CASE STUDY 1: DISENTANGLING THE INTERCONNECTED
LEGAL AND ILLEGAL MARKET FOR BEAR BILE PRODUCTS IN
CHINA
Oxford Researcher: Dr Amy Hinsley
There is extensive debate over the use of legal, farmed wildlife products to reduce demand for
wild products, and the case of bear bile farming in China has been particularly controversial.
This case-study sought to better understand the current market for farmed and wild bear bile by
carrying out in-depth research into the behaviour and motivations of the people who consume,
sell, and prescribe bear bile in China. From 2018-2020, we used large-scale surveys with
members of the public, interviews with Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) doctors and
pharmacy workers, and in-depth surveys with bear bile consumers to investigate their
preferences for different products.
Specific project objectives included:
 Finding out
how many people use bear bile and why they use it, using information
form consumers, doctors and vendors of bile in the main cities of four Chinese
provinces. More information available soon (Open Access):
 Hinsley,
A., Hu, S., Chen, H., Garshelis, D. , Hoffmann, M., Lee, T.M.,
Moyle, B. , Qiu, Y., Ruan, X. Wan, A.K.Y., Zhou, J. , and Milner-Gulland,
E.J. Combining data from consumers and traditional medicine practitioners
to provide a more complete picture of Chinese bear bile markets. People
and Nature (in press).
 Understanding how
and why people make the decision to ‘switch’ between wild,
farmed and synthetic bear bile.
 The main
output will be an open access paper looking at consumer
preferences for different bear bile products amongst real bear bile
consumers (currently submitted and in review).
 Producing recommendations
bear bile farming in China.
based on our findings to inform policy related to
 Our main
output will be a report, responding to an IUCN World
Conservation Congress Recommendation, that called for more evidence on
the consumption and trade of bear bile in China (currently in prep).

2021 Public survey team
An additional objective was added in early 2021, when we ran a follow-up project
(funded by a DEFRA IWT Challenge Fund Rapid Response COVID-19 grant) to
determine the best strategies for reducing illegal wildlife use in TCM post-COVID19. Using our original study as a baseline, we looked at whether bear bile and other
animal-based medicine consumption had changed during the COVID-19 pandemic
in China, and held co-design workshops with consumers, TCM doctors and
pharmacy workers to design evidence-based strategies to reduce demand for wild
bear bile and other illegal wildlife-based medicines.
 The main
outputs will be open access scientific papers and a policy brief
in Chinese, that has been shared and discussed with policymakers in China.
We will shortly translate this into English.
Collaborators: Professor Tien Ming Lee (Sun Yat Sen University), Dr Mike Hoffman (IUCN
SSC), Dr Xiangdong Ruan (Academy of Forest Inventory and Planning, National Forestry and
Grassland Administration), Dr Dave Garshelis (IUCN SSC Bear Specialist Group), Mr Yingjie
Qiu (China Association of TCM), Dr Brendan Moyle (Massey University)
Collaborating organisations: IUCN Bear Specialist Group, Massey University, Sun Yat-Sen
University, , Academy of Forest Inventory and Planning, National Forestry and Grassland
Administration, China Association of TCM
Thanks to the generous support of:
The Oxford Martin School and the DEFRA IWT Challenge Fund
CASE STUDY 7: TACKLING NON-COMPLIANCE IN A SMALLSCALE FISHERY IN CHILE
Oxford Researcher: Rodrigo Oyanedel
Reducing non-compliance is key to sustaining the ecological, social and economic ecosystem
services that natural resources provide. The impacts of non-compliance are especially acute in
small-scale resource users, which usually involve poor management and limited enforcement
capacity. In the context of fisheries, small-scale fishing non-compliance has been linked to the
collapse of fishing stocks and habitat destruction. Dealing with non-compliance is thus
necessary, particularly as small-scale communities are often highly dependent on natural
resources as a source of livelihood. Reducing non-compliance in small-scale users is therefore a
key challenge for conserving biodiversity worldwide while maintaining livelihood.
Small scale fishers in Chile
This is an issue of great importance in Chile. It is one of the largest producers of marine products
in the world, with average landings of 3.1 million tonnes between 2005-2014. Fisheries
management in Chile, although progressive in the application of innovative and science-based
schemes, suffers from chronic non-compliance. Increasing compliance in Chile’s fisheries is
urgent for improving the sustainability of the sector and maintaining small-scale fishers
livelihoods. Furthermore, lessons from this case-study can be used to advance our understanding
of non-compliance issues in small-scale resource use more broadly.
For this case-study, we have:
 Reviewed
different approaches and theories that could be used to understand non-
compliance. We focused on how to integrate two main approaches for studying
non-compliance. These are the actor based-approach that address the underlying
motivations for people to comply or not with regulations and the opportunity-based
approach that focuses on the role that the immediate environment plays in the
performance of non-compliant behaviours. Read more here:
 Oyanedel,
R, Gelcich, S, Milner-Gulland, EJ. A synthesis of (non-
)compliance theories with applications to small-scale fisheries research and
practice. Fish
Fish. 2020; 21: 1120– 1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12490
 We then
looked in more depth into small-scale fishers’ motivations for
compliance with different rules in the common-hake case study. Using a
framework originally developed for forestry, we found that a diversity of
motivations (normative, instrumental and legitimacy-based) helps to explain
fishers’ varied responses to rules and regulations. Read more here:
 Oyanedel,
R, Gelcich, S, Milner-Gulland, EJ. Motivations for (non-
)compliance with conservation rules by small-scale resource
users. Conservation
Letters. 2020; 13:e12725. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12725
 We also
developed a framework to assess and intervene in unsustainable natural
resource supply-chain and markets. We showcased the utility of the framework in a
data-limited small-scale common hake fishery. Our mixed-methodanalysis
provided relevant, tailored management recommendations for improving
sustainability. Tackling markets driving unsustainable wildlife use needs integrated
approaches that bring together the diversity of factors affecting wildlife market
dynamics. Read more here (email us for a copy):
 Oyanedel
R., Gelcich S., Milner-Gulland E.J. (2021) A framework for
assessing and intervening in markets driving unsustainable wildlife use,
Science of The Total Environment. Volume 792,
148328, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148328
Framework for assessing and intervening in markets driving unsustainable wildlife use
Currently, we are working on the development of a model to analyse enforcement data in Chile,
to assess whether this source of information can provide insights into where illegality might
concentrate, by disentangling co-founding factors and biases. We hope that this line of work will
inform how to use this type of data in marine systems and beyond.
Blog coverage:
 In
English: Let people speak
 In
Spanish: Deja que la gente hable
Collaborator: Stefan Gelcich
Collaborating organisation: Universidad Catolica de Chile
PREVIOUS CASE STUDIES
CASE STUDY 2: CONSUMER RELATIONSHIPS WITH IVORY
AND RHINO HORN AS LUXURY PRODUCTS IN VIETNAM
Oxford Researcher: Dr Vian Sharif
While in the past the main markets for rhino horn and ivory were thought to be in China, it is
now widely traded in Viet Nam, with rhino horn having luxury status as a health tonic for
wealthy businessmen, while both are sold as artefacts such as bangles and carved pieces. Despite
substantial investment of time and resources into tackling the demand for wildlife products in
Viet Nam, there is still a lack of evidence of the effectiveness of different approaches, and
limited understanding of the demographics and motivations of consumers.
The case study fills this gap, answering the following questions, using methods from marketing
research to understand particularly the role of wildlife products as luxury brands:
 What
is the prevalence of consumption of rhino horn and ivory within an urban
affluent demographic group, and through online sales?
 What
relationships do people have with rhino horn and ivory, compared to other
luxury products?
 What
specific interventions are best suited to changing consumer behaviour?
Collaborator: Dr Andreas Eisengerich
Collaborating organisation: Imperial College London
CASE STUDY 3: A CUTTING-EDGE AND EVIDENCE-BASED
BEHAVIOUR CHANGE INTERVENTION ON SAIGA HORN IN
SINGAPORE
Oxford Researchers: Dr Hunter Doughty, Dr Diogo Veríssimo, Dr Joss Wright
Saiga horn based TCM product used for fever and heatiness
A plethora of demand reduction efforts on wildlife trade products are carried out each year
across the globe, however, shortcomings in interventions attempting to change consumers’
behaviour have been widely noted. In other disciplines like public health though, behaviour
change interventions have been extensively implemented and offer useful insights for increasing
the success of wildlife trade interventions. As such, we designed, implemented, and evaluated an
evidence-based behaviour change intervention that applies robust approaches from outside of
conservation science. We targeted saiga horn (marketed as líng yáng, 羚羊) usage in Singapore.
The saiga (Saiga tatarica) is a Critically Endangered antelope from Central Asia whose horn is
used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat fever and heatiness (a TCM state of illness
with symptoms like cough). We accomplished this work through four stages:
 By conducting extensive
consumer research, we found that not only is saiga horn
commonly used in Singapore, but many Chinese Singaporeans consider saiga horn
the product option they use most often for treating fever and heatiness. Further
findings showed that middle-aged Chinese Singaporean women were an ideal
target for an intervention. Read more here (open access):
H
Doughty, D Veríssimo, R Tan, JSH Lee, LR Carrasco, K Oliver, EJ
Milner-Gulland (2019). Saiga horn user characteristics, motivations, and
purchasing behaviour in Singapore. PLOS ONE.
DOI: 1371/journal.pone.0222038.
 By weaving together
empirical evidence and human behaviour theory, we have
not only identified key influences to leverage on our target audience – i.e., middleaged Chinese Singaporean women, but also provided a reproducible process for
others to design their own interventions. Read more here (open access):
H
Doughty, K Oliver, D Veríssimo, JSH Lee, EJ Milner-Gulland (2021).
Using theory and evidence to design behaviour change interventions for
reducing unsustainable wildlife consumption. People and
Nature. https://bit.ly/3qns4hD.
 By using
cutting-edge techniques around targeted online advertisements, news
coverage, and repeat message exposure, our intervention yielded widespread
positive engagement among our target audience. Read more here (open access):
H
Doughty, J Wright, D Veríssimo, JSH Lee, EJ Milner-Gulland (2020).
Strategic advertising of online news articles as an intervention to influence
wildlife product consumers. Conservation Science and Practice.
DOI: 1111/csp2.272.
 By conducting a multi-pronged
evaluation, we revealed that our highly pervasive
online intervention resulted in measurable offline behavioural impacts on middleaged Chinese Singaporean women’s usage of saiga horn. Read more here (open
access):
H
Doughty, EJ Milner-Gulland, JSH Lee, K Oliver, LR Carrasco, D
Veríssimo (2021). Evaluating a large-scale online behaviour change
intervention aimed at wildlife product consumers in Singapore.
DOI: 1371/journal.pone.0248144.
Dr Hunter Doughty and her Singaporean research assistants
Other outputs and mainstream outreach associated with this case study include:
 Policy Brief
– Resulting brief of Doughty et al. (2019) used for the 2019 CITES
Conference of the Parties. DOI:10.31235/osf.io/sjqpu, (brief was discussed by
delegates during saiga up-listing discourse)
 Selected Blog
Article – Harnessing online tools to save a
species (2020), https://bit.ly/3mP08SC
 Selected Talk
– Using strategic advertising of online news articles to influence
wildlife trade consumers (2020) https://bit.ly/3o58ANA
Collaborators: Dr Janice Lee, Dr Roman Carrasco, Dr Kathryn Oliver
Collaborating organisations: Nanyang Technological University, National University
Singapore, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
CASE STUDY 4: EXPLORING THE EFFECTIVE USE OF
CELEBRITIES IN WILDLIFE DEMAND REDUCTION: PANGOLIN
MEAT CONSUMPTION REDUCTION IN HO CHI MINH CITY,
VIETNAM
Oxford Researchers: Alegria Olmedo, Dr Dan Challender, Dr Diogo Veríssimo
Celebrities are often used to influence the public to change their awareness of, attitudes or
behaviour towards illegal wildlife products. However, there is limited evidence about how
effective this is, and there has been no evaluation of how to design such campaigns to maximise
their impact. This case study seeks to provide an evidence base on how best to use celebrities to
deliver messages on the illegal wildlife trade, drawing on empirical evidence from in
conservation and other fields. This case study seeks to provide an evidence base on how best to
use celebrities to deliver messages on the illegal wildlife trade, focusing on reducing pangolin
meat consumption in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. For further details, see the Pangolin Project
Briefing Document.
Specific project objectives include:
 Creating
a knowledge base on the use of celebrity endorsement in environmental
campaigns generally, the extent to which these have been evaluated and assess
whether there is evidence for celebrity endorsement effectiveness. Read more
below (Open Access):
 Olmedo,
A., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Challender, D.W.S., Cugnière, L., et al.
(2020). A scoping review of celebrity endorsement in environmental
campaigns and evidence for its effectiveness. Conservation Science and
Practice, 2 (10), 65–15.
 Obtaining evidence of
the prevalence of pangolin consumption in Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam, to build understanding on the study system in which we will test
celebrity effectiveness. Read more below (Open Access):
 Olmedo,
A., Veríssimo, D., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Hinsley, A., Dao,
H.T.T., Challender, D.W.S. (2021). Uncovering Prevalence of Pangolin
Consumption Using a Technique for Investigating Sensitive
Behaviour. Oryx.
Consumption prevalence results of pangolin meat, scales and wine elicited from the Unmatched Count Technique,
compared to answers from direct questions
 Identifying
and characterising different pangolin meat consumer groups,
determining potential alternatives for wild meat and whether celebrities can be
effective influencers of this behaviour. Read more below (Open Access):
 Olmedo,
A., Veríssimo, D., Challender, D.W.S., Dao, H.T.T., Milner-
Gulland, E.J. (2021). “Who Eats Wild Meat? Profiling Consumers in Ho
Chi Minh City, Vietnam.” People and Nature.
 Developing a
guide for decision-making in conservation interventions that seek to
change consumption of illegally traded wildlife using celebrity endorsement; and
applying this guide to develop a celebrity-endorsed intervention to reduce pangolin
meat consumption in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Coming soon!
 Examining the
impact of commercial captive breeding of pangolins on pangolin
conservation.
 Challender,
DWS., ’t Sas-Rolfes, et al. (2019). Evaluating the feasibility
of pangolin farming and its potential conservation impact. Global Ecology
and Conservation e00714.
 ’t
Sas-Rolfes, M., Challender, DWS. (2020). Evaluating the impact of
pangolin farming on conservation. In: Challender, DWS., Nash, H.,
Waterman, C. (Eds.). Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation.
Academic Press, London, UK, San Diego, CA, US, pp.517-527.
 Investigating
and documenting the online trade in pangolins focussing on
Vietnam and China. Coming soon!
Other research outputs associated with this project:
 Olmedo,
A., Davis, E., & Hinsley, A. (2019). Asking sensitive questions in
conservation using the Unmatched Count Technique.
And a selection of media outputs:
 Poaching is
sending the shy, elusive pangolin to its doom. National Geographic.
June 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/2019/06/poachingsending-shy-elusive-pangolin-its-doom.
 Pangolins
found to carry viruses related to COVID-19. BBC News. March
2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-52048195.
 Pangolins
and Coronavirus. Guest on The John Darwall Show, BBC Radio
Bristol. March 2020.
 Trafficked
pangolins can carry coronaviruses closely related to pandemic strain.
National Geographic. March
2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/pangolins-coronaviruscovid-possibility.
 TRT
World Roundtable. Celebrity Activism: Does it make a difference?
September 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bWs7GEoyfOw&t=141s.
 Olmedo,
A., Challender, D., Veríssimo, D. Do celebrity endorsements really help
environmental campaigns? We found no evidence. September 2020. The
Conversation: https://theconversation.com/do-celebrity-endorsements-really-helpenvironmental-campaigns-we-found-no-evidence-145481.
 Pangolin
scale seizures at all-time high in 2019, showing illegal trade still
booming: September
2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/pangolin-scaleseizures-all-time-high-2019.
From left to right: Huong Thi Thu Dao, Research Coordinator from Save Vietnam’s Wildlife, Alegria
Olmedo and her Vietnamese research assistants
Collaborators: Thai Van Nguyen, Elizabeth Duthie, Tien Ming Lee, Carly Waterman
Collaborating organisations: Save Vietnam’s Wildlife, Fauna & Flora International, Sun-Yat
Sen University, Zoological Society of London
Thanks to the generous support of:
The National Geographic Society and the Oxford Martin School