c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative
bodies or persons such as nations‘ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values
ought to be considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral
standards cannot be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative
body. One thing about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the
25
soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify
them.
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be
more accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in
the relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain
person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, ―Do unto others what you
would them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)‖ and in the formal Principle of
Justice, ―It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for
B to treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without
there being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which
can be stated as a reasonable ground for difference of treatment.‖ Universalizability
is an extension of the principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent
about one‘s value judgments.
e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a certain
person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
standpoint in which each person‘s interests are impartially counted as equal.
Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality
in morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests
of all concerned parties.
f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral
standards. These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives
(such as, ‗Do not kill,‘ ‗Do no unnecessary harm,‘ and ‗Love your neighbor‘). These
principles are proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively,
this feature is used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce
feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.
26
If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special
purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his
behavior afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the
current fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered jeans). (Copyright 2013 by
Jensen DG.
Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life
A person‘s moral values constitute society‘s rules, and moral rules are very
significant and subjective to each person‘s moral values. Individually, we feel
differently from the perspective of stealing for example. Some of us may feel bad
about getting one‘s belongings, some may not. We do not know how exactly one
feels about stealing. On the other hand, we do not know how people will react
seriously about stealing or if they were stolen. Our expectation and social exercise
will reflect on our belief with within our social standards, i.e., the collective values of
other people‘s morality. We sometimes generalized people‘s morality by their actions
against our expectations. We will react severely about stealing if our principle against
stealing is strong. If a certain social standard does not condemn stealing our
behavior is based on such. Such experiences reshape our belief about social
standard and thus may affect our behavior in which stealing is toward us in the future
experiences.
Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment
Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in
the society (Taylor and Williams, 2017). The table manners such as the proper use of
utensils and the proper manner of eating are examples of etiquette. Meanwhile, a
policy is a clear, simple statement on how an organization plans to handle its
services, actions or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision making
(The University of Sydney, ©2002-2017). When schools require their students to
wear the proper school uniform and school ID before they will be allowed inside the
campus (or the NO Uniform No ID, No Entry rule posted in the school‘s entrance) is
an example of a policy. On the other hand, a law is a rule created and enforced by
the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect a
person‘s liberty and rights(Robertson,2008; Brickley and Gottesman, © 2017). Can
you give an example of a law in the Philippines? Finally, a commandment is a rule
that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a divine entity, such as
those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009).
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What is the advantage of owning moral standards over merely abiding by
moral standards?
For most people, the fundamental moral question is, ―What should I do?‖ or
―How should I act?‖ Ethics are presumed as moralities on how a person should act.
For example, ―every person is obligated to do the greatest good for the most number
of people.‖ There is also the philosophy that ―everyone is obligated to act in ways that
upholds the human dignity for all people.‖ Moral principles like these guide the
practice of various professions (professional ethics).
But is all there is to ethics? Is ethics just about following rules of do‘s and
don‘ts? This obsession with rules somehow reflects the more important aspect of
being a human person and that becoming what you should be. In other words, the
more important question for ethics is not ―What should I do?‖ but ―What kind of
person should I be?‖
Assessment
Based on the topics discussed, explain:
1. How are the moral standards different from non-moral standards?
2. How moral standards differ from etiquette, policy, law and commandment?
Lesson III. Moral Dilemma
The essence of studying ethics is morality. Ethics is the science of good/bad,
just/unjust, moral/immoral behavior (Rossouw&VanVuuren, 2006; Weiss, 2009;
Desjardins, 2009). So when we talk of ethics we are also talking about morality.
Moral dilemmas are associated with ethical dilemmas. So the conflict in morality can
be in these areas, personal, organizational and structural.
Specific Objectives:
1. Define dilemma and moral dilemma
2. Explain the three levels of moral dilemma
3. Decide in morally conflicting situations
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Lesson Outline
What is Dilemma?
Dilemma is in which two well-known cases is conflicting. In each case, an
individual regards as to having moral reasons to do each of the two actions, but
doing both actions is not possible. The most crucial characteristic of moral dilemma is
that, a person has to do two or more actions; the moral dilemma is that the person
can possibly do the two actions however; he cannot possibly do two or more actions,
because everyone has to make a choice.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
1. Personal Moral Dilemma is when your decision in a particular situation has a
conflict with your own and another individual. Your actions will become
harmful to group of individuals.
2. Organizational Dilemma is when a member or members of the organization
is in situation where there is moral conflicts and the decision will potentially
harm either some members of the group or the entire organization itself.
3. Structural Moral Dilemma is when a person or group of persons who holds
high-level positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein
the entire social system is affected.
Assessment
1. Define dilemma and moral dilemma.
2. Explain the three levels of dilemma and give one example in each level.
3. Cite a specific morally conflicting situation you encountered or might
encounter and make a sound decision.
Lesson IV. Freedom
The personal aspect of the morality is about developing virtue so that thinking
morally, performing moral acts, and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) explained that virtue is your thought
or behavior guided by, and displays, high moral standards. Virtues are habits
developed through learning and practice.
An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous person: both have internalized the
practices that make them weather storms. However, a ship is under the control of
captain while virtuous person free to cultivate his or her values. Freedom, then, is the
foundation of moral acts. For a person to be virtuous, he or she must also be free.
29
Meanwhile, when talking about interpersonal aspects of morality, the
discussion turns to following rules. It is important to note that even in following of the
rules freedom is essential.
Finally, there is a question of the ultimate end. ―Why are you here?‖ ―What is
your purpose?‖ The human person‘s final end is always debatable topic because it
often goes hand in hand with specific religious views. However, the debate does not
negate the fact that freedom remains essential with one‘s view of his or her ultimate
purpose.
Specific Objectives:
1. Discuss the philosophical insights on freedom
2. Justify that freedom is important in making moral decision
Lesson Outline
The Human Person as a Free Being
What does ―human person‖ mean? In Philosophy, a human being is more
than its biological components. The human being is a person endowed with
characteristics that are material, spiritual, rational, and free. A Human Person is a
being (the Aristotelian idea of being connotes actuality; existence; an actual
condition or circumstance) with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or
her own development toward self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the
human person is freedom.
Philosophical Insights on Freedom
We have mentioned freedom numerous times. What is your understanding of
freedom? Philosophers talked about this concept extensively. Here are some
philosophical insights on freedom.
(a) Freedom is a Gift
According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act significantly. Free
acts are significant because they help to make us who we are as human
beings. Freedom is not merely the ability to make arbitrary choices because
we are not free if everything that we can choose to do the significant in the
30
first place. Freedom is the ability to make significant choices and according to
Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God. (Hernandez, 2009)
(b) Freedom is Complimentary to Reasoning
One of Aristotle‘s ethical doctrines asserted that freedom and reason are
complementary. In Aristotle‘s view, the human person as a moral agent must
exercise practical rationality in order to determine how to pursue his or her
ultimate end (telos). Self-direction, rather than bare spontaneity, is the crucial
characteristic of the free person. Aristotle considered freedom and reason as
necessary faculties for consciously making sense of things (events,
occurrences, phenomena, situations). (Walsh, 1997)
(c) Freedom is Absolute
Existentialist philosopher Jean Paul Sartre‘s concept of freedom is not that
freedom to do something or anything. In Sartre‘s view, the human person is
―absolutely free‖. Freedom sets the human person apart from the other
creatures. You might say ―But what about animal freedom? Animals – unless
caged – are also free. Animals just roam around, eat when they need to, and
sleep where they want. Animals are not tied down with responsibilities like
humans.‖ Yes, it is true that animals are – unless caged – free. In farm
animals also have a notion of freedom. When they are caged, animals will try
to escape from their cages. This kind of freedom is called freedom from
restrictions. It is a primitive kind of freedom. It is freedom for mere survival.
Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of freedom. The freedom of
the human person is beyond freedom from restriction. In fact, a person in jail
is still free. He is free to think, to change, and to become a better person. A
prisoner is free to redefine himself. As human persons, we are free to make
choices. We are free to decide. And we are free to use this freedom to attain
goals higher than satisfying basic needs.
(d) Freedom Demands Responsibility
Jean-Paul Sartre said ―You are Free‖ because he believed a person always
has a choice. Thus, according to Sartre, you must choose. His idea was that
freedom is the capacity to choose, that even not choosing is a choice
31
(Gallinero, 2014). It is important to note however, that he also added the
concept of responsibility to freedom. According to Sartre, even though
individuals must make their own choices because they are free, these choices
(though freely made) also have consequences to it. These consequences to
freedom are something that the person must endure. Therefore, it can be said
that in Sartre‘s concept, responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014)
Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and responsibility. Lao
Tzu advocated that a person can and should choose act, but his or her
actions should be that which would result in harmony. Lao Tzu‘s idea was that
in any society, the exercise of one‘s freedom is not absolute. The person is
free to do anything; but it is not without consequence of one‘s action
(Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility, as a moral quality serves as a voluntary
check and balance of one‘s freedom. Without proper balance limitless
freedom is a dangerous as an extremely controlling social group. Great social
injustices have resulted from such radical mindsets.
Supplemental Reading
“A Clockwork Orange” synopsis:
Anthony Burgess
Alex was someone utterly asked conscience. Along with his gang, he
committed all kinds of heinous crimes. What makes him truly evil was that Alex was
actually fully aware that his actions were morally wrong; yet he did it anyway. He
enjoyed doing crime and hurting other people. His acceptance that his actions were
immoral meant Alex freely chose to do evil acts.
In one of their killing spree, Alex was captured. He was convicted for murder
and sentence to fourteen years in prison. While serving out his sentence, Alex was
recommended by the prison officials to participate in ―Ludovico Technique‖. The
author described the Ludovico Technique as an ―experimental treatment designed
to eliminate criminal impulses‖. The ―treatment‖ was about conditioning Alex‘s mind
so that his desire to commit crime will disappear. Prison doctors injected Alex with
nausea-inducing drugs, strapped him in a chair, and kept his eyes open with metal
clips (so that he can‘t even blink, and made to watch all kinds of violent films. After
several sessions, the conditioning was successful in Alex, that whenever he was
32
confronted with violence he suddenly became weak, nauseated, and totally unable to
inflict pain on others – even in self-defense.
Due to supposed success, Alex was released from prison early. Once he
returned to society, he was pitifully helpless against those who did him harm. Alex
was brutalized by his former victims and was beaten half to death by two of his
former gang members (who became police officers while Alex was imprisoned). In
utter despair, Alex attempted suicide, by some twist of fate, he lived. While he was
recuperating in the hospital, Alex realized the ―treatment‖ had worn off and he was
back to his ―ultraviolent‖ self once again.
In the last chapter of the book, Alex (though still violent) was actually less and
less happy with his situation; unlike in his past where he enjoyed crime and violence.
He then came across Pete – the last member of his old gang. Pete had changed. He
was living a happy, productive, comfortable life with his wife. Alex realized he wanted
to be like Pete. In the end, Alex decided (on his own) to turn his life around and
actually became responsible, peace-loving person.
Assessment
1. Discuss what is freedom based on the different philosophical insights.
2. Which of the two makes you human? (Defend your answer considering the
synopsis of “A Clockwork Orange” by Anthony Burgess and the essence of
―freedom‖)
a. Free to decide and do evil acts: or
b. Forced to become a moral person and not hurt others.
Chapter Summary

Morals refer to human behavior where morality is the practical activity and,
ethics describes the theoretical, systematic, and rational reflection upon that
human behavior (Churchill, 1982).

Kinds of Morality are: individual morality and positive morality.

Positive morality has something to do with laws such as, public, private formal
and common laws

The sanction for failure to obey positive morality is social sanction.
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
Rules are a beneficial tool to guide and monitor the interactions between the
members of the society. They differ from place to place or country to country.

Moral standards are bases for moral behavior and bases for determining
whether a certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be responsible
or not.

Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

A person‘s moral values constitute society‘s rules, and moral rules are very
significant and subjective to each person‘s moral values.

Dilemma is in which two well-known cases is conflicting.

Moral dilemma is that the person can possibly do the two actions however; he
cannot possibly do so because everyone has to make a choice.

The three levels of moral dilemma are: personal, organizational and
structural.

Freedom is one of the inborn properties of human person.

The Philosophical insights on freedom are: freedom is a gift; freedom is
complimentary to reasoning; freedom is absolute; and freedom demands
responsibility.
34
SUMMATIVE TEST
Name: _______________________________
Course Year & Section: ________________
Date: ____________________
Score: ___________________
A. Multiple choices. Encircle the letter corresponds to your answer.
1. When do you say a situation is moral experience?
a. Participating in Political Rallies
b. Watching movies
c. Eating healthy foods
d. Taking a vacation
2. Why study Ethics?
a. It‘s a required course.
b. To understand my moral compass
c. To learn how to judge others
d. To take a stand in moral issues that affect society
3. Why are rules important to social beings?
a. Rules are what makes human beings superior creatures
b. Rules control people to do something they do not want
c. Rules make people know their place
d. Rules make a person become productive member of society even
when there is conflict
4. What are moral standards?
a. Action that advances the interest of certain people or group
b. It involves behavior that seriously affect other people
c. Are self-preserving behaviors
d. Originate from higher authority
5. Which of the statement below best describe non-moral standards?
a. Non-moral standards are objective
b. Non-moral standards are personal beliefs
c. Non-moral standards vary and are dependent on how a particular
group set the rules
d. Non-moral standards help us live a moral life
6. How do moral standards differ from other rules in life?
a. Moral standards are believed to be universal
b. Moral standards are rules on how a person should behave around
other
c. Moral standards are policies that help with decision making
d. Moral standards are enforced to maintain peace and order
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7. What is Moral Dilemma?
a. It is knowing that cheating is wrong but you cheat anyway
b. It is about feeling guilty that you have an edge over your competitors
c. You are faced with difficult choices but you have a amoral reason for
both actions
d. These are situations that are neither right nor wrong
8. Why is that only human beings are ethical
a. It is instinctive
b. It is altruistic behavior
c. Our belief in Superior Being taught us to be ethical
d. Only humans have the capacity for free moral judgment
9. Why is freedom crucial in making decisions?
a. So that you will not commit a crime
b. Only a free person can understand the meaning of his or her life
c. Freedom result to peace and prosperity
d. It is our basic human right
10. Which of the statements below does not describe freedom?
a. Freedom is the ability to make significant choices
b. Self-direction is the characteristic of freedom
c. Freedom is absolute
d. Freedom has no responsibility
B. Word search. Find the word described some clues below
P
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1. The effort that one‘s conduct by reason
2. Deals with moral principles
3. These are in place to manage harmful behaviors, hopes, to prevent chaos,
and encourage stability
4. Guiding rules that help in decision making
36
5. A level of moral dilemma where all the choices in moral conflict available to
you could negatively affect you or another person.
6. Thoughts or behavior that is guided by and displays high moral standards.
7. The philosopher who said described morality as the effort to guide one‘s
conduct through reason and giving equal weight between personal interest
and that of other people.
8. Rule created by the government to maintain order
9. A level of moral dilemma wherein all available choices in a moral conflict will
adversely affect the organization
10. A level of dilemma wherein organizations or persons holding high –level
positions I society are faced with a moral conflict and all the choices available
will adversely affect the social system.
C. Enumeration.
a. Give at least four characteristics of moral standards
1
2
3
4
b. What is moral dilemma?
1
2
3
c. What are the levels of moral dilemma?
1
2
3
D. ESSAY. Briefly explain these philosophical insights on freedom. (10 points each)
1. Freedom is a gift
2. Freedom is complementary to reason
3. Freedom is absolute
4. Freedom demands responsibility
37
Chapter IV
The Moral Agent
What does ―culture‖ means? There are several definitions of ―culture‖. The
father of sociology, Emile Durkheim, asserted that culture has the power over
individuals to create beliefs, such as belief in God. He added that with more people
holding the same beliefs, social order is also strengthened (Little and McGivern,
2016). Meanwhile the father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in
general, culture id the way of life of a group of people that ―includes their knowledge,
belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits required by
man as a member of society‖ (Tylor, 1974, 1981)
General Objectives:
1. Discuss the role of culture in shaping human behavior
2. Explain cultural relativism
3. Explain why there is universal values
4. Describe the qualities of moral identity of Filipinos
5. Analyze how is moral character developed
6. Discuss the different stages of moral development
Lesson I. How Culture Shapes Human Behavior
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared
human experiences. How does culture affect human behavior? Since human beings
are naturally social creature, we as people, are also naturally drawn to participate in
culture. People want to belong, to be accepted by peers. We also need protection
from danger. Being part of a social group not only feeds our needs to be accepted, it
also increases the human being‘s chances to survive. Thus, because of the safety in
numbers that being part of a group provides, human beings learned to modify
behaviors to match that which their cultural group deems acceptable.
Specific Objectives:
1. Identify the five (5) elements of culture
2. Discuss the three elements that influence human behavior
38
Lesson Outline
The 5 Basic Elements of Culture
1. Symbols
Symbols can be anything that a group of people find meaningful. For
example, in religious groups the cross is symbol for Christianity while the
crescent is for Islam.
2. Language
Language is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to
communicate either verbally or through writing. Ilocano, Bisaya, Tagalog, and
several other native languages were already spoken in Pre-Colonial Philippines.
Their ancient script or writing called baybayin had characters, and each
represented a complete syllable (Lewis, 2015)
3. Beliefs
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a
group of people. These assumptions/convictions could be about events, people
or things. For example, ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods.
This is what we now call as ―superstitious belief‖. However, when people started
to think critically and scientific research flourished, events are now explained
differently. This also shows that beliefs change through time.
4. Values
Values are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person
considers important or beneficial in life. For example, in pre-colonial Philippines
there were evidences that women were equally valued and held central roles in
society just as did the men. (Perez, 2013). This was in stark contrast to Spanish
colonizers however, who valued women mainly as domestic caretakers.
5. Norms
Norm is informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about
what is considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior. For instance, the
Filipino norm in relating to other people is to get along well with others, even with
complete strangers. This Filipino trait is called ―pakikisama‖.
39
How does Culture define Moral Behavior?
One of the revered founders of Western Philosophy – Plato, in his famous
philosophical work, The Republic, cited three critical elements that jointly influence
the human person‘s moral development.
The 3 Elements
 Native traits (genetic characteristics)
 Early childhood experience
 One’s cultural surroundings
Plato implied that if a person‘s cultural surroundings reward conformity to
agreeable norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell
undesirable conduct. He also expressed that the power of culture over an individual
is more potent in children because they do not have any pre-existing values. The
child‘s cultural surroundings create these values and dispositions. Thus, Plato
insisted that a child‘s cultural surroundings should ―express the image of a noble
character‖; that role models should display the conduct of a proper human being
because the behavior of the adults serves as the child‘s moral foundation as he or
she grows and develops (Conford, 1966; Pekarsky, 1998).
Assessment
1. Give the 5 elements of culture and briefly discuss each.
2. How did your community influence your behavior? Cite one culture in your
community and reflect on a particular behavior you have. Discuss how this
particular community culture influenced the development of your particular
behavior.
3. In what way can culture negatively affect the development of a person‘s moral
behavior?
Lesson II. Cultural Relativism
In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this is
unacceptable. Divorce is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men and
women can legally divorce their respective wife or husband. Why are there so many
differences in societies on what is acceptable and or not? Is it true that different
cultures have radically different moral codes? Are there any values that all societies
40
commonly have? This lesson will discuss the advantages of cultural relativism and
the dangers of holding this viewpoint.
Specific Objectives:
1. Cite the advantage and danger of cultural relativism
2. State relationships among cultural practices
Lesson Outline
Why can’t all Cultural Practices be always Correct?
The world is wide and huge. Part of what makes world interesting is that it is
home to different groups of people who have developed their own unique outlook on
how to survive and thrive. These difference led people to view life differently and live
completely different lifestyle. German-American anthropologist Franz Boaz first
articulated this in 1887, ―…civilization is not something absolute, but … is relative,
and … our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes‖.
However, the first to use the term ―cultural relativism‖ was philosopher and social
theorist Alain Locke in 1924. Cultural relativism explains why one behavior or
practice is completely acceptable by a particular group of people, while it is taboo in
another. It refers to the idea that values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be
understood within its own cultural context, and not by the standards of other cultures.
Hence, all moral and ethical standards (or the judgment of what is right or wrong) is
valid and there is not ―one‖ standards that is ―better‖ among all other.
Dr. James Rachels (1941-2003) – Philosopher / university Professor, in his
book The Element s of Moral Philosophy, laid out five claims of cultural relativism (as
to why right or wrong)
These claims are:
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is no
objective standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal moral truths.
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one
among many.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. There should be
tolerance among cultures.
41
The Advantage and Dangers of Cultural Relativism
Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism.
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational
standard.
2. It reaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering
the truth.
Many of our practices are relevant only to our particular community. This
implies our moral views are reflection of our society‘s prejudices. Cultural relativism
makes us understand that what we think as truth may actually be just the result of
cultural conditioning.
On the other hand, the dangers of Cultural Relativism are:
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
If cultural relativism is true, then we should not condemn what Hitler
and Nazis did against the Jews Apartheid in South Africa, or any form of
maltreatment, damage, injury, or destruction that one community inflicts upon
anyone or anything.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.
This implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all you
need to do is check whether your action is in accordance with the standards
of YOUR society. If your actions are in line with your culture, then you have
done nothing wrong – even though your actions were harmful. After all, if it is
true that you cannot criticize other cultures, then all the more you cannot
criticize your own culture since people in your group accept it as a way of life.
For example, if cultural relativism is to be followed then 2016 Metro Manila
Film Fest officials did not have the right to take back the Fernando Poe, Jr.
Memorial Award granted to the film ―Oro‖ where a dog was really slaughtered
in the movie because dogs as ―pulutan‖ is part of an issue.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful
Progress means replacing something old with something better.
However, if cultural relativism is to be followed, by what standards do we say
that a society has become better? The idea of social reform is now eradicated
because we are prohibited from judging one society as better over others. For
example, Spanish colonial era was in effect a different society than modern
Philippines. Hence, we cannot say that Filipinos have made social progress
from being slaves to conquistadores into a freedom-loving society because
slavery during the Spanish colonial era was the norms and it was a different
time compared to modern Philippines.
42
Assessment
1. State and explain one your cultural practices that is related to or contradictory
to other cultures.
2. Watch a special report from ABC News ―White Supremacist Moves Into
Town‖. This person‘s actions are consistent with his cultural belief that white
people are superior. Would a cultural relativist be correct in maintaining that
nobody has the moral basis to complain about the white supremacists actions
because he was just following what he believed was right?
Lesson III. Universal Values
Overview
Specific Objective:
1. Explain why universal values necessary for survival
Lesson Outline
Why there are Universal Values
The dangers that cultural relativism present led thinkers such as ethics
experts Dr. James Rachels to reject cultural relativism because it is implausible. The
empirical basis of cultural relativism is that cultures are dramatically different in its
views of what is right or wrong. However, when it comes to important moral issues,
there are three values that are universal (Rachels, 2004).
The Three Universal Values Shared By All Cultures
1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth
The theoretical point here is that ―there are some moral rules that all societies
will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive”
(Rachels, 2004). Imagine if human being do not care for their young. Homo Sapiens
will eventually be an extinct species. In the same manner, we will eventually be
wiped out too if people were free to kill other people. Moreover, what kind of society
will it be if the presumption of everyone‘s statement is that it is a lie? What reason do
you have to pay attention to anyone? If lying is our way of life, how can you believe
43
what your teacher is teaching? What is the use of having a teacher in the first place?
What is the use of talking to each other at all?
Assessment
1. In the Philippines, one moral argument against the RH Law is that it violates
universal human rights and values such as the right to life and health of
children. On the other hand, proponents of the Law assert that the family
planning and sexual education consistent with one‘s own belief and moral
conviction is exercising one‘s freedom to choose. If the basis of universal
values is true and, taking into consideration our social problems due to over
population, what is your moral stand on the debate having a comprehensive
reproductive health program in the Philippines?
Lesson IV. The Filipino Way
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs
and traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage
(Baringer, 2006). Then the Spanish colonized the island and the Hispanic culture
influenced the natives. In turn, the American shape the modern Filipino culture and
this is primarily manifested by the wide use of the English language in the Philippines
today. It was form these influences that formed the Filipino character. The brief
occupation of the British (1762-1764) and the Japanese (1942-1945) however had no
cultural influence in the Philippines at all.
Specific Objective:
1. Evaluate the elements of Filipino moral identity
Lesson Outline
Qualities of the Filipinos Moral Identity
Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher
Education, Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan, wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the
Filipino character are rooted in factors such as:
1. The home environment
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
44
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media, and
10. Leadership and models
Licuanan said that in the home environment, Filipino children are taught to
value family and give it primary importance. The Filipino social environment is
characterized by depending on one another to survive. This dependence on
relationships and the struggle for survival make Filipinos group oriented (1994).
Meanwhile, Filipino culture and language depict openness to foreign
elements with no basic consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994). The
Filipino Colonial Mentality such as the importance of the English language in our
educational system, the wider following of the Hollywood movies, foreign soap
operas/TV shows, and foreign songs/singers over Filipino movies, shoes, and music
is a manifestation of our attachment to foreign elements.
Licuanan added that our colonial history is regarded as the culprit behind our
colonial mentality. Unfortunately, most Filipino elite are of no help in setting an
example of overcoming colonial mentality because they are even more westernized
in their ways. Present day media on the other hand reinforced these colonial
influences (1994).
The Philippine educational system is also instrumental in molding the
strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian.
Early on, children learnt that well-behaved and obedient students are praised and
rewarded. This teaches passivity and conformity. The Filipinos are also religious.
Religion taught us optimism and resilience. However, it also instilled in us a fatalistic
attitude. Since religious communities are also highly authoritarian, this further
reinforced our being passive and conformist (Licuanan, 1994).
Several Filipino traits are rooted in our economic environment. The hard life
drove the Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as leaving our family to work
abroad. This further developed our ability to survive. Unfortunately, our political
environment and government structures and systems are framing with problems.
For instance, the fact that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the
absence of strong government presence enhanced the Filipinos already extreme
family centeredness (Licuanan, 1994). The economic and political environments
are among the elements that developed the culture of corruptions in the Philippines.
45
Meanwhile, how did mass media reinforce our colonial mentality? What did
you noticed with the ads, the music, movies, fashion, etcetera shown on TV, aired
over the radio, printed in the news paper/magazines, or went viral online? These
were greatly based on American pop culture. The emphasis on the superiority of an
imported brand or product through mass media is in fact part of Filipino‘s daily life.
Filipinos highly respect authorities, we lean on our leaders and role models.
Any person with authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law and
when there is lack of accountability for leaders who break the law, the Filipino
mindset is hugely affected in a negative way (Licuanan, 1994).
Strengths of the Filipino Character
The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but these are what
we have in common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino characters are:
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive
Pakikipagkapwa-tao is demonstrated in Filipino‘s openness, helpfulness, and
generosity; in the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance; and the famous Filipino
hospitality (Licuanan, 1994; Guevarra and Gripaldo, [Ed.] 2005) Filipinos are also
possess a genuine love for the family. This love is not just for one‘s spouse and
children but also to parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins (even very distant
ones), and even to ceremonial relatives. This love is shown through giving honor and
respect to parents and elders, care for the children, generosity towards kin, and the
personal sacrifices that a Filipino endures for the welfare of the family (Manauat and
Gripaldo [Ed.], 2005) this strong family orientation gave a Filipino a sense of
belonging and security.
Filipinos are also cheerful and fun loving. Our various fiestas and social
gathering demonstrates the Filipino joy and humor. We can laugh at those we love
and hate, and can make a joke about our good and bad fortune. Even in the most
trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile and laugh. This pleasant
46
disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life‘s challenges. Filipinos are also
tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances. We can improvise and
make use of whatever is at hand to create and produce. Our flexibility, adaptability,
and creativity are reasons why many Filipinos thrive in various part of the world
(Licuanan, 1994).
Filipinos also value hard work and industry. This trait is most noticeable to
our willingness to take risks and work in other countries. Filipinos also value faith
and religiosity. This can be related to bahala na mindset. There is actually a positive
side to this fatalistic trait. For Filipinos, the bahala na attitude could serve as a
―kickstarter‖ or a ―pampalakas loob‖ to move him or her into action (Gripaldo, 2005).
All these positive Filipino traits mentioned contribute to our ability to survive.
The salawikain or proverbs ―matutong mamaluktot habang maikli ang kumot‖ aptly
depicts our survival instinct. We can endure, make do, and get by on so little while
looking forward to the coming of better days. This trait is the reason why Filipinos
continue to carry on even through our harsh economic and social circumstances
(Tianco and Gripaldo [Ed.], 2005; Licuanan, 1994)
Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
Aside from identifying the roots and strengths of the Filipino character, Dr.
Patricia B. Licuanan also pointed out our weaknesses. This is important because this
enables the Filipino to identify the areas that need improvement in order to grow and
develop as a person. An informed and improved Filipino will also result in a stronger
and more progressive nation.
Generally, these weaknesses are:
 Extreme Personalism
 Extreme Family-Centeredness
 Lack of Discipline
 Passivity and Lack of Initiative
 Colonial Mentality
 Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
Licuanan noted that Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to
things, events, and people. We find it difficult to separate objective tasks and
emotional involvement. This is where the palakasan system spring from. Filipinos
wants to get special treatment and will always look for ―inside connections‖ in most (if
not all) of his or her transactions. For example, family and friends are given
preference in hiring; in the delivery of the services; and even in voting (Licuanan,
47
1994). Since persona; contacts are involved, requests of this nature also become
difficult to turn down. Extreme Personalism is another element that led to the
prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
The family may be a source of strength for Filipino, but extreme familycenteredness is also hi/her flaw. Family is valued above anything and everyone
else. Thus, concern for the rest of community and for the common good is less
important. Extreme family-centeredness is manifested in our political system where
political dynasties lord over our elected government posts starting from the barangay
level the way up to the national positions. (McCoy, 1994, Licuanan, 1994).
The Filipino‘s lack of discipline is characterized by out idiomatic expression
―ningas cogon‖. Project starts out with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner it
was started that the enthusiasm and interest just as soon died down (Licuanan,
1994). Another related characteristic is ―Filipino time‖. Filipinos are known to be
always late – we arrive late or we start late. Since global trends strictly follow
schedules, this trait that disregard the importance of time is adversely affecting
Filipino productivity (Tan, 2016).
Filipinos have very high respect for authority. Unfortunately, this also led to
general passivity and lacking initiative. For instance, there is strong reliance on
leaders and government to solve the nation‘s problems out ordinarily. Filipinos are
also do not feel the need to initiate or contribute to the solution. This trait is also
related to our lack of discipline. Look at our traffic problem. We expect
the
government to solve the monstrous traffic jam; yet, traffic rules and regulations are
also blatantly ignored every day.
Generally, Filipino loves anything foreign. Foreign elements are adapted and
incorporated into our image. I the process, we are also losing our cultural identity.
Licuanan noted that this colonial mentality is connected to our general feelings of
inferiority, where we think foreigners – especially Westerners, are superior (1994).
The kanya-kanya syndrome is related to the Filipino traits of extreme
personalism and extreme family-centeredness. Persona and in-group interests are
supreme and the drive to fulfill these interests is completely insensitive to the
common good. The kanya-kanya syndrome dampened our sense of community and
cooperation – and we trample on each other‘s right as a result. The expression crab
mentality, where we tend to pull others down to climb up, exemplify the kanya-kanya
syndrome.
Dr. Licuanan further observed that the joyful and fun-loving Filipino also ahs
the tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty. This means that in time of crisis,
either personal or social, there is a general lack of analysis and reflection (1994). A
48
manifestation of this lack of self-analysis and self-reflection is the expression that the
Filipinos are ―madaling makalimot‖ or have short memory. This means, as a nation,
we easily forget the mistakes we made; hence we make the same mistakes again.
This is one reason why traditional politicians or ―trapos‖ are always re-elected to the
office.
The Filipino character is a contradiction. For example, our bayanihan cultures
coexist comfortably with our kanya-kanya syndrome. Many of our strong points, in
fact, are linked to our weaknesses. Despite these weaknesses, however, there is still
much good in the Filipino character. What is important is that we know our values as
a nation because these helps us grow and develop. We need to understand our
character as a Filipino because this is the first step towards creating the future we
want as an individual and as a nation.
Assessment
1. What positive Filipino trait can you most relate to and how does the trait helps
you become a better person?
2. Think about the personal negative experience. Analyze how this was rooted
in Filipino qualities, and form hindsight, tell your classmates how you would
have done things differently.
Lesson V. How is Moral Character Developed
Moral characters are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a
particular way for which a person can be held morally responsible. Thus, moral
character traits are rational, informed, stable and reliable disposition (Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017)
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain the philosophical roots of moral character
2. Demonstrate a good moral character by answering a moral dilemma.
Lesson Outline
What is Moral Character
First let us know the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and
moral character.
 Moral – concerned with the principle of right and wrong behavior or the
goodness and badness of human character. (Merriam – Webster 2017)
49
 Character – define as the mental and moral qualities distinct to an individual.
(Merriam – Webster 2017); also denotes to the moral dimension of a person –
in Philosophy. (Timpe, 2007)
 Moral Character – refers to existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity,
courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. (Merriam – Webster 2017)
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
What do the great ancient minds think about moral character? Let us look at
the viewpoints of Eastern and Western thinkers.
Confucian Traditions
The Philosophy of moral development is rooted in an ancient view. For
Confucian traditions, moral development was attributed to ‖four beginnings‖ of the
human personality (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). These ―four
beginnings‖ were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally unfold
to become human activities. Take note though, that contrary to Western
understanding of personality as a given human conditions, personality in Confucian
perception meant – ―an achieved state of moral excellence‖ (Ammes, 1997; Klemme,
WEB).
Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four beginnings. However,
each of these do not yet capture the concept of self. However, when the four
beginnings are put together, it may be perceived in Western understanding as the
―pre-self‖ or ―potential self‖ (Klemme, WEB).
The Four Beginning in Confucian Traditions (as presented earlier in this module)
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen.
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi.
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li.
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
 Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity.
 Yi means righteousness and the respect of duty, which is respecting your
position as guardian towards nature and humanity.
 Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs and rituals.
50
 Zhi means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Li, and Yi
in one‘s life (Liu, 2002).
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules,
consequences, and particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the
person. Although action and consequences are significant, virtue ethics does not
focus on whether an action is, right or wrong; nor o whether the consequences are
good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous
person should act in the situation.
Virtue ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient Western philosophy,
Aristotle‘s discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential
view on topic. Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous
and that if the person is focused on being good person, the right action will follow
effortlessly and you will do good things.
What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle believed that humans have
an essence. He called this essence ―proper functioning‖ where everything has a
function and the thing that performs as intended is called good when it is able to fulfill
this function. Thus, a scissor is a good scissor if it can cut. A car is good if it runs and
takes you to your destination. A person is also good if he or she fulfills what nature
expects of him or her. Hence, a person needs to sleep, be healthy, grow, and
develop as nature intended. However, aside from its natural instincts, a person
according to Aristotle is also a ―rational animal‖ and a ―social animal‖. Therefore,
using reason to live and get along with other people is also the human person‘s
function. A ―good‖ person is one who fulfills all these functions.
So what does it mean to be virtuous? Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to
excellence. A man has a virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well,
since playing the flute is the distinctive activity of a flautist. A person of virtue is
someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well. The principle of
being virtuous is called the ―Doctrine of the Golden Mean‖ – that moral behavior is
the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what called wastes). When
he said ―extreme behavior‖, it meant the act was excessive or deficient. For example,
in Aristotelian‘s view, eating is a human function as demanded by nature. When a
person overeat (gluttony), this behavior is excessive; while a person who diets too
much (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is temperance or to eat
just the right amount at all times to keep your body nourished sad healthy.
Temperance is the golden mean between gluttony and starvation. Aristotle
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understood virtue as a character that can be developed, and that this can be
developed by practicing the golden mean (the Doctrine of the Mean). In time, good
behavior will come naturally.
It is important to note that Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean does not claim
that you behave moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should
only ever be ‗moderately‘ angry. In Aristotle's philosophy, you should be angry as the
situation demands which can be very angry or only slightly irritated. He concluded
that virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with the right
people, and that this choice determined by rational principle and practical wisdom
(Lacewing, 2015). The virtuous man is the kind of man (note: the term ‗man‘ in
Aristotle‘s writing is equated with person and not just opposed to women) who is able
to satisfy both inclination and rational desires because his or her inclinations and
desires are aligned. The virtuous man wants t do what is good and does it because
he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.
But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, according to virtue ethics, is
Eudaimonia. Generally, eudaimonia can be translated as ‗‘happiness‘‘, ‗‘well-being‘‘
or the ‗‘good life‘‘ and that this is the goal of human life. Aristotle believed that to
achieve eudaimonia you need to practice the virtues in your everyday activity all
through your life.
Assessment
1. Based on the facts presented, explain how is moral character developed.
2. Here is a moral dilemma. Read the story and then discuss it with your
classmates. There are questions provided to guide your discussions.
„Joe is a fourteen-year-old boy who wanted to go to camp very much. His
father promised him he could go if he saved up money for it himself. So Joe worked
hard at his paper route and saved up the forty dollars it cost to go to camp, and a
little more besides. However, just before the camp was going to start, his father
changed his mind. Some of his friends decided to go on a special fishing trip, and
Joe‟s father was short of the money it would cost. Therefore, he told Joe to give him
the money he had saved from the paper route. Joe did not want to give up going to
camp, so he thinks of refusing to give his money to his father.‟
a. Should Joe refuse to give the money to his father? Why? Why not?
b. Does the father have the right to tell Joe to give him the money? Why? Why
not?
52
c. Does giving the money have anything to do with being a good son? Why?
Why not?
d.
Is the fact that Joe earned the money himself important in this situation?
Justify your answer.
e. The father promised Joe he could go to camp if he earned the money. Is the
fact that the father promised the most important thing in the situation? Why?
Why not?
f.
In general, why should a promise be kept?
g. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you do not know well and
probably will not see again? Justify your answer.
h. What do you think the most important thing a father should be concerned
about in his relationship to his son?
i.
In general, what should be the authority of a father over his son?
j.
What do you think the most important things a son should be concerned
about in his relationship to his father?
k. In thinking back over the dilemma, what do you think is the most responsible
thing for Joe to do in this situation? Why?
Lesson VI. Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century developmental psychologist and moral
philosopher. When he was the director of Harvard‘s Center for Moral Education,
Kohlberg‘s research focused on the moral development of children particularly on
how they develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He observed
that children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral
development.
Specific Objectives:
1. Tell how one develops a sense of what is right and wrong
2. Categorize the different stages of moral development
Lesson Outline
Kohlberg’s Theory
He studied the morality using the very interesting (if controversial) technique.
In his research, he would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short
53
stories and asked the participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasoning.
The reason for this was that Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to
the dilemmas – he wanted to know how the person got to his or her answer.
His theory holds the moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior,
has identifiable developmental stages and each become more adequate at
responding to moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next.
He asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with
justice, and that the process goes on throughout the individual‘s lifetime.
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg
outlined three broad levels and six specific stages of moral development.
Level I: Pre-conventional morality
Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral
reasoning is common among children although some adults would also exhibit such
behavior. The child, having no concept about society‘s conventions on what is right
or wrong, would base its judgment mainly on the external consequences of its action.
 Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
This is called the pre-moral stage where decisions and actions are
determined by immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value.
The overall goal at this stage is to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2: Reward Orientation
As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for
negotiation because other people have their own goals to meet and wants
that must be satisfied too. Children learn to behave in a manner based on the
principle ―What‟s in it for me?‖
Level II: Conventional Morality
This level of moral reasoning is typical adolescent and adults. Conventional
morality is to reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted)
manner. It is accepting the rules and standards of one‘s group. This means decisions
and the morality of his or her actions are based on society‘s views and expectations.
The focus on this level is the ―significant others‖ also called as ―Tyranny of the They‖
(They say… They say that… They say I should…)
54
 Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to
their expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust,
and gratitude as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind
the particular decisions or actions.
 Stage 4: Authority Orientation
By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is
following the rules, maintaining law and order, doing ones duty, and
respecting authority.
Level III: Post Conventional
This is also known as the ‗principled level‘. It is marked by a growing
realization that people are unique and are an independent part of the society.
Therefore, the individual‘s own perspective is more significant over what the rest of
the society thinks and that this would sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow
personal principles.
At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond
question, but a changeable mechanism. Kohlberg asserted that post conventional
individuals view rules and laws to be important in maintaining peace and order but it
only serves as a guide that needs to be weighed against personal principles and
beliefs to uphold one‘s human rights.
 Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to
be moral or good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social
group they belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental
values are actually universal.
 Stage 6: Ethical – Principle Orientation
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and a person makes a
personal commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and
respect. At this stage, an individual already has a principle conscience; and
with follow universal, ethical principles regardless of what the laws or the
rules say. Judgment here is based on abstract reasoning such as being able
to put oneself on other people‘s shoes.
(Garz, Detlef, 2009; Munsey, B., 1980; Otig and Gallinero, 2015)
55
Assessment
1. Explain how were you able to develop the sense of what is right and wrong.
2. Using any graphic organizer categorize the different stages of moral
development and briefly explain each.
3. In a form of art, (drawing, painting, collage, etc.) present your moral journey in
life using the 6 stages of moral development. Give a description of every
stage in a separate sheet. You may use bond paper, illustration board, or
anything that will help you present your moral journey artistically.
56
Chapter Summary

Culture is a complex phenomenon which contains nearly all aspects of shared
human experiences.

The five (5) basic elements of culture are: symbols, language, beliefs,values,
and norms.

Plato implied that if a person‘s cultural surroundings reward conformity to
agreeable norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell
undesirable conduct.

Plato pointed out three (3) elements that influence human perso‘s moral
development such as: native traits (genetic character), early childhood
experience and one‘s cultural surroundings.

Cultural relativism explains why one behavior or practice is completely
acceptable by a particular group of people, while it is taboo in another. It
refers to the idea that values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be
understood within its own cultural context, and not by the standards of other
cultures.

Cultural relativism warns us from assuming that our preferences are the
absolute rational standard and reaches us to keep an open mind and to be
more amenable in discovering the truth.

The dangers of cultural relativism are: We cannot call out societal practices
that promote harm, we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture‘s harmful
practices and the idea of social progress becomes doubtful.

There are three universal values shared by all cultures which are: caring for
the young, murder is wrong and tell the truth.

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures which
influence their moral identity.

Like any other, Filipino character has strengths and weaknesses.

Contrary to Western understanding of personality as a given human
conditions, personality in Confucian perception meant – ―an achieved state
of moral excellence‖

The three levels of moral development of Kohlberg are: Pre-conventional
morality which includes punishment-obedience orientation and reward
orientation, Conventional Morality which includes good boy-good girl
orientation and authority orientation and the last level is Post conventional
which includes social contract orientation and ethical-principle orientation.
57
SUMMATIVE TEST
Name: _________________________________
Year & Section: _________________________
Date: __________________
Score: __________________
A. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of that corresponds to your answer.
1. Which of these statements show the power of culture according to Karl
Marx?
a
b
c
d
Culture has the power over individuals to create beliefs.
Culture feeds our need to be accepted.
Culture increases our chances to survive.
Culture serves to justify inequalities.
2. Anything that a group of people find meaningful.
a
b
c
d
Symbol
Language
Beliefs
Values
3. A complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate.
a
b
c
d
Symbol
Language
Beliefs
Values
4. Which of these statements is wrong about culture?
a
b
c
d
Culture rewards favorable behavior and quell undesirable conduct.
Cultural influence is more potent in children.
Culture cannot corrupt the mind.
Culture promotes the interests of a particular group.
5. These are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a
group of people.
a
b
c
d
Symbol
Language
Beliefs
Values
6. Which is the best definition of cultural relativism?
a
b
c
d
A guideline explaining that one society cannot impose its views
and standards on another.
The highest ranking for a group‘s most cherished customs and
values.
The cultural group‘s desire to pass on its values to the next
generation.
An anthropologist‘s fanciest way of saying ―culture‖.
58
7. Which of the following is false regarding cultural relativism?
a
b
c
d
When studying another culture, you must convert to its religious
belief to understand its customs.
Something that might be taboo in your own society might be
perfectly acceptable in another society.
You should not force your own culture‘s rituals onto another group.
People tend to be more tolerant of another culture‘s customs when
they learn the meaning behind them.
8. Which is NOT an advantage of cultural relativism?
a
b
c
d
Cultural relativism promotes respect in the beliefs and practices of
other people.
Cultural relativism discourages you to criticize the beliefs and
practices of other people even if these are harmful to them and/or
to others.
Cultural relativism warns you not belittle the beliefs and traditions
of other cultures.
Cultural relativism trains your mind to be open and seek the truth.
9. Which of these situations is an example of cultural relativism?
a
b
Andy is a Muslim boy who fell in love with Ana, a Christian girl.
Malay folks stories talks about penanggal, a flying head with its
disembodied stomach sa dangling below. It sucks the blood of
infants. Filipino folklore tells of manananggal, a woman with bat
like wings. She detaches her upper body from her lower torso and
hunts humans to suck his or her blood.
10. Which of these elements below describes the danger of cultural
relativism?
a
b
c
d
Social reforms are questionable. Therefore social progress is not
possible.
―Mañana Habit‖ is known Filipino trait. Therefore, there is no need
to discipline Filipinos to be conscious of time.
Neither A and B
Both A and B
B. Enumeration
1-2
The Universal Values according to University Professor Dr. James
Rachels.
3-4
The two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism.
5-8
Reasons why cultural relativism is not plausible.
9-10
Give one STRENGTH and one WEAKNESS of the Filipino character.
59
C. Evaluate each of the situations below. Write the letter that corresponds to
your answer on the space provided. Options can be answered more than
once.
A. PRE-CONVENTIONAL
B. CONVENTIONAL
C. POST-CONVENTIONAL
1. _____ ―If I listen to my parents, they will probably give me money for
being good.‖
2. _____―I am a conscious objector because killing is always wrong
regardless of what your country says.‖
3. _____ ―I won‘t cheat during exam because I‘m afraid I will be caught
and my teacher will flunk me.‖
4. _____ ―Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.‖
5. _____ ―I always wear my school ID the moment I enter the school‘s
premises.‖
6. _____ ―I should maintain my scholarship because my parents
promised that they will buy me a new pair of shoes if I get high
grades.‖
7. _____―I will obey my parents about not having girlfriend/boyfriend at
this time.‖
8. _____―I would rather follow what the sign says ―No Jaywalking‖ or else
I will be penalized.‖
9. _____ ―I will not hurt any living thing, even this mosquito on my arm.‖
10. _____ ―Don‘t eat that because mom will get angry.‖
60
Chapter V
The Act
You make moral decisions daily. However, have you noticed that some
decisions are automatic responses and that you are not consciously deciding at all?
For example, you help an elderly cross the road. Without thinking, you ran to the
opposite side of the road, away from some perceive danger. Your desire to help and
your fear of danger are gut reaction while reasoned argument is just swirling beneath
conscious awareness.
General Objectives:
1. Discern the two general forms of acts
2. Discuss the philosophical insight of feelings and its influence in decision
making
3. Explain why reason and impartiality are requirements for morality
4. Determine a situation where there is a need for moral courage
Lesson I. Forms of Acts and Components of Moral Acts
Not all acts are to be taken as formal objects of ethics. Certain acts are of
some value to ethics, while others are expendable to ethical analysis. These become
clearer if we consider the two general forms of acts in the light of their moral value:
the acts of man and the human acts. Follow closely the discussions below and study
why human acts are considered to be the formal object of ethics.
Specific Objectives:
1. Differentiate the two general forms of acts
2. State the components of moral acts
Lesson Outline
Acts of Man
Involuntary Natural Acts
Acts of Man, are of two types: the first type is called involuntary natural acts.
These include the involuntary intuitive or reflex acts exhibited by man, such as the
61
blinking of the eye, the beating of the heart, sneezing, yawning, breathing,
scratching, and others. When eating, are you always aware of the way you chew or
swallow your food? Probably not, unless you just had dental surgery, or are suffering
from tonsillitis (inflammation of the tonsil). or gingivitis (inflammation of the gums). Try
doing the following and confirm for yourself if they are indeed involuntary:
1. Stop blinking for Five to ten minutes.
2. Stop breathing for live to ten minutes.
3. Stop your heart from beating.
4. Stop your stomach from digesting the food you have taken during breakfast.
Now, after performing the suggested exercises above, answer the following
questions: Can you choose not to b1in7cfor an entire day? Can you stop breathing,
even for one hour? Can you stop your heart from beating? Can you tell your stomach
to stop digesting the food you have eaten? If you can, you are surely not of this
world. If you cannot, then, be rest assured that you are normal just like everybody
else because the acts you tried to stop are unstoppable and uncontrollable. They are
involuntary and natural acts.
Voluntary Natural Acts
The second type of nonmoral acts is called voluntary natural acts. They
include voluntary and natural, but not necessarily reflexive acts, such as sleeping,
eating, drinking, etc. These types are actions we usually perform as part of our daily,
socially learned activities, such as brushing our teeth, combing our hair, cutting our
nails, taking a bath, etc. The second type of nonmoral acts is different from the first
type because it involves a certain degree of freedom or voluntariness, so to speak.
One may decide, for instance, when to sleep, or whether to sleep or not, whether or
not to brush one‘s teeth, but one cannot decide when to start or stop his heart from
beating. However, these actions are similarly categorized under acts of man because
they are neither moral nor immoral. We cannot, for instance, judge our classmate to
be moral or immoral just because his heart is heating, or because he did not take his
breakfast before going to school. Hence, because involuntary natural acts and
voluntary natural acts are neither moral nor immoral, they do not possess any moral
62
values. Nonmoral acts can hardly be the formal object of ethics. But we should take
note that the voluntary natural act, like sleeping, could become moral acts if they are
performed beyond their natural purposes. Sleeping at work, for example, is no longer
perceived as simply a natural act, but an unethical and an unacceptable act.
Human Acts
The second general form of act is called human acts. Human acts include
actions that are conscious, deliberate, intentional, voluntary and are within the
preview of human value judgment. Human acts are either moral or immoral. These
actions are products of man‘s rationality and freedom of choice like telling the truth,
helping others in distress and caring for the sick. Since moral acts contain the
elements that allow for moral judgment and setting of moral responsibility. These acts
are then said to be the formal object of ethics.
Classification of Human Acts
Acts are judged as to their moral worth based on conformity to standards or
norms of morality. Human acts are classified into the following:
Moral or ethical acts. These are human acts that observe or conform to a standard
or norm of morality. Some examples of moral or ethical actions include helping others
in need. taking examinations honestly, returning excess for change received, giving
party to your friends, and others.
Immoral or unethical acts. These are human acts that violate or deviate from a
standard of morality. Immoral/unethical actions may include, refusing to help others
in distress, cheating in an examination, speaking ill of others, and others
Amoral or Neutral Acts
For purposes of clarity, let us include amoral or neutral actions in the
discussion. Amoral or neutral actions do not apply to human acts because human
acts can either be moral or immoral but not morally neutral. Instead, the classification
applies to nonmoral acts (acts of man). Recall that these acts are neither good nor
bad in themselves. However, depending on the circumstances surrounding a neutral
act, it may become a moral/ethical or immoral/unethical act. As we pointed out
earlier, neutral acts like, for instance, sleeping, becomes an immoral/unethical act if it
63
is done during office work schedule (e. g., a teacher sleeping in her class, a security
guard sleeping in his night duty, and others.)
Components of Moral Act
Depending on the ethical theory applied, a moral or human act may be
ethical/moral or unethical/ immoral if one or two of its elements either conform to or
violate a moral principle of the theory. Differences in elements emphasized mark the
difference between and among major theories of ethics.
These elements upon which to focus assessment of whether moral or human
acts conform to or violate a particular norm are enumerated below.
1. The intention or motive of the act. For instance, studying the lesson is
intended to pass an exam. or training for a basketball match is intended
to win the championship title.
2. The means of the act. This is the act or object employed to carry out the
intent of the act. The act of studying hard is a means to pass an exam,
or the act of training one‘s self is a means to win the championship
match. The means can also be a person. For example, a person who
pretends to help another to advance his selfish interest is a person who
treats another person as a means to his personal end.
3. The end of the act. The intent of the act is assumed to be always
directed toward a desired end or a perceived good, such as passing the
exam or winning the basketball championship tournament, wherein the
means employed will help achieve the end. For example, reading the
lesson to pass an exam or training in the hard court for the
championship. The end of the act thus becomes the basis or foundation
for the intent of the act.
Distinction is made between the end and the consequence of the act. If the
end refers to the perceived good that can be derived from the performance of the act,
the consequence is the outcome or the actual conclusion or result of the moral act.
This determines whether or not the intent of the act was carried out or the end of the
act was successfully realized.
Moral Act and Human Will
Moral acts or human acts stem from the human will that controls or influences
the internal and external actions of man. The will stirs a person to act, or hampers
him from acting. It colors the motives for his engaging or disengaging in a certain
action. Living against all odds, hoping in the midst of hopelessness, finding meaning
64
in great loss, selfless sacrifice for others these are just a few cases that demonstrate
the power of the will to motivate the human soul for goodness, hope and
determination, it is this part of the soul that affects the' freedom and reasoning of the
individual. The will is the agency of choice. The will may prompt reason to overpower
passion or on the other extreme, arouse passion and allow it to overrun reason. As
such, the will is a potential force for both good and evil. The strength or weakness of
the will determines the strength or weakness of a person's character. If action follows
being, agere sequitor esse, and if the will affects action, the will must be brought
closer to reason and to the proper sense of morality and goodness.
The human will is what ethics and religious and values education aim to tame
through the instruction of the moral sense which is borne out of human experience. It
is morality which directs the will to its proper choice.
Assessment
1. Identify the following act as Human Acts or Acts of Man
Acts
Human Acts
Acts of Man
Reading a module
Fulfilling a promise
Cooking an unusual menu
Eating a piece of cake
Sharing fake news
Sneezing
Helping others
Copying the work of others
Sleeping
Worshipping
2. Based on your answer in number 1, differentiate human acts and acts of
man.
3. Briefly explain the different components or moral act.
Lesson II. FEELING AS INSTINCTIVE AND TRAINED RESPONSE TO MORAL
DILEMMAS
Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold that
moral judgments at their best should also be emotional. Feelings are seen as also
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necessary in ethical judgment as they are even deemed by some as instinctive a
trained response to moral dilemmas. Some hold that reason and emotion are not
really opposites. Both abstract inference and emotional intuitions or instincts are
seen as having relative roles ethical thinking. For one thing, feelings or emotions are
said to be judgments about the accomplishment of one's goals. Emotions, it is thus
concluded, can be rational being based at least sometimes on good judgments about
how well a circumstance or agent accomplishes appropriate objectives. Feelings are
also visceral or instinctual by providing motivations to act morally.
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain the role of feelings in decision making
2. State the different philosophical insights of feelings
Lesson Outline
Philosophical Insight on Feelings
An ancient to contemporary philosophers discussed the role and importance
of decision-making.
Hume and the Philosophy of the Mind
Philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist David Hume (1711-1776)
famously placed himself in opposition to most moral philosophers, ancient and
modern; who argued to regulate actions using reason has dominion over feelings or
emotions.
Difference between Responses Based on Reason and on Feelings
On the opposite side of discussion about the role of feelings in making moral
decisions are those who argued on the use of reasons over feelings. Philosopher and
Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on
your feelings no matter how powerful these feelings may be. Feelings can be
irrational and merely a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning.
The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational arguments.
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An argument is reasonable if:
(a)
The facts are correct
(b)
The moral principles are correctly applied
(c)
Each individual‘s well-being is treated equally important
What is the role of Feelings in Decision-Making
Reason plays a role in making a moral decision. Philosophers encourage the
use of reason in making moral decisions. However, it should be noted too that our
moral compasses are also powerfully influenced by feelings. Hume claimed that in
any given situation a person would act based on emotions rather than reason
(Bucciarelli, et. al., 2008).
On several instances, reasoning in moral decisions is preceded by an initial
intuition or gut-feel (Haidt, 2012). For instance, in choosing between studying and
partying before an exam you already feel some negative emotions (guilt, worry) just
thinking about going out rather than studying. 20th century philosopher Alfred Jules
Ayer described two elements in moral judgment: The Emotive and the Prescriptive
elements (2012)

Emotive Element – in moral decision might express positive feelings towards
a particular act. Example, ―Kindness is good‖.

Prescriptive Element – comes in saying ―Be kind to others‖. It is an instruction
or prescription of a particular behavior.
Why Feelings can be Obstacle to making the right Decision
There are three central features as to why emotions can be obstacles in
making the right decisions:
1.
It is non-deliberate nature
2.
It is partial nature (Be‘en Zeev, 1997)
3.
It is capricious (Pizarro, 2000)
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The Non-Deliberate Nature of Feelings
Deliberate means the act was intentional, planned with conscious effort. Nondeliberate is the contrary term that denotes spontaneous actions. It is doing
something without thinking through. For instance, you run to your bed the moment
your turn off the light because you are afraid. Why did the darkness scare you? You
never thought about it, you just run. Not surprisingly, you will that a common excuse
for doing a grossly undesirable act was ―being overcome by emotions‖ in that
customary restrained failed (―I couldn‘t help myself‖; ―I totally blanked out‖; ―I felt
overwhelmed‖; ―I don‘t know, I just felt like doing it‖). Under this characterization,
emotions are no different from mindless automatic reflex.
Philosopher Aaron Be‘ez Zeev summarized the nondeliberate nature of
feelings as follows:
1. Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not free to behave in a certain
manner, then we are not responsible for this behavior.
2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives are
considered and the best one is chosen. Without such consideration, we
clearly cannot understand the possible alternatives and are not responsible
for preferring one of them.
3. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions, we cannot be
responsible for our emotions.
The Partial Nature of Feelings
Emotions notoriously play favorites. It operates on a principle called ―the law
of concern‖ (Fridja,1988) where emotions give only focused on matters of personal
interest. However, emotions are quiet when it is of no personal concern. Take for
example a catastrophic event like an earthquake. The sorrow that your feel for
earthquake victims from other countries is nowhere nears the sorrow that you feel if
your family were the victims.
1. Reason alone cannot be motivate the will, but rather is the ―slave of the
passions‖.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from the reason.
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3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval
(esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate
a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, other (including justice) are
artificial.
Hume maintained that, although reason is needed to discover the facts of any
concrete situation, reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is
virtuous or vicious (Hume, 2003, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016). He
sided with the moral sense theorist that a person gains awareness of moral good and
evil by experiencing the pleasure of approval and the uneasiness of disapproval.
According to Hume‘s ―Theory of the Mind‖, humans have what he called
passions (which he used to describe emotions or feelings). He further classified
passion as direct and indirect. The direct passion are caused directly by the
sensation of pain or pleasure; the passion that arises immediately from good or evil,
from pain or pleasure.
Indirect passion are caused by the sensation of plain or pleasure derived from
some other idea or impression. For example, pride is a passion that emanated from
the pleasure you get for possessing something admirable (it could be intellect,
physique, property, family, etc.). pride, therefore, is but a result of the person, the
object of the passion, and quality of the object. Other indirect passions are humility,
ambitions, vanity, love, hatred, envy, pity, malice, generosity, etc. (Blattner, 2017).
Scheler and the Philosophy of Feelings
Max Ferdinand Scheler was an important German Ethical Philosopher
distinguished for his contribution in phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical
anthropology (Davis and Steinbock, 2016). As a phenomenologist, Scheler sought to
know what comprised the structures of consciousness, including that of mental acts
such as feeling, thinking, resolve, etc. – as well as the inherent objects or correlates
of theses mental acts such as values, concepts, and plans (Frings, 2013).
Scheler presented four strata of feelings. He claimed that these strata or
levels are constant and it follows and exact order of importance. He called these
levels of feelings as the ―stratification model of emotive life‖:
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
Sensual Feelings – involve bodily pleasure or pain.

Vital Feelings – are the life functions such as health, sickness, energy,
fatigue, etc.

Psychic Feelings – are about aesthetics, justice and knowledge.

Spiritual Feelings – deal with the Divine.
According to Scheler, of the four, it is the spiritual feeling alone that is
intentional. This means that the spiritual feelings are directed to a particular special
object or a higher being that he attributed to as the Divine. He believed that values of
the holy are the highest of all values because it has the ability to endure through
time.
There are two aspects in the partial nature of emotions:
1. Decision based on feelings focus only on a narrow area
2. It reflects personal and self-interest perspective.
Emotions influence our attention. Thus, it governs what attracts and hold
attentions. Emotions make us preoccupied with specific matters and we become
oblivious to everything else (Harvard Business Review, 2015). The feeling of ―being
in love‖ is an example. The narrow area of focus is more evident when you and your
girlfriend/boyfriend are not in good terms. You cannot think of anything else but the
end of your romance and you become overwhelmed with sadness and despair. In
this narrowly focused state, you have an extremely hard time taking other aspects
that lie outside the center of attention (in this case, the ―breakup‖) into consideration.
The second partial nature of emotion is that it draws its perspective from
personal interest. It addresses subjective concerns and takes action primarily to
satisfy such concerns (O‘Donohue & Kitchener, 1996). A highly partial perspective is
interested only in the immediate situation; no rational explanations from a broader
perspective are relevant.
The Capricious Nature of Feelings
The third problem with emotions is that it rises up for arbitrary reasons. For
example, you did not give money to an old beggar asking for alms simply because
she tugged at your shirt and startled you. Aspects or situations that have nothing to
70
do in moral situations could rile up your emotion, and this emotion will certainly
influence your subsequent moral judgment (Pizarro, 2000).
How Emotions Help in Making the Right Decision
Although several studies point out the negative effect of emotion in making
decisions, contemporary research on how emotions facilitate reasoning is also
catching up. Several studies suggest that emotions are the foundation of all our
cognitive and behavioral processes; emotional responses often guide a person in
making beneficial choices without any conscious reasoning.
In this line of thought, researchers studied two groups of research
participants. Group 1 was made up of relatively healthy people with no history of
head injury; Group 2 was composed of those with decision-making defects resulting
from head injury. Both groups were measured while performing gambling tasks. The
researcher observed that Group 1 began to choose that were to their advantage
even before they knew what strategy worked best. While the second group continued
to choose disadvantageously even though they already knew what the best card
strategy was. Moreover, in the same gambling tasks, the researchers observed that
the skin properties of the first group changed in response to thinking about risky
choices, even though the participants did not know the move was actually risky. The
second group, on the other hand, never had such reaction. The study suggested, ―In
normal individuals, non-conscious biases guide behavior before conscious
knowledge does (Bechara, et. al.,1997).
There are at least three ways of that feeling especially negative feelings, help
in making the right decisions:
1. It signals the need to adjust behavior.
2. It can help us learn from our mistakes.
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.
Psychologists have long acknowledged that emotions serve as a red flag.
Emotions signal that something is happening and that it needs attention (Arnold,
1960). Often times you get the feeling that ―something is wrong‖ when you make an
incorrect judgment. This red flag aspect in emotions helps in making better decisions.
It had been observed too that physiological processes are heightened when incorrect
71
judgments were made, and those who spend more time deliberating on his or her
mistakes are more likely to correct his or her behavior (Bonner and Newell, 2010; DE
Neys&Franssens, 2009).
We are all familiar with feelings of regret, shame, guilt, disappointment, and
sadness as a result from acting contrary to what we believe as morally right. Studies,
however, have shown that negative feelings are integral to our ability to learn. The
surge of negative emotions triggers ―counterfactual thinking‖ (Smallman and Roese,
2009).
Counterfactual Thinking – is a psychological concept about the human tendency to
create possible or alternative scenarios other than what had actually happened.
The idea that behavior can be changed is a hallmark in Psychology. What is
important, however, is the idea that emotional response can be deliberately altered.
The psychological state of ―mindfulness‖ where you give active and open attention t
personal thoughts and feelings show that, with some effort, emotional reactions can
be brought in accord with your beliefs and goals.
Emotions are powerful and unavoidable. Upsurge of feelings is natural.
However, it should not control behavior nor should it prevent reason. What we do
with our feelings is what makes us ethical or unethical.
Assessment
1. In what way are feelings important in moral decision-making according to
Hume and Scheler?
2. In what way is feeling detrimental in moral decision-making?
3. As human beings, we cannot help but be influenced by feelings. Based on
what you have learned about the role of feelings in decision-making, what is
the best approach in making moral decisions?
Lesson III. REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENT FOR ETHICS
Reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a
quality, it refers to the capacity or logical, rational, and analytic thought; for
consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying
common sense and logic, and justifying, and if necessary, changing practices,
institutions, and beliefs based on existing or new existing information. t also spells
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the difference of moral judgments from mere expressions of personal preference. In
the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. Thus, reason
commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings, attitudes, opinions, and
desires. Impartiality involves the idea that each individual‘s interests and point of view
are equally important. It is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be
based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring
the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons. Impartiality in morality
requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties. The principle of impartiality assumes that every person, generally
speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is seen intrinsically more significant
than anyone else
Specific Objectives:
1. Define reason and impartiality
2. Explain the roles of reason and impartiality to morality
3. Solve a moral dilemma using the 7 Step moral reasoning model
Lesson Outline
Is Reason a Requirement for Morality?
A relevant definition of reason to our topic is ―the power of mind to think,
understand, and form judgments by a process of logic‖ (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
However, one of the most influential philosophers in the history of western
philosophy, Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and
once the person understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see
that acting morally is the same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960). In Kant‘s view, the
definition of morality alone shows that a person must decide what to do. You, as a
person, are able to think and reflect on different actions and then choose what
actions to take. That a moral decision means mere desires did not force you to act in
a particular manner. You acted by the power of your will.
Is Impartiality a Requirement for Morality?
Before discussing how impartiality is related to morality, it is important to
understand what is impartiality is. It is a broad concept, but it is also identified as a
core value I professional codes of ethics.
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Impartiality – is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that
the decision should be ―based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons‖
(Jollimore, 2011); impartiality stresses everyone ought to be given equal importance
and not favor one class (people, animals, or things) in a capricious way.
How impartiality is requirement for morality? According to philosopher and
professor, Dr. James Rachels, for your decision to be moral, you should think how
your answer will affect the people surrounds you, and how it will affect you as a
person. An impartial choice involves basing your decision on how all the person in
the situation will be affected and not to advantage of a particular party that you favor.
The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
A key distinguishing feature of a moral dilemma is that it typically arises when
individuals or groups might be harmed, disrespected, or unfairly disadvantaged
(Beall, 2017). More ethical decisions lie in a gray area. Often times you are faced
with a situation where there are no clear-cut or obvious choices; the situation cannot
be determined by simple quantitative analysis of data. Ethics decision-making
requires interpretation of the situation, application of your values and estimating the
consequences of your action.
Making ethical choices requires the ability to make distinctions between
competing options. Here are the seven steps to help you make a better decision.
The 7-Step Model for Ethical Decision Making
(Adapted from 2nd Gen. CHED-GET, XU Training)
1.
Gather the facts.
2.
Identify the stakeholders
3.
Articulate the dilemma
4.
List the alternatives
5.
Compare the alternatives with the principles
6.
Weigh the consequences
7.
Make a decision
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Gather the Facts
Do not jump into conclusion. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how,
and why). There may be instances when facts are hard to find or are not available
because of the uncertainty that surrounds ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as
many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are making.
Identify the Stakeholders
Identify all persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation. Who
are the primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they
stakeholders in the issue? Get the proper perspective. Try to see the situation
through the eyes of the people affected.
Articulate the Dilemmas
Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is
important that you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values? The
purpose of articulating the dilemma is to make sure that you understand the situation
and the moral conflict you are facing. Awareness and comprehension are important
in making the right decision, especially when there are lives that will be affected.
List the Alternatives
Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you
neglected. This will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner.
Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want o uphold in
making your decisions. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line
with your values. Identifying the value and comparing your action with these value
are important because it will help to identify if your alternative action is illegal or
unethical, thus making this action easy to discard.
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Weigh the Consequences
When considering the effects of your action, filter your choices to determine if
your options will violate ethical values. Determine all the stakeholders will be affected
by your decision.
Make a Decision
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid ―paralysis by
analysis‖ or the state of over-analyzing (or over thinking) a situation so that a
decision or action is never taken, in effect paralyzing the outcome.
Assessment
1. Define reason and impartiality in your own point of view and words
2. Explain why reason and impartiality are needed in decision making.
3. Search for current social or political issue which requires ethical decision
making and decide by following the 7 step model for ethical decision making.
Present it using a table or any graphic organizer.
Lesson IV. MORAL COURAGE
Moral courage is defined as brave behavior, accompanied by anger and
indignation, intending to enforce societal and ethical norms without considering one‘s
own social costs. Social costs (i.e., negative social consequences) distinguish moral
courage from other pro social behaviors like helping behavior
Specific Objectives:
1. Explain moral courage
2. Cite a situation where your moral courage was challenged
Lesson Outline
Moral courage is the courage to put your moral principles into action even
though you may be in doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequence. Moral courage
involves careful deliberation and mastery of the self. Moral courage is essential not
for only a virtuous life, but also a happy one because integrity is essential to selfesteem.
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However, according to philosopher Mark Johnson, acting morally often
requires more than just strength and character (Drumwright & Murphy, 2004).
Johnson added it is important to have ―an ability to imaginatively discern various
possibilities for acting within a given situation to envision the potential help and harm
that are likely to result from a given action‖. This ability called moral imagination.
Moral imagination is ―ability in a particular circumstance to discover and
evaluate possibilities not merely framed by a set of rules or rule-governed concerns‖.
What is Will?
Generally, ―will‖ is the mental capacity to act decisively on one‘s desire. It is
the faculty of the mind initiates action after coming to a resolution following careful
deliberation (Joachim, 1952). Within Ethics ―will‖ is an important topic along with
reason because of its role in enabling a person to act deliberately.
On the concept of the ―will‖ in Classical Philosophy, Aristotle said: ―The soul in
living creatures is distinguished by two functions, the judging capacity which is a
function of the intellect and of sensation combined, and the capacity for exciting
movement in space.‖ (Hett, 1964)
Why is the “will” as important as reason?
Aristotle believed that ―will‖ is the product of intellect and sensation: and that
―will‖ gave the person the capacity for ―exciting movement in space‖.
Developing the “will”
Aristotle discussed the difference between what people decide to do and what
they actually do. In his Philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just one part of the
moral decision. The resolve to put the decision into action is the role of the ―will‖. He
said since vice and virtues are up to us, ―we become just by the practice of just
actions; self-control by exercising self-control; and courageous practicing acts of
courage.
Self-mastery therefore is the product of the ―will‖ that is achieved by actually
putting rational, moral choices into action.
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Assessment
1. State the meaning and importance of moral courage.
2. What was your most important experience about covid 19 this year? How did
you go about formulating and coming up with a decision? What did you
actually do? Was your decision and action aligned with your moral principles?
Why do you say so?
Chapter Summary

Not all acts are to be taken as formal objects of ethics. Certain acts are of
some value to ethics, while others are expendable to ethical analysis.

The two general forms of acts are Acts of man and human acts.

Human acts include actions that are conscious, deliberate, intentional,
voluntary and are within the preview of human value judgment. Human acts
are either moral or immoral.

Amoral or neutral actions do not apply to human acts because human acts
can either be moral or immoral but not morally neutral.

The three components of moral acts are; the intention or motive of the act; the
means of the act, and the end of the acts.

Reason plays a role in making a moral decision but Hume claimed that in any
given situation a person would act based on emotions rather than reason

Feelings can be obstacle in decision making because of its non-deliberate
nature, partial nature and it is capricious.

On the other hand, negative feelings also help in making right decision
because it signals the need to adjust behavior, it can help us learn from our
mistakes and emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.

Reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction.

Impartiality – is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that
the decision should be ―based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of
bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper
reasons‖

The 7-Step model for ethical decision making includes: gathering the facts;
identifying the stakeholders; articulating the dilemma; listing the alternatives;
comparing the alternatives with the principles, weighing the consequences
and making a decision.

Moral courage is defined as brave behavior, accompanied by anger and
indignation, intending to enforce societal and ethical norms without
considering one‘s own social costs.
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SUMMATIVE TEST
Name: ___________________________________ Date: _________________
Course Year & Section: ____________________ Score: _________________
A. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer.
1. Which of the statements below are not David Hume‘s theses in Ethics?
a Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the ―slave of
the passions‖.
b While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are
artificial.
c Moral distinction is the result or of reason.
d Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiment.
2. Which of the statements do not describe Max Ferdinand Scheler‘s
stratification model of emotive life?
a Pleasure and pain are on the sensation level.
b Psychic feelings involve the metaphysical and paranormal.
c Your physical, mental, and emotional health are vital feelings
d Spiritual feeings deal with the Divine.
3. Dr. James Rachels asserted that you could not rely on feelings on moral
reasoning. This means that:
a Feelings can be a product of your prejudice, selfishness, or cultural
conditioning.
b Feelings are move by rational arguments.
c Feelings are biased but still correct.
d None of the above.
4. Which of the situations below describe David Hume‘s view on the role of
feelings in decision-making?
a I will not give money to the beggar because this will not develop the
right attitude in him.
b I will not give money to the beggar because it is against the law.
c I will not give money to the beggar because I do not have any money.
d I will not give money to the beggar because I don‘t trust him.
5. Which of the situation below describe Immanuel Kant‘s argument on reason
as basis for morality?
a I want to study but I feel like partying
b It is okay to party, schools will not go anywhere anyway
c I want to party but I have to prioritize
d Partying and studying go together well
6. Janice is the SBO President found out that there was a discrepancy in their
finances and hat her best friend Becky, who was also their treasure,
mishandled the money. Janice needed to talk to her best friend about the
79
problem, but knowing that this was a sensitive issue that will affect their
friendship, she needed the best approach. Which among the statement below
followed the 7-Step model?
a First, Janice listed down the possible sanctions she can impose on
Becky. The she talk to Becky personally to hear her side. After
listening to her best friend, Janice weighed the Pros and Cons about
telling their adviser regarding the problem. Eventually, Janice sought
help to their adviser and Becky was kicked out of the school.
b Janice gathered all the documents and identified other parties
involved. She then clearly identified her dilemma involving her best
friend and listed all the possible actions she can make. She weighed
all pros and cons of the situation before she went to talk to Becky
privately bringing the document with her.
c Janice was so surprised that Becky had the nerve to use the money,
so she called Becky up and confronted her right away.
d Janice went to her adviser. They both talked to Becky.
7. Eric witnessed a kid being bullied. One of the bullies told Eric not to report
what he saw and threatened him if he does. Which of the actions below
portray moral courage?
a Eric threw a rock to the bullies so the bullied kid can run away.
b Eric walked on pretending he did not see the incident
c Eric just told his friends what happened hoping that the news will
spread and eventually reach the principal
d Eric stood up to the bully, and reported the incident to the principal.
1. Which of the following is not the characteristic of the ―will‖?
a It is strength of the character
b It is the mental capacity to act decisively on one‘s desire
c It is the resolve to put the decision into action
d Its product is self-mastery
6. Which of the expressions below portray the characteristic of feelings?
a ―I don‘t really know why I behaved the way I did.‖
b ―I really feel sorry about the flood victims, but I also have a big
problem right now.‖
c Both A and B
d Neither A nor B
8. How do emotions help make the right decision?
a Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by.
b It signals the need to adjust behavior
c It can help us learn from our mistakes.
d All of the above.
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B. Enumeration.
1-3
The three central features as to why emotions can be obstacle in
making the right
decision.
4-6
How feelings help make the right decisions
7-10 Give at least three reason why human beings should do what is right.
C. Essay. Provide brief but well-rounded answers to the questions below. (5
points each)
1. What is the role of feelings in moral decisions? What are the
disadvantages of over-reliance on feelings?
2. How can we make reasoned and impartial decision?
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Chapter VI
Frameworks and Principles behind our Moral Disposition
Decisions about right and wrong permeate in everyday life, and it can be very
difficult to do. Making ethical decisions requires sensitivity to the ethical implications
of problems and situations. It also requires practice. Understanding the framework for
ethical decision-making is therefore essential. This section addresses the following
questions: what are the overarching frameworks that dictate the way we make our
individual moral decision; and what is my framework in making my decisions.
General Objectives:
1. Discuss the virtue ethics of Aristotle
2. Discern virtue ethics of St. Thomas from Aristotle
3. Discuss the different rights presented by Kant
4. Explain why the only good is good will.
5. Discuss the different points of utilitarianism
6. Explain how justice and fairness promotes common good
Lesson I. Virtue Ethics: Aristotle
Virtue ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of
character and virtue in living one‘s life rather than in doing ones duty or acting to
bring about the consequences. For virtue ethicists, their moral code would be: ―Act as
a virtuous person would act in your situation‖.
Most virtue ethics theories take their inspiration from Aristotle who declared
that a virtuous person is someone who has ideal character traits. There is also St.
Thomas Aquinas who asserted that no human act is morally good (or ―right‖, in the
sense of ―not wrong‖) unless it is in line with love of self and neighbor (and thus with
respect for the basic aspects of the well-being of each and all human beings) not
only:
i.
In the motives or intentions with which it is chosen, and
ii.
In the appropriateness of the circumstances, but also
iii.
In its object (more precisely the object, or closet-in intention of the choosing
person)
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Specific Objectives:
1. Explain what is good base on virtue ethics of Aristotle
2. Discuss virtue as a habit
3. Discuss virtue as happiness
4. Differentiate moral virtues and intellectual virtues
Lesson Outline
Aristotle
Aristotle was born in a small colony of Stagira in Greece. That was fifteen
years after the death of Socrates, the teacher of Plato. His father was Nicomachus,
who happened to be the court physician during the reign of King Amyntas. Because
of this affiliation, Aristotle became tutor of Alexander the Great, who was the
grandson of the king. When Aristotle‘s father died, he left Stagira and went to Athens
to join the Academy, a famous school of Plato, and became student of Plato for
twenty years. He joined the school at the age of seventeen. His known works are
related to moral philosophy are: Nicomachean Ethics (NE), Eudemian Ethics (EE),
and the Magna Moralia. Most of the ideas related to the framework he conceived are
taken from his first two works.
Telos
How often do you as why you always prepare yourself before going to
school? Perhaps your reason is because of hygienic purpose (you take a bath), or to
be presentable (you dress properly) before your classmate and teacher. Or maybe
asking why you need to study all your lessons before entering the class and your
answer is simply to go with the flow of undertakings (reading notes or handouts or
books in advance) to happen inside the classroom. Under the ethical framework of
Aristotle, he means a lot that we need be aware of every action we make. For him,
what we do entails direction.
This direction is what we foresee as the outcome of our act. Conversely, we
act in order to get us to the intended direction. In short, we may not get to our
destination if we do not act. This is what telos means for Aristotle. All our human
action will lead to our desired end. The end of human act is either good or bad. But
for Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, the end is something that is good.
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There are two things about the end as good.
1. Aristotle insists that any good is achievable. Nothing in real life that good end
is non-achievable by human action. From the epistemological point-of-view,
only human beings are capable of seeing the good in all things.
2. Every action that aims in achieving the good is the telos/end of human
actions. It only means that the result of our ethical decision-making is good. In
fact there are so many seemingly good ends in life, and sometimes we
understand we understand them subjectively and relatively. Simply our
understanding of the good my not necessarily good to others.
Aristotle understands the meaning of good from the perspective of finality and
self-sufficiency. These are the two features that serve criteria of determining the
good.
1. The finality of the object of human action has two views – the dominant or
monistic view and the inclusivist‘s view.
 The Dominant or monistic view
This claims that the aim of every act is good.
 Inclusivist’s View
This claim that good, which is the result of the series of human acts.
2. The self-sufficiency of the object of the human action. This means that the
object of the act must be something that will make life worthwhile. One can
say that it is not enough to just fulfill what one intends to do without
considering whether it is worth of doing and acting or not.
Virtue as Habit
Aristotle explicates about the acquisition of character excellence by
habituation (ethismos). Character excellence and habit are the two important terms
we need to consider here. The word character means the development of the
personality that resulted in the application of virtues, while the word habit means that
certain human acts are being carried out frequently. It only means that when a
person carries a certain act only once, it is just a plain act and not a habitual act.
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There are two kinds of virtues:

Moral Virtues

Intellectual Virtues
Since our concern is more on the moral virtue, the role of intellectual virtue
complements moral virtue. There are two classifications under the intellectual virtue,
the intellectual virtue of wisdom and the intellectual virtue of understanding. The
intellectual virtue of wisdom has the role of governing ethical behavior. In this sense,
this intellectual virtue of wisdom help us what particular virtue, among moral virtues,
we need to apply under specific circumstances.
Moreover, the moral virtues of Aristotle, when put into action, should observe
moderation. This moderation entails that one has to avoid what is excess or defect in
action. Aristotle suggests that the moral virtues are in the middle between too much
and too little. It is also called the Doctrine of the Mean. Here are the excess and
defects of the following virtues (Urmson, 33-34).
EXCESS OR TOO MUCH
Irascibility
Foolhardiness
Shamelessness
Intemperance
Envy
Gain
Prodigality
Boastfulness
Flattery
Servility
Vanity
Ostentation
VIRTUES
Even temper
Bravery
Modesty
Temperance
Fair-mindedness
Justice
Liberality
Truthfulness
Friendliness
Dignity
Pride
Magnificence
DEFECT OR TOO LITTLE
Impassivity
Cowardice
Touchiness
Insensibility
(nameless)
Disadvantages
Meanness
Mock modesty
Churlishness
Disdain
Mean spirit
Unworldliness
We have to take note that the exercise of the moral virtues differs from one
person to another person. Now, how are we going to achieve the right amount of
virtues as to avoid the excess and defect? Aristotle has the answer: By observation
and correction those excess and defect in our conduct.
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Happiness as Virtue
The telos or end of our human actions which are what we desire and tend for
is good. From the dominant or monistic view, we see some series of actions by its
corresponding results, with the rest are subordinate goods and the last is the
dominant good. This is not all there is since there are also series of dominant goods
in the scheme of human actions. Therefore, for Aristotle, all human acts that we
undertake must have to have the ultimate telos or end. He is referring to happiness
or in Greek Eudaimonia as the supreme good. What is this happiness by the way?
Can we exercise happiness the way we exercise other virtues? Is happiness is one
of the virtues laid down in his doctrine of the mean?
Assessment
1. Define ―good‖ according to Aristotle.
2. Discuss virtue as habit and happiness.
3. Differentiate moral and intellectual virtues.
4. What makes you happy in life? How do you achieve it that involves human acts?
Is it in accordance with the idea of Aristotle?
Lesson II. Virtue Ethics: St. Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas was born in Roccascca, Italy during medieval period. He
studied liberal arts at the University of Naples, and in 1249, he became a Dominican
Friar. He is known as the Doctor of the Church because of his immense contribution
to the theology and doctrine of the Catholic Church. His influence on western thought
is considerable, especially on modern philosophy. His most important works are the
‖Summa Theologica‖ where he expounded on the five proofs of the existence of God
and the ―Summa Contra Gentiles‖ or the Book on the truth of the Catholic faith
against the errors of the unbelievers. The two books are combinations of philosophy
and theology where he discussed about the role of natural law, virtues and happiness
in moral philosophy.
Specific Objectives:
1. Discuss the four cardinal virtues of St. Thomas
2. Discuss how is virtue ethics of Aristotle differs from that of St. Thomas
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Lesson Outline
Natural Law
St. Thomas Aquinas begins his explanation of virtue ethics by grounding on
natural law. He discusses the natural law along with eternal law. By linking the two
laws he shows that it has theological underpinning because his philosophy is theistic
or belief in God as the highest of all beings and the highest of all goods. God
expresses his self through the eternal law, his will and his plan for all his creatures.
Aquinas insists that the natural law expresses moral requirements. It contains
rules, commands, and action guiding requirements. But if we ask where to find it or
discover it, it is not outside of us, that is, located somewhere. The natural law is
found within us, his rational creatures. But there is the condition, that is, only insofar
as the rational creatures share in the divine providence. This implies that we adhere
to the will and plan of God who shares his love and goodness to us, His creatures. In
that, we live up to the expectation of God - to be His moral creature and with
obedience to the law.
The premises is clear that rational creatures, where natural law is present,
insofar as one shares in divine providence, have to exercise their capacity to
recognize that law within them. Conversely, this natural law has to be discovered by
any human beings by what to do and what not to do, and guide their action towards
the right direction. The repercussion is that since only rational creatures can discover
and obey the law, hence, it is only they who can disobey them.
The Natural and Its Tenet
Where is natural law situated in the scheme of things in the Philosophy of
Aquinas? As we all know that his philosophy is grounded on the belief that God
exists. God is known as the highest good and being who establishes eternal law
where his divine plan for his creatures has been inscribed. But he also categorizes
the law to makes his eternal law more comprehensible.
From eternal law is the natural law, which we are talking about. This law is
discoverable by any rational creatures and unknowable for irrational ones. In his
Ethics, Glenn has made distinction of natural law in broad sense and in the narrow
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sense for rational and irrational creatures. In the narrow sense, for rational creatures,
it is already given above the natural law is already present in us who are rational
beings. All we have to do is to recognize that we are his creatures and that we are
called to participate in the divine life of the highest being in order to have a fullness of
being. In the language of religious people, this is our divine vocation where we are to
realign our moral life, our thinking, and our being with that of God. This is also known
as participation.
Can we say that this natural moral law is different from the eternal law? It is
not exactly. This natural moral law is an expression of participation in the eternal law.
The word moral is inserted between two words to show that emphasis on moral
action – observance to the moral requirements established by God. In moral
philosophy, this natural law is a picture of eternal law as something sensible and
knowable to rational beings. These two laws can never be contradicting from each
other. But this law, because it is discoverable by the use of our reason has to be
enacted to make them feasible to other rational beings. Once it is enacted into written
law, it is now called human positive law. It implies that if we do not enact them to
make it official, it remains within the subclasses of human positive law – the civil law
which is enacted and promulgated by the lawmakers of the land, and the
ecclesiastical law, which is enacted and promulgated by the religious people
regarding faiths and morals.
Happiness as Consecutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues
The moral and cardinal virtues of Aquinas has special meaning in this moral
philosophy. Virtues consist of human actions that are frequently carrying out, so
much so that such human acts become easily executed. There many kinds of acts
that can be carried out frequently but not all them belong to one category called
virtues. Virtues are special kind of human kind of human acts that are moral. It
means that such moral act is carried out in accordance with the dictate of reason.
This dictate of reason is also called conscience, which is the proximate norm of
morality. Conscience is being formed through unceasing education by parents,
members of the community, the church and the society at large. Achieving certain
and true conscience takes time. it is not given automatically from above. That is why
we see now the definition of virtues as moral frequent act. The opposite is the
immoral frequent act or vice. This proximate norm of morality is patterned after the
divine reason called eternal law that is established by God from all eternity.
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The four cardinal virtues are: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.
 Prudence – what is it role to our moral life? This virtues is an exercise of
understanding that help us know the best means in solving moral problems in
which we encounter in the concrete circumstances. Knowing the best means,
and without acting carelessly without thinking, will incline us to apply them
immediately with certainty. It is like a one-step-backward-and-two-step
forward technique. If we encounter a moral dilemma, we don not rush into
conclusion without considering the pros and cons of our act, and more so
what is right and what is wrong. If we do so, then there is a big possibility of
committing an immoral act than moral one.
 Justice. What is its role to our moral life? This habit is an exercise of the will
to give or render the things, be it intellectual or material, to anyone who owns
it. If a thing belongs to you, then everyone should respect it and not own it, or
if it belongs to someone, then we must not treat it as ours.
 Fortitude. What is it role to our moral life? This habit is an exercise of
courage, to face any dangers one encounters without fear, especially when
life is at stake.
 Temperance. What is it role to our moral life? This habit is an exercise of
control in the midst of strong attraction to pleasures. The key word here is
moderation.
Getting
indulged
into
strong
pleasure
has
undesired
consequences, either excess or disorder. Becoming beautiful or handsome is
not a bad idea, but if one willing to spent thousands of pesos in order to
achieve it is already vanity.
How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and cardinal virtues? If
the telos or end of Aristotle is happiness, which means success or human
flourishing, or Aquinas, it entails the wholeness of human beings that involves
body and soul to be united with the highest good or summum bonum, no
other than God himself is in heaven.
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Assessment
1. Briefly explain the four cardinal virtues of St. Thomas.
2. What moral or cardinal virtue you would like to develop at this point in your
life? What are other virtues you think will follow as consequences of practicing
your chosen virtue?
3. What are the differences of virtue ethics of Aristotle and St. Thomas
Lesson III. Kant and the Right Theorists
Immanuel Kant – is a German philosopher and one of the famous thinkers
during the modern period. He was born in Konigsberg in 1724. He spent the rest of
his life in Konigsberg from birth to death, and worked in Konigsberg University first as
a lecturer and later as a professor in philosophy from 1755 until his death in 1804.
His works related to moral philosophy are the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of
Morals (1785) and The Critique of Practical Reason (1788).
Now that framework should we use in making an ethical decision? The
second ethical framework you will be introduced is the duty ethics of Immanuel Kant.
This framework focuses on the agent with the motivation to do morally good out of
duty.
Specific Objectives:
1. Differentiate legal and moral rights
2. Discuss categorical imperatives
Lesson Outline
Good Will
Are you familiar with the situation of St. Paul In the bible, particularly in his
letter to the Romans 7:15 of the New Testament when he said that I do not
understand what I do, for what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do. He has
the knowledge of what are the right things to be done but he ends up doing the
wrong ones. He is confused of himself. St. Paul‘s situation is a counter-argument to
Socrates‘ contention that if you know what is right, you will do what is right or
possessing moral knowledge will guarantee us with the production of moral acts.
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Kant claims that the only good without qualification is the good will. He treats
the good will as the highest good since its end will always be good. It is also a
condition of all other goods. Other matters such as fortune or power or intelligence or
other traditional virtues are not enjoying the state of highest goods since they can be
used by rational beings for bad ends. He even goes further that happiness also
corrupts. How do we possess the good will? In the groundwork of the Metaphysics of
Moral, Kant says that role of reason, particularly in ethics is to produce a will that is
good, and this will becomes good only when it is motivate by duty.
Good will for Kant, is an indispensable condition in order to achieve the
rightness of act. Having the will is not enough but the will must be good in order to
correct the undesirable acts or wrongful acts. But what makes the will good is simply
by virtue of volition. To quote:
“To act morally is to act from no other motive than motive
of doing what is right. This kind of motive has nothing to do with
anything as a subjective as pleasure. T do right out of principle is
to recognize am objective right that poses an obligation on any
rational being (Abbot, 88)
Kant uses analogy to explain further about the good will. When they will do its
role of doing what is moral, the will is like jewel that shines by its own light. Moreover,
Kant emphasize that when a prison acts out of duty, he is obedient to the categorical
imperative, and not the hypothetical imperative.
Categorical Imperative
When a person is acting out of duty, it presumes that the person knows the
categorical imperative. For Kant, moral commands are always categorical and not
hypothetical. In speaking about categorical, it is all about ought, that is to say, one is
ought to do the moral law in the absence of conditions since it is simply done out of
duty. This categorical imperative comes from the nature of the law, a sort of imposing
obligation. There are two formulas of the imperative written by Kant in his two
writings. In the first formulation of the categorical imperative, it says ―act only
according to a maxim by which you can at the same time will that is shall become a
universal law.” And in the second formulation of the categorical imperative, also
known as the formula of humanity, it says ―act in such a way that you always treat
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humanity, whether on your own person or in the person of any other, never simple a
means, but always at the same time as an end.”
From the two formulas are the two principles or determiners of moral
imperatives, the respect for person and the universalizability. The respect for person
is the basic thing about how we treat people we encounter in our daily living. For
Kant, any act that is good happens only when we deal with other people not as
merely means. It is all about dealing people just because we want something from
him or her, and we cannot have the wants without them. This is the first kind
determiner of moral imperative.
The second one is universalizability, that is, an act is capable of becoming a
universal law. An act is considered as morally good if a maxim or law can be made
universal. That maxim or law is made not only for our self but also for others as well
to perform or to prohibit. Sometime when we follow the maxim or law, it becomes
either subjective or personal. In order to avoid this to happen that maxim or law id put
to test by the principle of universalizability. The particular maxim or law becomes
morally good when everyone can fulfill them.
Kant uses the example of lie and promise to illustrate the point of
contradiction under the universalizability. If you make promise to each other to keep
the friendship even after your high school graduation, you are now imposing the duty
among yourselves, and at the same time earning the right to that duty. It is a
promised to be fulfilled among friends, and it can be imitate to other circle of friends
as well. This is an act of universalizing.
These two determiners are different in ways of coming up of the same moral
course of action. In universalizing the maxim or law, the respect of person as end
and means, and never solely as means to serve one‘s end must be considered at all
time. If the respect of person will be out of reach in every universalizing, then there is
always contradiction. The reason is simply that every person has intrinsic worth or
dignity. This reality cannot just be ignored. In the same manner, whatever that
pertains to the consideration of treating every person as means and an end is always
universalizable.
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Procedure for determining whether a propose
action violates Categorical
Imperatives.
1. Formulate the maxim:
I am to do x in circumstances y in order to bring about z
Example:
I am to lie on a loan application when I am in severe financial
difficulty and there is no other way to obtain funds, in order to ease the
strain on my finances.
2. Generalize the maxim into a law of nature:
Everyone always does x in circumstances y in order to bring about z
Example:
Everyone always lies on a loan application when he is in
severe financial difficulty and there is no other way to obtain funds, in
order to ease the strain on his finances.
3. Figure out the perturbed social world (PSW), that is, what the world would be
like if this law of nature were added to existing aws of nature and things had a
chance to reach equilibrium.
Note: Assume that after the adjustment to equilibrium the new law is
common knowledge – everyone knows that it is true; everyone knows
that everyone knows, etc.
Two questions:
Q1: Could I rationally act on my maxim in the PSW?
This is the ―Contradiction in Conception Test‖.
Q2: Could I rationally choose the PSW as one in which I would be a member?
This is the ―Contradiction in the Will Test‖.
The Kantian evaluation rule is this: we must be able to answer yes to both questions
for the maxim to be acceptable. If we get a no answer to either, we must reject the
maxim and try to find another one on which to act.
Different Kinds of Rights: Legal versus Moral Rights
 Legal Rights refer to all rights one has by simply being a citizen of a
particular country like the Philippine. If the Philippines is governed by all
legalities stated in 1987 constitution, so all its citizens is governed by the
same constitution. Being a Filipino, one is entitled to all right and privileges
accorded by the constitution. This entitlement is acquired either by birth or by
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choice. By birth means that one is born within a certain territory such as the
Philippines. By choice means, every Filipino has the option to stay as citizen
of the republic or denounce it and embrace other citizenship.
 Moral Rights are right that belongs to any moral entities such as human
beings and animals. What make them moral entities are the following features
such as freedom, rationality and sentience. First, human beings are the only
beings that enjoy freedom. With freedom, every act they execute
accompanies moral consequences becomes possible. Second, human beings
are not the only beings gifted with rationality. With rationality, everything they
do comes with rational deliberation whether certain course of action would
lead to a desired result without regrets or undesired result with undesired
consequences. Lastly, human beings are not the only beings who are capable
of experiencing pleasure and pain. Of course, humans can determine which
action plan would yield more pleasure than pain and vice versa like utilitarian,
and only humans can give different dimension of meanings to pleasure and
pain.
Assessment
1. Discuss the difference between legal and moral rights.
2. Explain ―act only according to a maxim by which you can at the same time will
that is shall become a universal law.”
3. Give a sample of a maxim you want to act or decide to act and solve it using
categorical imperatives and Kantian evaluation rule.
Lesson IV. Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham Is known as the founder of utilitarianism. He was born in
1748 in London, to a father who was a prosperous lawyer at that time. He was sent
to school at the age of seven in Westminster School then graduated from The
Queen‘s College, Oxford at fifteen. He was expected to follow his father‘s footstep as
a lawyer but he did not. His famous works related to moral philosophy are:
Introduction to the Principle of Morals and Legislation and A Fragment on
Government. What led him to believe in the theory of utility is after he read the book
of David Hume on the Treatise of Human Nature.
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Specific Objectives:
1. Explain the origin and nature of Utilitarianism
2. Discuss the cost and benefit principle
Lesson Outline
Origins of Nature and Theory
You are familiar with our great national heroes Dr. Jose Rizal and Andres
Bonifacio. We have learnt from our history subjects that they did not die for nothing,
but offered their lives for igniting the spirit of liberty and independence among their
fellow Filipinos.
The theory of utilitarianism, sometimes called Consequentialism, focuses on
the effect of a particular end or telos called happiness. The first who proposed the
idea is David Hume, a philosopher of the modern period, but ones who have made
the idea more depth and made it more profound was Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill. It is enough for us to deal Jeremy Bentham and his classical utilitarianism.
He is also considered as the founder of Utilitarianism.
First is the basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is in its
consequences they produced. It is known as Consequentialism. What is there in the
consequence that makes it morally right? It is only when there is the presence of
happiness.
The second point is what matters in every act that we do would be the
amount of pleasure produced. One must not forget the element of happiness in
assessing the morality of the act. If there is no pleasure yielded, thane the act is
morally wrong. Happiness is comparative, that is, there will be great happiness,
greater happiness, and greatest happiness. Likewise, there are also a great pain,
greater pain, and greatest pain. If there are multiple acts that can produce a variety
and different degrees of happiness, which act is right?
The third point, which is the happiness experienced by every person is
counted the same. It means that every person‘s happiness is taken into account and
no one is left behind. How are we going to use such method? Bentham is hedonist
and he understands happiness as a pleasure. This pleasure has a partner, which is
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pain. He believes that the world governed by these two principles. It follows that
human beings are inclined more on achieving happiness and as much as possible
avoid what is painful.
Amount of pleasure – amount of pain = moral act or immoral act.
Furthermore, one has to consider in assessing an act the following factors.
1. Happiness/pleasure should be more intense.
2. Happiness/pleasure should last longer.
3. Happiness/pleasure should be more certain to occur.
4. Happiness/pleasure should be happening sooner rather than late.
5. Happiness/pleasure will produce in turn many happiness and few pains.
6. Lastly, in determining the amount of happiness/pleasure, one has to consider
how many people affected. The better position would be when there are more
people affected positively, that is, greatest happiness for the greatest number
of people, and fewer affected negatively.
Business Fascination and with Utilitarianism
In the field of business, there is also ethics. It is just one of the three points of
view used by people when it comes to decision-making related to business in the
corporate world. The other two views are the economic and legal. It only shows that I
the corporate world, there is the presence of ethical issues, it is specifically intended
for managers. The outcome of corporate activities will affected the entire
stakeholder–employees and employees, consumers and producers, and members of
the public. One of the ethical theories used by the managers is the utilitarianism by
Bentham.
How the utilitarianism being used in the business world? The keyword used
by Bentham is extension. It refers to the extent of pleasure and pain spread to all the
populace. This is being considered and applied in public policy. After crafting the
content of public policy is in turn affect the legislative and judicial process of the
government. The manager or the economist has to consider the amount of utility for
each individual and the amount of utility for a whole society. The same computation
is being used – amount of pleasure minus amount of pain – where of course, the
amount of pleasure should be greater than the amount of pain.
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The second problem is that pleasure cannot be measured precisely in terms
of quantity and quality. There is no valid and reliable instrument to measure it. Some
utilitarian manages the problem by making educated guess, plus the past
experience. Other economists, instead of using felicific calculus, use the cost benefit
analysis. The difference between calculus of Bentham and the analysis is that
economist would use monetary units that represents benefits or advantages and
drawback or disadvantages. If the benefit is greater than the amount spent, then it is
worth it. Therefore, it is pleasure.
Cost-benefit amount of money spent versus amount of benefit or drawbacks.
If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent, then it is not worth it. Therefore it is
pain.
The cost-benefit analysis is commonly used only as means for making
decisions such as major investments and on matters of public policy. But it is not
limited to business matters alone. Sometimes it can be applied to matters related to
purchasing things for personal use or family use. But again it just like the felicific
calculus, the cost-benefit analysis has its problem, that is, there are other things that
monetary values cannot be assigned like the life of a human being. Some would say
that the life of a human being is worth more than a house and lot purchased in an
exclusive subdivision, while other economist and businessmen would intentionally
exclude such an example in their decision-making.
Assessment
1. Discuss the origin and nature of Utilitarianism
2. Do you agree that the greatest happiness produced become the basis in
determining whether a certain human act is moral? Yes or No? Why?
3. Everyone loves music including you. Let us presume that you love a particular
loud music and you have lots of neighbor nearby. Show the cost and benefit
of such activity between you and your neighbor.
Lesson V. JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS PROMOTING THE COMMON GOOD
In the light of free tuition law, the RA 10931, also known as the ―Universal
Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act‖ signed by President Duterte in 2016, all
college students have the privilege to enroll in any states colleges and state
universities without paying the tuition and other fees. Are you in favor that no matter
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what the financial status – upper class, middle class, and lower class – of the student
will be given the same privilege?
John Rawls is one of the important political philosophers during the 20th
century. His main work is A Theory of Justice published in 1971. This work has
addressed some of the social issues especially in the name of the justice between
the state and the citizens and among the citizens. He received his academic training
at Princeton University, and later part of his career he became a philosophy
professor at Harvard University.
Rawl‘s proposes justice as fairness as an ethical framework. This framework
focuses on how justice should be distributed that would yield fairness for those who
have more and those who have less. The term fairness were not o equality but as
equity.
There are different definitions of justice just as there are different thinkers in
their respective field of specialization. Plato defines justice as harmony where the
three groups of people in the society working together for their common goal. The
justice of Rawls embraces not only sociological dimension but includes political and
socio economics as well. In fact, for Rawls, he understands justice where there is
fairness among members of the society with the goal of promoting their common
good.
The two principles are as followed:
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of
equal basic liberties
compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for
others.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are
both:
(a) Reasonably expected to be to everyone‘s advantages
(b) Attached to positions and office open to all.
Specific Objectives:
1.
Explain why there is a need for fairness and justice
2. Discuss the different distributive justices
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Lesson Outline
The Nature of the Theory
A common view about a just society is that every member treats each other in
a just way. We want to treat others justly and we want to treat us other exactly the
same way too. John Rawls has in mind about an ideal and just society where there is
justice, but in different philosophical nuances. By the way for Rawls, justice is the first
virtue of a social institution, and therefore it is expected that he would always think of
a society exercising justice.
Before he speaks what is a just society, he would first lay the foundation of a
social order. Just like any political philosophers, he would consider order as first thing
first. He would talk about social order where there are rules and sanctions that put
social affairs into place. He would underscore that rules in social order should be
construed as our moral obligation is to obey.
Rawls has his theory‘s beginning in the original position. He wants to put
things in place where he creates a favorable condition for justice to exist. It is an
imaginary idea to speak about this position but it is important and the basis of
justifying his belief. The world‘s situation is unjust when one thinks or unjust rules. He
endorses the anonymity condition and rejects the moral relevance of threat
advantage.
The two elements can be summed into what he calls the veil of ignorance.
Why he needs to endorse the anonymity condition it is because we cannot but doubt
that the rules are created with partiality. In this anonymity condition, one knows
nothing about the particular individual each represents, about that citizen‘s gender,
skin, color, natural endowments, temperament, interests, tastes, and references.
So if one wants to accept a social order that is just, and then see to it that the
object of agreement is fair, that is, that social order takes into account the interest of
all members of such society equally.
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Distributive Justice
There different theories of justices and Rawls speak of justice as distributive.
The meaning of distributive justice is that everyone on the society has to share both
the burden and the benefit of whatever the society offers.
Egalitarian Distributive Justice
As egalitarian, one is concerned with a just distribution in terms of receiving
an equal share.
2 kind of Distributive Justice under Egalitarianism
1. Political Egalitarianism – where legal rights of every citizens observed.
2. Economic Egalitarianism – where the distribution of socioeconomic goods is
quality observed.
Capitalist Distributive Justice
As a capitalist, one is concerned with a just contribution in terms of receiving
one‘s share according to how much one contributes to the over-all success of the
goal of the institution where one is employed. The term proportion is useful here. One
receives one‘s share according to the proportion of one‘s contribution.
If one
contributes more, one receives more. If one contributes less, one receives less.
Social Distributive Justice
As a socialist, one is concerned with just a distribution in terms of one‘s need.
We have various needs in life, and if we want to achieve those needs, we need to
work hard according to the amount of needs we have. If one has a greater needs,
then one expect that his share is greater in the distribution scheme, and vice versa.
This view of distributive justice would seek the level of playing field of every member
of the society where all of them have natural inequalities. These inequalities refer to
those inequalities in our initial endowment in life.
The State and Citizens: Responsibilities to each other: The Principle of
Taxation and Inclusive Growth
We all exist under a particular state in the Philippines, and the state has the
power to collect taxes from its citizens. As citizens, we have the obligation to support
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its existence through monetary contribution. It stated in the 1987 constitution, Article
X ―LOCAL GOVERNMENT‖, Section V that ―Each local government unit shall have
the power to create its own source of revenues and levy taxes, fees and charges
subject to such guidelines and limitations as the Congress may provide, consistent
with the basic policy of local autonomy. Such taxes, fees, and charges shall accrue
exclusively to the local government.”
The state possesses inherent powers wherein the government van issue a
command for survival of the people, and at the same time, maintain order and peace
in the land. One the inherent power is the taxation power, and the other powers are
police and eminent domain. The reason why the state possesses such power is to let
the people contribute monetarily in order to support the cost of the government, its
existence, and its other project for the betterment of the whole populace.
The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties. As to necessity, the
government should collect the amount of its money from the populace for it existence
and its expenses. There can be no government without the monetary aspect for its
operation. As to reciprocal duties, we see how the state and the citizens have
responsibilities towards each other. This responsibility springs from the concept of
right and duties. The range of the definition of the terms rights and the duties is wide,
but let settle their prima facie definitions.
The Benefits-Received Principle
The principle of benefit-received is not without problem. All of us are paying
taxes to the government both direct and indirect, that is, from economic perspective.
For employed citizen a portion of your income is deducted and paid directly to the
Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), it is called direct tax. When money is collected
form a business entity, it Is call indirect tax.
The point of raising this matter is for us to understand that all of us are paying
taxes to the government. In return we expect better service from them. Now, the
problem of the principle of benefit-receive is this. We have the mentality that when
we pay some amount, we also expect that the benefit we are going to receive must
also be of the same amount.
The Role of Economics and Inclusive Growth
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Now, let us get familiarized with basic concept of economics. Economics is
focused on the scarce resource that every member of the society id facing. The role
of the economist is to come up with a plan on how to produce them abundantly so
that can enjoy and benefit from it.
The goal of every economic growth is to increase the production of scarce
resources so that every people‘s well-being shall be sustained. This happen only
when the resources are well distributed from the macro-level, which is the (economic
growth from regional, national, and international level), down to micro-level, which is
(economic growth from the personal level that addresses their aspirations,
capabilities, productivities, and opportunities). In short, the economic growth under
inclusive growth must create opportunities for all people in different levels of the
societies, and the resource distributed to them accordingly.
Assessment
1. Share your experience that you felt so unfair and tell why you think so.
2. Base on your answer in number 1, state the importance of fairness and
justice.
3. Enumerate the different distributive justice and briefly discuss each.
Chapter Summary

Virtue ethics is the general term for theories that put emphasis on the role of
character and virtue in living one‘s life rather than in doing ones duty or acting
to bring about the consequences.

Aristotle declared that a virtuous person is someone who has ideal character
traits.

Telos means all our human action will lead to our desired end and for
Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, the end is something that is good.

The finality of the object of human action has two views – the dominant or
monistic view and the inclusivist‘s view.

Aristotle explicates about the acquisition of character excellence by
habituation (ethismos).

For Aristotle, all human acts that we undertake must have to have the
ultimate telos or end. He is referring to happiness or in Greek Eudaimonia as
the supreme good.
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
St. Thomas Aquinas links the two laws (natural and eternal) he shows that it
has theological underpinning because his philosophy is theistic or belief in
God as the highest of all beings and the highest of all goods.

The proximate norm of morality is patterned after the divine reason called
eternal law that is established by God from all eternity.

The four cardinal virtues are: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.

Kant claims that the only good without qualification is the good will.

Good will for Kant, is an indispensable condition in order to achieve the
rightness of act.

For Kant, moral commands are always categorical and not hypothetical.

In speaking about categorical, it is all about ought, that is to say, one is ought
to do the moral law in the absence of conditions since it is simply done out of
duty.

The procedure for determining whether a proposed action violates categorical
imperatives are: formulate the maxim; generalize the maxim into a law of
nature, and figure out the Perturbed Social World (PSW)

For the maxim to be acceptable, the Kantian evaluation rule states that we
must be able to answer yes to both questions: (could I rationally act on my
maxim in the PSW? And could I rationally choose the PSW as one in which I
would be a member?)

There are two kinds of rights, the legal and moral rights.

The theory of utilitarianism, sometimes called Consequentialism, focuses on
the effect of a particular end or telos called happiness.

For utilitarianism the basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is
in its consequences they produced.

The second point is what matters in every act that we do would be the
amount of pleasure produced.

The third point, which is the happiness experienced by every person is
counted the same.

Cost-benefit amount of money spent versus amount of benefit or drawbacks.
If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent, then it is not worth it. Therefore
it is pain it is commonly used only as means for making decisions such as
major investments and on matters of public policy.

If one wants to accept a social order that is just, and then see to it that the
object of agreement is fair, that is, that social order takes into account the
interest of all members of such society equally.
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SUMMATIVE TEST
Name: ________________________________
Date: ___________________
Corse Year & Section: ___________________
Score: ___________________
A. Virtue Ethics
General Direction: identify which among the keywords is being described in
each statements. Write your answer on the space provided.
Character, dominant view, telos, virtuous life,
Good, eudaimonia, God, virtue, mean
__________ 1.
It refers to desire ends of human act.
__________ 2.
It is what moral human beings want to achieve in the
performance of the act.
__________ 3.
It is a view in which all series in human acts, that is, before
doing the final act as the ultimate end of the moral agent, are considered
subordinate.
__________ 4.
It is considered as self-sufficient good where lack and
imperfection are not part of its essence.
__________ 5.
It is the development of personality that resulted in application
of virtues.
__________ 6.
It is achieved through frequent act until it becomes part of
one‘s system of action.
__________ 7.
It refers to those good habits that have something to do with
the rightness and wrongness of action.
__________ 8.
It is a doctrine that teaches moderation – not too much and not
too little.
__________ 9.
It is the supreme good of Aristotle.
__________ 10.
It is a state of life where moral agents perfect those good acts.
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B. St. Thomas Aquinas
Ecclesiastical law, eternal law, natural law, civil law, irrational creatures, Justice
God, temperance, conscience, participation
__________ 1.
He is the highest being and the highest good.
__________ 2.
It is a law found within us as God‘s rational creatures.
__________ 3.
It refer to those things without rationality and freedom that also
governed by a Natural law.
__________ 4.
It is the divine plan of God for his creatures.
__________ 5.
It is our divine vocation to realign our moral life and thinking
with the will of God.
__________ 6.
It is a law enacted and promulgated by the lawmakers of the
land.
__________ 7.
It is the law enacted and promulgated by the religious people
regarding faith and moral.
__________ 8.
It is the proximate norm of morality.
__________ 9.
It is an exercise of the will to give or render the things, be it
intellectual or material, to one who owns it.
__________ 10.
It is an exercise of control in the midst of strong attraction to
pleasure.
C. Kant and Right Theories
Formula of humanity, legal right, Universalizability, freedom and rationality,
Good will, the respect person, categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative,
Duty ethics, means
__________ 1.
It is the highest good without qualification.
__________ 2.
We treat each other not simply as means but as means and
end as well.
__________ 3.
It is an imperative about fulfilling the moral law in the absence
of conditions because it is done out of duty.
105
__________ 4.
It is a principle about how we treat other people not as merely
means.
__________ 5.
It is a principle we apply to certain human act whether it has
the capacity of becoming a universal law.
__________ 6.
It is an imperative the presence of condition becomes a
prerequisite in carrying the moral law.
__________ 7.
It is a kind of right one possessed by simply being a citizen of
particular country.
__________ 8.
They are features that makes human beings moral entities.
__________ 9.
This framework focuses on the agent with no motivation to do
morally good out of duty.
__________ 10.
For Kant, any act that is good happen only when we deal with
other people not as merely _______.
D. Utilitarianism
Consequence, David Hume, Introduction to the Principle of Morals and
Legislation,
Cost-Benefit Analysis, Jeremy Bentham, A Fragment on Government, Immoral
Act,
Happiness, Extension, Felicific Calculus
__________ 1.
He was the first philosopher who proposed the idea of
utilitarianism.
__________ 2.
He was the founder of utilitarianism.
__________ 3.
It is the telos or end of every act under the theory of
utilitarianism.
__________ 4.
It is the basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong.
__________ 5.
It is a method of calculating and measuring happiness and
pain.
__________ 6.
It is the result of the amount of happiness less than the amount
of pain.
__________ 7.
It refers to the extent of pleasure and pain spread throughout
the populace.
__________ 8.
It is the alternative used by economist to measuring things in
terms of it quantity and quality.
106
__________ 9-10
Jeremy Bentham‘s famous work related to moral philosophy.
E. Justice and Fairness
Principle of Difference, Justice, Principle of Equality, Original Position, Veil of
Ignorance,
Political Egalitarianism, economic egalitarianism, Socialist Distributive Justice,
Capitalist Distributive Justice, Taxation Power
__________ 1.
It is a principle that shapes the decision making of the political
institution.
__________ 2.
It is the first virtue of a social institution.
__________ 3.
It is a principle that influenced by the socioeconomic institution.
__________ 4.
It creates a favorable condition for justice to exist.
__________ 5.
It creates a just condition where there is no threat advantage to
anyone.
__________ 6.
It is a kind of egalitarianism where legal rights of every citizen
are equally observed.
__________ 7.
It is a kind of egalitarianism where the distribution of
socioeconomic goods are equally observed.
__________ 8.
It is a kind of justice that concerns with a just distribution in
terms of receiving one‘s need.
__________ 9.
It is a kind of justice that concerns with a just distribution in
terms of receiving one‘s share according to how much one contribute to the over-all
success.
__________ 10.
It is the power of the people contributes monetarily to support
the cost of the government.
107
References
Articulo & Florendo. 2003. Values and Work Ethics. Philippines: Trinitas Publishing,
Inc.
Ramirez & Tongson-Beltran. 2004. Man, Values, and Work Ethics. Philippines:
Trinitas Publishing, Inc.
Babor. 1999. ETHICS: The Philosophical Discipline of Action First Edition. Manila:
Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Babor. 1997. Man in his Nature and Condition. Quezon City: Printon Press.
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