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7PE592 - Curriculum Design and Development - Units
1-3
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Welcome
Curriculum is a contested and often misunderstood concept. Curriculum derives from the Latin word
meaning 'racecourse' or 'race' and has come to mean a general course; conveying the notion of going
somewhere in a predefined direction. Curriculum study has become more popular in the UK in all four
jurisdictions of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England as policy makers and Ofsted are
examining the curriculum in greater detail and viewing teachers as curriculum designers and makers.
Read more on the GOV.UK website.
Curriculum planning is fundamentally a political process. This module will support you to think deeply
about the purpose of school; who gets to define what is valuable and powerful knowledge. Some
believe that content should be chosen to meet children's needs and/or interests. Others suggest that
there are bodies of knowledge that have intrinsic value or help us access society's conversation, and
which should be taught to all children. For example, social realists such as Young and Muller (2010)
believe that children will be disadvantaged if they are not taught knowledge from the academic
disciplines (which are recognised bodies of knowledge developed over generations by scholars using
rigorous methods). These and other debates will form part of this learning for the module. We will of
course consider those ubiquitous skills often labelled 21st Century skills and consider what we mean
by this term. Different models of curriculum design will be examined and how pedagogy and
assessment will need to form part of the design process. We will examine the concept of a national
curriculum and compare this to other curriculums you may be working within. And finally examine
change theory and the who, when and how we adapt and change a curriculum.
These issues will be explored further in subsequent units.
On successful completion of this module, students will be able to:
Evaluate a range of learning, teaching and assessment practices which help support progress
for all learners.
Analyse theory and research in order to advance subject and pedagogical knowledge.
Assessment
Formative assessment
Formative assessments and activities are opportunities for you to apply, practice and make sense of
the learning materials and content that you have worked with. These will mainly be in the End of Unit
Activities.
These may take the form of individual tasks, such as: reading some text, or watching a video and
documenting your reaction to it; responding to some discussion points on the discussion forum;
considering a case study; or, participating in a live online webinar.
The main aim of formative activities is for you to receive feedback on your contribution, performance,
or progress that will help you prepare for and complete your final summative module assessment.
All modules you take will vary in several ways, and the type of feedback you get for each formative
assessment or activities will vary too.
Summative assessment
Report: 4,000 words (+/-10%)
(100% coursework)
Unit 1 concept of curriculum
Educational practitioners are all familiar with the term 'curriculum', yet the task of defining the concept
of a curriculum is extremely difficult because it has taken on several quite different meanings over
time. Take the following two quotes from Boyle and Charles:
The intention of the curriculum is that it provides a breadth of structured learning
opportunities and experiences which will support the progressive and measurable
development of pupils within that range of differential pace of assimilation, understanding
and challenge found in the complexity of a school situation.
Boyle and Charles (2016 p.1)
And yet, 'the idea that the curriculum is designed to preserve certain interests provides the
basis for a realistic assessment of the barriers to curriculum change and the extent to
which changes are resisted for ideological as well as educational reasons.
Boyle & Charles (2016 p.13)
It stands to reason then, that an organisation must state the philosophical and ideological aims that
underpin the design of the curriculum and the content offered within it.
It is critically important that you know where you stand.
Lofthouse (1995, p. 9)
Definitions can vary enormously in both their breadth and their emphasis. Here are several examples
taken from Marsh and Willis (2003):
Please select the titles from the drop-down below to read more information relating to each definition.
Definition 1
The curriculum is such 'permanent' subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics and the
greatest books of the Western world that best embody essential knowledge.
Definition 2
The curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.
Definition 3
The curriculum is all planned learning for which the school is responsible.
Definition 4
The curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school.
Definition 5
The curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that they can attain
general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites.
Definition 6
The curriculum is what the student constructs from working with a computer and its various networks,
such as the internet.
Definition 7
The curriculum is the questioning of authority and the search for complex views on human situations.
Definition 8
The curriculum is anything and everything that affects the intended learning.
Activity 1.1 defining a curriculum
Look at the policy on curriculum you have at your institution. What does it tell you about the ideological
principles upon which the curriculum is designed? If you follow the IB or a national curriculum from a
different country, why is that? What kind of learners are you trying to develop? Write your answer in
the discussion board 'Activity 1.1: Defining a Curriculum'. Aim to write between 200-300 words and
comment on at least one other post.
Defining a curriculum
Defining the term 'curriculum' to everyone's satisfaction is probably an impossible task. However,
practitioners need to agree on some sort of working definition, and it would seem prudent that it
should meet two criteria: it should reflect the general understanding of the term as used by educators
and it should be useful to educators in making operational sense of the design, development,
implementation and evaluation of a curriculum.
Some practitioners still equate a curriculum with a list of courses or subjects and concern themselves
only with the content or body of knowledge they wish to communicate. This dimension of planning is,
of course, important, though it is rather limiting; as a result, curriculum planning tends to proceed in a
piecemeal way within the subjects, rather than according to any overall rationale.
Schools should plan their curriculum as a whole. [It] should not be simply a collection of
separate subjects. At the very least, the total curriculum must be accorded prior
consideration, and a major task that currently faces teachers and curriculum planners is to
work out a basis on which some total scheme can be built.
Kelly (2009, p.9)
A curriculum must, therefore, go much further than a statement of the subjects and content that an
institute is to deliver. It must include the purpose of the content, the means by which it might be
delivered, the resources that will be required and the learning environment(s) in which it will take
effect.
Kelly (2009) indicates that the curriculum comprises several elements that together make up the 'total
curriculum'.
Figure 1.1: Curriculum elements
Image source: Adapted from Kelly (2009)
Types of curricula
Using the drop-down below, please select each title to read more about the types of curricula.
The official curriculum
The official curriculum is the intended curriculum as devised by those responsible for its design and
development, for example, the government, the Department for Education, local education authorities,
Ofsted, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA), individual institutes of education
and private-sector training departments. It is the learning (and learning experience) that is meant to
take place and that which is laid down in syllabuses and prospectuses.
The taught curriculum
The taught curriculum is the learning that actually takes place and is the reality of the learning
experience. It would ideally be the same as the official curriculum, but, more often than not, it differs
(for a variety of reasons). It is what teachers actually teach, as opposed to what they are supposed to
teach.
The disparity between the official and taught curricula may be deliberate or unintentional.
When teachers have beliefs and values that conflict with those that underpin aspects of the official
curriculum, that tension may be reflected in differences between the official and the taught curriculum.
This inevitably relates to questions about the professional role and duties of the teacher (and about
the extent to which agents outside the classroom should be able to dictate what is taught).
The learned curriculum
This is what students actually take away from the classroom. It is the words, sounds, images, ideas,
themes, etc. that make it into the students' minds and memories. For a number of reasons, they may
not learn everything they are taught. This may stem from a teacher's inability to achieve certain
learning outcomes, a student's lack of readiness to grasp key concepts or flaws in the learning
experience itself such as poor attendance, inadequate learning facilities, a lack of resources, teaching
to the assessment (i.e. when teaching is heavily focused on preparing students to pass the exams).
The tested curriculum
The tested curriculum consists of that portion of the curriculum over which a student is tested. It may
fall short of the curriculum, either by design or due to the inability of test instruments to measure the
full range of learning outcomes. As a result, teachers may emphasise the tested curriculum to the
detriment of the rest of the curriculum. The tested curriculum sometimes becomes an inaccurate
measure of the school's success. Teachers are often encouraged to teach to the objectives of the test,
rather than to the objectives of curriculum standards.
The hidden curriculum
The hidden curriculum entails the range of things (for example attitudes, opinions and values) that
pupils learn not from the formal curriculum but simply from the experience of being in school. These
derive from the implicit messages conveyed through the structure and organisation of the institution,
the relationships between teachers and pupils, the disciplinary regime, the assessment system and
the various subcultures that exist.
The hidden curriculum may come about by design or by accident and may have a positive or negative
influence on learners. Some would say that the hidden curriculum transmits the true ideals and goals
of the institution, and this may be dangerous because often we do not know that it exists.
Now watch the video below on the hidden curriculum:
The Hidden Curriculum
The Hidden Curriculum - http://youtu.be/eY2hpAOJTRQ (Drmathkat 2011)
Activity 1.2 the hidden curriculum
Consider the video clip below and answer the following questions:
The Hidden Curriculum
The Hidden Curriculum - http://youtu.be/eY2hpAOJTRQ
To what extent do you think the hidden curriculum plays a part in your setting? Is it possible to identify
it in advance (and therefore control it)?
Post your thoughts on the Unit 1 Discussion Board thread 'Activity 1.2: The Hidden Curriculum'. Aim to
write between 300-400.
The null curriculum
The null curriculum is that portion of the curriculum that should be taught but, in fact, isn't. It may result
from time constraints, teacher preferences, unavailable resources, etc. It may be an unintended
outcome, or it may happen by design.
Other terms that are used interchangeably with the above include 'planned curriculum', 'written
curriculum', 'recommended curriculum', 'operational curriculum', 'actual curriculum', 'unplanned
curriculum' and 'observed curriculum'.
What is important from all this is that:
we must not lose sight of the fact that curriculum studies must ultimately be concerned with
the relationship between intention and reality and, indeed, with closing the gap between
them.
Kelly (2009 pg.12)
Formal and informal curricula
The previous section referred to the components of the formal curriculum – those activities for which
an institute schedules specific periods of teaching time. We should also acknowledge the informal,
voluntary activities that take place before and after normal hours.
These activities – breakfast clubs, sports clubs, educational visits, societies, etc. – are often called
'extra-curricular', which suggests that they are separate from the curriculum itself. However, if we were
concerned with curriculum planning, it would be wise to include this wide range of activities that
teachers plan and execute with deliberate reason. Indeed, there are some who regard such activities
as having as much educational validity as any of the formal arrangements of the institution.
Perhaps, then, the definition of a curriculum should refer to both the formal and informal learning that
takes place inside or outside the official timetable.
You may wish to think about the following: what educational validity do you place on the informal
curriculum? Can you offer any examples? These may be useful to consider as we work through this
module.
The curriculum as content
Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus: an outline and summary of the content to be
covered in an education or training course. For many, the syllabus will relate to courses leading to
examinations, and this is often expressed in the language used. For example, teachers talk of the
syllabus associated with the OCR Board English GCSE exam (a UK qualification in a specific subject
typically taken by school students aged 14–16). OCR is a leading UK awarding body that provides
qualifications that engage people of all ages and abilities at school, at college, in work or through parttime learning programmes (OCR 2022).
Syllabus documents may be simply a series of headings with some additional notes that set out the
areas that may be examined. They will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or
the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases, those who compile a syllabus tend to follow
the traditional textbook approach of an 'order of contents' or a pattern prescribed by a 'logical'
approach to the subject. Some syllabus documents will go into more detail than others – you may
want to reflect on the different documents you have seen.
Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice that focuses on the syllabus is only really
concerned with content, not with the processes and methods by which it is transmitted to students.
Where people are concerned only with content, they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration
of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. Kelly (2009) implies that this is
indeed the case with teaching (such as training and instruction) that serves some extrinsic purpose.
However, education may be viewed as a different concept that is focused on intrinsic value – an
activity that we engage in for its own sake.
The product model
The product (or behavioural) model is a common approach to developing a curriculum. It takes on a
scientific approach where objectives are set, a plan is drawn up and applied, and the outcomes
(products) are measured. In some countries, with the rise of vocationalism and the concern with
competencies, the product model has become the dominant model. For example, in the UK in the
1980s and 1990s, many of the debates about the national curriculum for schools were not so much
concerned with how the curriculum was thought about as with what its objectives and content might
be.
This has now been reformed to consider other aspects, although the dominant discourse remains.
Based predominantly around the work of Franklin Bobbitt and Ralph W. Tyler, the product model
revolves around the principle that education prepares people adequately to undertake specific
activities. Planning a curriculum therefore requires us to discover the abilities, attitudes, habits,
appreciations and forms of knowledge that people need. These then become the objectives of the
curriculum, and the curriculum will be the series of experiences that learners must have to obtain
those objectives.
In general terms, this involves paying detailed attention to what people need to know in order to work,
live their lives and so on. More-specific examples can be found in many training programmes where
tasks or jobs are analysed and are broken down into their component elements, with lists of
competencies drawn up. In other words, a curriculum is not the result of uninformed deliberation but
the product of systematic study.
In the late 1940s, the work of Ralph W. Tyler, made a lasting impression on curriculum theory and
practice. He proposed that curriculum development should follow four fundamental steps: establishing
learner needs, creating learning experiences to satisfy those needs, organising the experiences for
maximum effect and evaluating the overall process to make improvements. He also placed emphasis
on the formulation of behavioural objectives.
Since the purpose of education is to bring about changes in learners' behaviour, any statement of the
objectives of an institute should be a statement of the changes to take place in learners. This
translates into an ordered and systematic approach to curriculum theory and practice:
1. diagnose needs
2. formulate objectives
3. select content
4. organise content
5. select learning experiences
6. organise learning experiences
7. determine what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it
A potential weakness with the product model is that it may take something away from learners. They
can end up with little or no voice – they are told what they must learn and how they will learn it. They
are flooded with information, rather than 'learning how to learn'. Watch this short video and consider if
your curriculum lends itself to learner agency:
Learner Agency
Learner Agency - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4c6COG4gO1k
Activity 1.3: the product model
Identify strengths and weaknesses of the product model. Make a note of these on your Personal
Journal. Aim to write around 400-500 words. Your tutor will not necessarily comment on this: it is just
for your own notes.
Pedagogy
Pedagogy (and andragogy) is defined as the art and science of teaching. While it is mostly associated
with learning, rather than a curriculum, it is worth noting the view of the renowned curriculum theorist
Hilda Taba and her work in the 1960s. She professed that the selection of content does not address
thinking skills, attitudes or social skills. "These objectives can only be achieved by the way in which
learning experiences are planned and conducted in the classroom. How you teach is more important
than what you teach" (Taba 1962).
Taba believed that the curriculum should be developed by teachers. She produced an eight-step
model that is very similar to Tyler's.
The role of the teacher, and pedagogy, in curriculum development will be considered further in later
units.
The process model
Overview of the process model
The process model, first advanced by Stenhouse (1975), is seen by many writers as an alternative to
the product model. It concentrates on teacher activities, learner activities and the conditions in which
learning takes place.
In focusing on the nature of learning experiences, rather than specific learning outcomes, the process
model appears to emphasise means rather than ends.
However, it can be argued that the prescription of learning activities provides the appropriate means of
achieving the broad intentions of the curriculum.
Such an approach to curriculum planning may well lead to the idea that if learning activities are more
important than prescribed content, the learner should have a part in deciding the nature of those
learning activities.
The strengths and weaknesses of the model include the following:
Strengths
emphasis on the active roles of teachers and learners
emphasis on learning skills
emphasis on life skills
Weaknesses
potential neglect of consideration of appropriate content
difficulty in applying the model in some areas
Assessment
In the process model, everything is directed at improving the process of learning. This includes
assessment, which, instead of appearing at the end of the learning process (summative assessment),
becomes part of the process, appearing at all points during a programme, providing useful feedback to
teachers and learners as they go along (formative and diagnostic assessment).
Learner centred education
In England, it was the 1944 Education Act that gave every child the right to a secondary education. At
this point government actively avoided exercising more than a very loose direction over the
curriculum. As George Tomlinson, Secretary of State for Education (1947-1951), famously put it:
'Minister knows nowt about curriculum.'' State control of education was recognised as a characteristic
of totalitarian regimes. Professional autonomy over curriculum was therefore understood as part of the
social contract underpinning the increase of state involvement in education from 1944. Despite or
because of this autonomy, the curriculum tended to focus on traditional disciplines taught in traditional
ways. Learning was central, but it could be argued that at this stage the child was not.
In 1968, the Plowden Report emphasised the more experiential aspects of learning and advocated for
a curriculum that would enable this. The report noted that:
One of the most important responsibilities of teachers is to help children to see order and
pattern in experience, and to extend their ideas by analogies and by the provision of
suitable vocabulary. Rigid division of the curriculum into subjects tends to interrupt
children's trains of thought and of interest and to hinder them from realising the common
elements in problem solving. These are among the many reasons why some work, at least,
should cut across subject divisions at all stages in the primary school.
Plowden (1967), para. 535, cited in Menter (2012)
The process model can be seen as an extension of some of the principles set out by Plowden (1967).
It calls for a more learner-centred approach to education and requires a switch in role from teacher to
facilitator.
Table 1.1: Teaching or facilitating
Teaching
Facilitating
Teaching starts from the teacher's own
Facilitators start by assessing the
knowledge.
knowledge of the group.
Facilitators address issues identified
Teaching follows a pre-set curriculum.
by the group or their community and
adopt new ideas based on the needs
and culture of the group.
Teachers deliver sessions to a group
of students – usually from the front of
the room.
Facilitators use practical, participatory
methods (e.g. group discussions and
activities) in which all members of the
group participate.
Information flows in just one direction:
Information flows in many different
from teacher to student.
directions between the facilitator and
individual group members.
Teachers are concerned with students
Facilitators encourage and value
understanding the right answer.
different views.
Teachers have formal relationships
Facilitators are considered as equals
with students, based on the status of a
and develop relationships based on
teacher.
trust, respect and a desire to serve.
Curriculum planning as setting targets
In 1992, school league tables were introduced in England to provide an 'improvement index' and to
give parents the consumer information they needed to create a free market in school choice. In doing
so, schools were forced to set themselves targets for achievement so that they might rank highly in
the produced league tables.
It may well be useful for teachers, and even pupils themselves, to set targets. It is quite a different
matter for the government to set targets in order to produce statistics. There were echoes of the
nineteenth century situation, in which 'payment by results' for elementary school teachers led to a very
rigid form of 'teaching to the test.' That children in such a system passed tests without being
meaningfully educated had been noted in the 1890s and earlier. To some observers, the 1990s
recreated that dynamic.
Targets can also be detrimental to the development of a curriculum because league tables are based
only upon 'included' subjects. As a result, schools may favour these subjects at the expense of others.
A recent example (2014) can be seen in the Department for Education review of agricultural and
horticultural vocational courses in schools and colleges. The result is a possible closure of school
farms, shifting the delivery towards classroom-based learning, rather than practical, on-the-job
activities. Such a shift might further disadvantage these courses because many institutes don't include
them in their league tables.
Unit summary
You have seen how the concept and definition of a curriculum are often difficult to interpret – a
problem that has hindered the very development of curriculum studies as a field. Definitions do not
solve curriculum problems, but they do provide a useful perspective from which to view them. What is
important is that whatever the definition, it should help educators with the design, development,
implementation and evaluation of the curriculum.
A curriculum comprises a number of components, both formal and informal, and the taught curriculum
does not always match the intended (operational) curriculum.
Curriculum design, development and planning may adhere to established models, which are typically
defined by content, products and processes.
End of unit 1 activity
In this activity, you will study your own setting and briefly report on the composition of the curriculum
relating to a chosen programme/course of learning.
Select a short programme of study in which you are involved or of which you have knowledge.
Consider the following questions:
1. What is the official curriculum for this programme, and where is it documented?
2. Do you think the taught curriculum matches the official curriculum? If not, can you offer reasons
why?
3. How does each of the components of a curriculum (as outlined in this unit) apply to your
selected programme?
4. Which curriculum models apply to your selected programme?
In answer to these questions, write a short statement (200 - 300 words) in your Personal Journal. You
should spend 2-3 hours on this.
Reference list
Please note that not all references are currently available electronically.
Boyle, W. & Charles, M. (2016) Curriculum Development. A Guide for Educators. London: Sage
Drmathkat (2011) The hidden curriculum. YouTube. [Online]. Available at:
http://youtu.be/eY2hpAOJTRQ (Accessed: 11 May 2021).
Gillard, D. (2018 ) Education in England: a brief history. Education in England. [Online]. Available at:
www.educationengland.org.uk/history (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Hewitt, T.W. (2006) Understanding and shaping curriculum: what we teach and why. London: Sage.
Lofthouse, M., Bush, T., Coleman, M., O'Neill, J., West Burnham, J. & Glover, D. (1995) Managing the
curriculum. London: Pitman.
Kelly, A. (2009) The curriculum: theory & practice. 6th edn. London: Sage.
Marsh, C. & Willis, G. (2003) Curriculum: alternative approaches, ongoing issues. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Menter, I. (2012) The history of primary education and the curriculum. In Creating the Curriculum.
Wyse, D., Baumfield,V.M., Egan, D., Gallagher, C., Hayward, L., Hulme, M., Leitch, R., Livingston, K.
& Menter, I. with Lingard, B. (pp. 13- 28)
Neary, M. (2002) Curriculum studies in post-compulsory and adult education: a study guide for
teachers and student teachers. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
OCR (2022 ) About OCR. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ocr.org.uk/about/ (Accessed: 14 April
2022).
Plowden, Lady (1967) Children and their Primary Schools. London: HMSO
Young, M. & Muller, J. (2010). Three educational scenarios for the future: lessons from the sociology
of knowledge. European Journal of Education, 45, 11-27.
Unit 2 curriculum design
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
recognise how the approach to curriculum design differs according to the educational context
identify the external influences and agencies that might affect the design of a curriculum
establish how learning outcomes are matched to the specific needs of the learner
Boyle & charles
Boyle & Charles (2016) propose that there are 3 stages to curriculum development:
Who should determine the aims of the curriculum?
What should these aims be?
How can the aims be realised in curricular arrangements?
The tyler rationale
The Tyler rationale for curriculum design and development is a perspective that has dominated much
curricular thought since Ralph Tyler developed it in 1949. It first poses four questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational learning experiences can be provided that are likely to achieve these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler 2013)
These questions, and their answers, then lead on to four stages of curriculum development:
Select each stage to reveal more information:
Stage 1 – Selecting and defining objectives
In this stage, objectives are obtained by examining the subject matter, the needs of the learner and
contemporary life. Once objectives have been identified, they are filtered through a philosophical
screen before they are selected for inclusion in the curriculum.
Stage 2 – Selecting and creating learning experiences
Tyler (1950) says that learning experiences must be perceived by the learner to be motivating, and the
learner must be able to perform them successfully.
Stage 3 – Organising learning experiences
Once selected, experiences must be organised in such a way as to maximise the effectiveness of the
combined experiences. The sequencing of experiences, as well as the potential for subject integration,
is considered in this stage.
Stage 4 - Curriculum evaluation
This stage serves as a check to ensure that the original objectives, as specified by the curriculum,
have been achieved. If not, then the previous stages can be revisited and adjusted as required.
Tylers four stage rationale
Tyler(1949) suggested that all curriculum development would proceed through these stages, although
not necessarily in this order.
The rationale has been criticised for failing to recognise or value any learning that may occur during
the implementation of the curriculum that was not part of the original stated objectives. Despite such
criticisms, the Tyler rationale continues to be an influential model of curriculum development and is still
used today. It serves both the initial design of a curriculum and its subsequent development.
You may wish to research other models of curriculum development, such as those of Hilda Taba; J.
Galen Saylor, William Alexander and Arthur Lewis; and Albert Oliver.
Activity 2.1: the tyler rationale in your setting
Think about the approach to curriculum design and development in your own setting (or an approach
with which you are familiar). Does it approximate to the Tyler rationale? If not, how does it differ? What
are its strengths and weaknesses?
Post your thoughts on the Unit 2 Discussion Board thread 'Activity 2.1: The Tyler Rationale'. Aim to
write between 200-300 words and comment on at least one other post on the board.
Examples of curriculum frameworks
Here are a number of examples of curriculum frameworks in use in the UK and elsewhere.
England
Image source: Wikimedia Commons (Accessed 14 May 2022).
National curriculum in England: English programmes of study (Department for Education 2014a): a
national curriculum framework for primary and secondary schools in England. Established under the
Education Reform Act 1988 (revised in 2014).
Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage (Department for Education 2014b): sets the
standards for learning, development and care for children from birth to five years old.
Thailand
Image source: Wikimedia Commons (Accessed 14 May 2022).
Education system in Thailand
The International Baccalaureate ® (IB)
Australia
Image source: Wikimedia Commons (Accessed 14 May 2022).
Australian curriculum (2014): sets consistent national standards to improve learning outcomes for all
young Australians. It sets out, through content descriptions and achievement standards, what students
should be taught and achieve as they progress through school. Please note, a new version (Version 9)
is imminent. On the basis of information currently available, how would you expect it to differ?
Activity 2.2: frameworks
Follow the links to the frameworks in the above examples and/ or examine your own national
curriculum and examine the extent to which they follow the composition listed in the previous section.
What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of frameworks? Issues you might consider
include level of detail, coherence of curriculum, flexibility, curriculum development and compliancy.
Post your response in the Unit 2 Discussion Board 'Activity 2.2: Frameworks'. Aim to write between
300-400 words, then read and comment on two other posts.
What is a curriculum framework
When designing a curriculum, it is common practice to simplify and expedite the process by making
use of curriculum frameworks. Frameworks may be used to satisfy all or part of an intended
programme of study. They can also act as standards that ensure that groups of learners are taught the
same things.
Frameworks are predominantly guides that have been explicitly designed and written to assist
teachers in their curriculum decision-making. They provide a structure that shows how all the
elements of the curriculum can come together to impact learning. They can also assist in the
curriculum review and development process.
A curriculum framework is a group of related fields, themes or topics within a given subject that fit
together according to a predetermined set of criteria to appropriately cover an area of study. Each
curriculum framework has the potential to provide a structure for designing subjects and a rationale
and policy context for subsequent curriculum development of these subjects.
Frameworks are often produced as statutory documents at national or regional level for the general
education of schoolchildren and to provide benchmarking of academic standards for further and higher
education and for national vocational qualifications.
Composition of curriculum frameworks
A curriculum framework document usually includes:
a rationale (a statement of the principles and assumptions upon which the framework is based)
the scope and parameters of the curriculum area
the broad goals and purposes of the subjects within the curriculum area
guidelines for course design
content
teaching and learning principles
guidelines for the evaluation of subjects
criteria for the accreditation and certification of subjects
future developments for the area
Frameworks should contain strong links between theory and practice, as well as up-to-date and
relevant information about pedagogy, learning and resources. As critical and reflective practitioners,
however, we should be aware that the stated rationale may be inconsistent with the content and
course design. Framework documents are often riven with such contradictions. This may reflect
political tensions or, sometimes, deep uncertainty about the purpose of education itself.
Curriculum design example
The table below briefly summarises an approach to curriculum design for a private-sector company. It
employs Tyler's rationale and, for each of the four steps, outlines the work undertaken and who might
undertake it.
This approach is not meant to be prescriptive – it is just one of many possibilities.
Table 2.1: An approach to curriculum design for a private-sector company
Work undertaken
By whom
Selecting and
Training needs analysis, including job,
Curriculum
defining
task and learner analysis;
designer / subject
objectives
benchmarking against similar offerings
matter experts /
in other organisations; establishing
curriculum
prior knowledge; compilation of
planner
operational, training and enabling
May be company
objectives; compilation of course
employee(s) or
documentation (course specification,
external
statements of objectives, assessment
consultant(s)
schedules, etc.)
Selecting and
Construction of programmes and
creating
courses
learning
(based around the grouping of
experiences
objectives). Courses may be bespoke
in-house offerings or existing external
courses. Courses may require
academic and practical elements (and
perhaps on-the-job- training). There
may be a desire to accredit in-house
courses
Organising
Courses (and associated
Curriculum
learning
assessments) are organised to
planner /
experiences
provide the most effective and efficient
instructors
learning experience, with
consideration given to vertical or
horizontal sequencing and integrated
learning
Curriculum
The programme is evaluated against
Company quality
evaluation
established criteria that are embedded
assurance
into the company's quality system.
department
The main aims are to assess the
success of the programme in terms of
learner achievement and to ascertain
whether procedures for the
implementation and development of
the curriculum are effective
The above example, though brief, does indicate that some organisations will have a greater degree of
involvement in, and control over, their curriculum development. Some educational institutes may have
little or no part to play in initial curriculum design and may feel restricted in their ability to review and
evaluate it. This is perhaps a major disadvantage of curriculum frameworks such as a national
curriculum.
Activity 2.3: curriculum design approaches
Using the above example as a guide, complete a similar table that briefly summarises the approach to
curriculum design used for a programme or course in your setting.
Post your table on the Unit 2 Discussion Board thread 'Activity 2.3: Curriculum Design'. Aim to spend
between 1-2 hours on this activity.
Establishing learner needs
In order to design a curriculum, it is first necessary to establish the needs of the learner in terms of:
the profile of the learners
what learners need to know (and what they already know)
Learning needs analysis is therefore a form of evaluation that determines the desired outcomes of a
learning programme and how best to match these to the characteristics of the intended learners. Like
a research project, it will collect data using a range of survey instruments, including:
interviews
focus groups - a small group is selected to represent the interests of the larger group, and a
group interview is then conducted
questionnaires
observation
the inspection of documents (e.g. procedures for accomplishing tasks)
referral to subject matter experts
action research (e.g. by school teachers)
Once analysed, the information gathered will generate a set of objectives, the accomplishment of
which should achieve the desired learning outcomes.
Learner profiles
Curriculum design must consider the profile of the learners for whom the curriculum is intended. It is
important to know who the learners are both as individuals and as a group. Knowledge of the learner
will help to create conditions and environments that are conducive to learning. There are many factors
that affect how a person learns from a learning environment.
Such factors may include prior attainment and range, previous experiences, entry behaviours,
academic motivation, personal interests, attitude towards the institute, interaction with the learning
environment and group characteristics.
It may seem like a lot of information to collect about your learners, but it can aid you immensely in
providing more-meaningful learning experiences for them.
Some of it you will already know, but much of it will be elicited from learners, instructors and managers
and by visiting classrooms, training facilities and the learners' actual workplace. Other helpful methods
include surveys, questionnaires and observation.
What learners need to know
The analysis of what learners need to know varies from the simple to the complex, depending on the
context. For example, if you were asked to design a training programme to prepare staff in your
organisation to undertake a new role, you would examine the requirements of that role in terms of the
tasks that staff members would be expected to undertake. Task analysis would then reveal the
knowledge and skills required.
If, however, you were asked to design a computing curriculum for primary school children, you might
find the prospect tricky. Even if you have knowledge of computing yourself, you still need to decide
what it is that the pupils need to know. In this case, you would most likely refer to an established
curriculum framework (i.e. the national curriculum for computing). Nevertheless, you may well ask
yourself how the computing curriculum was devised in the first place. We'll revisit this question later in
the unit.
What learners need to know does, of course, depend on what they already know. Candidate learners
may need to satisfy entry requirements or be subject to baseline testing.
Objectives learning outcomes and standards
Learners aim to achieve specific goals. They want to learn certain things, attain specified standards
and perhaps gain certification. A number of terms have been used, often interchangeably, to signal the
attainment of all, or a part of, such goals. The major terms are 'objectives', 'outcomes' and 'standards'.
Select the title below for more information:
Learning outcomes
Learning outcomes describe the desired knowledge, skills, behaviour or attitudes that learners need to
achieve. Outcomes, as the name suggests, tend to relate to the end (the output) of a learning activity
or course and are stated in broad terms. Spady (1994, p.13) summarises these as "the clearly defined
outcomes we want all students to demonstrate when they leave school." In other words, outcomes
relate to those tangible things that students can do in 'real life' as a result of the learning process.
Here is a sample set of learning outcomes from a course on materials, energy and the environment:
"By the end of the course, you should be able to:
differentiate between material and product lifecycles and be able to discuss these in relation to
the environment
explain limits and constraints to material selection and use, as well as the effects on the
environment
rank common materials by production energy requirements and environmental impact
evaluate the influence that social and personal choices have on energy and material selection
evaluate the environmental impacts of these choices
interpret trends in energy and material use over time"
Learning outcomes are described using appropriate 'action' verbs. The complexity of the verb usually
indicates the level of expertise required in achieving the outcome, as gauged by an appropriate
learning taxonomy such as Bloom's taxonomy (1956).
Learning objectives
Learning objectives break down the steps required to achieve the intended learning outcomes. They
are more explicit than outcomes and place emphasis on the skills and competencies that need to be
achieved. By way of example, the Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage refers to
them as 'stepping stones', and technician training courses often refer to them as 'enabling objectives'.
They are sometimes called 'teacher inputs'.
Objectives are usually recorded in documents such as course specifications and statements of
objectives. The level of detail can vary considerably.
Objectives greatly assist the planning process for course planners and teachers and help to focus on
what will be evaluated. Marsh (2003, p.27) states that "the foundation for well-planned teaching is,
unquestionably, clearly stated objectives." However, learning objectives are considered by some to be
too subjective (the end result of a value judgement on someone's part), too prescriptive (spontaneity
withers and initiative is stifled) and too limiting (objectives may address specific areas but don't
provide for a balanced, rounded education).
Objectives are often formulated as behavioural or instructional.
Behavioural objectives
Behavioural objectives focus on observable and measurable changes in student behaviour. They
include three criteria: evidence of achievement, conditions of performance and acceptable levels of
performance.
Evidence of achievement
Performance is stated in observable terms, such as 'state', 'list', 'spell', 'describe', 'estimate', 'multiply'
and 'explain'.
Example: Multiply 2.32 by 4.25.
Conditions of performance
Any essential conditions of performance are stated.
Example: Find the product of multiplying 2.32 x 4.25 to two decimal places, without the use of a
calculator.
Acceptable levels of performance
Students can be deemed successful if they meet a minimum level of performance.
Example: Correctly solve eight out of ten multiplication problems involving decimals stated to two
decimal places.
Combining these three criteria then results in a detailed behavioural objective.
Instructional objectives
Instructional objectives provide a clear pathway through a learning activity and specify distinctive step
changes in behaviour. They should be unambiguous and convey the minimum detail required to
achieve the step. If such objectives have not already been compiled by a course designer, teachers
might use them to expand on learning outcomes or higher-level objectives that have not been fully
developed. They will also provide the basis for formative assessment and should therefore be
measurable.
Consider the following learning outcome/objective: 'Students will be able to write a complete
sentence'.
Breaking this outcome down into more-detailed steps might produce the following instructional
objectives:
Students are able to distinguish parts of speech. Students are able to distinguish subjects and
predicates. Students are able to distinguish a complete thought.
Students are able to distinguish a clause.
Students are able to distinguish a subordinate clause. Students are able to distinguish a phrase
from a clause.
Classifying objectives (Taxonomies)
Objectives are typically classified in terms of cognitive (intellectual processes such as perception,
memory, judgement and reasoning), affective (feelings, emotions, appreciation and valuing) and
psychomotor (body movements associated with mental activity) behaviours. One example is Bloom's
taxonomy (1956):
Bloom's Taxonomy for Teachers (Revised)
Bloom's Taxonomy for Teachers - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGXANN3MUsg
Download transcript
Standards
Learning that focuses on outcomes has been termed 'outcome-based education' (OBE). OBE has
attracted criticism for its over-emphasis on outcomes rather than processes, but some prefer a
standards-based approach to ensure consistency in delivery and outcomes, particularly at national
level. A recent example in the UK is the National Standards for Literacy and Numeracy, introduced in
the first decade of the 21st century. Supporters of standards argue that they provide a common focus,
clarify understanding and promote collective purpose. Opponents, however, suggest that standards
are often too vague in content and also have a tendency to favour shallow learning.
Curriculum design levels of understanding
When referring to the statutory (primary and secondary school) curriculum, Male (2012a, 2012b)
maintains that curriculum design is about more than listing all the things we want children to learn. It is
the whole set of learning experiences that children are involved in as they move through school. He
indicates three levels of understanding the curriculum:
1. The curriculum set out by the nation: all those things the nation thinks our young people should
learn.
2. The curriculum set out by the school or the teacher: the mediation of those national expectations
into a form that is relevant to the children in the school or class.
3. The curriculum as experienced by the children, which might vary from child to child, even within
a class.
Male's levels can loosely be applied to other contexts of learning (e.g. post-16 education and privatesector training), though the national level may have a lesser impact, particularly on the latter.
It follows, then, that when designing curriculum, the application of a rationale such as Ralph Tyler's will
vary according to the nature of the institute and, of course, the role of each practitioner.
End of unit 2 activity analysing framework
Read Thao & Boyd (2014) (Reference below and can be found through LibraryPlus). Write a journal
entry critiquing the approaches taken as described in the article, drawing on literature, the learning
activities in this Unit and your own experience. Write this in in your Personal Journal. Aim to spend
between 2-3 hours on this activity. Consider how this might inform part of your assignment.
Reference list
Australian Curriculum (2014) Australian curriculum. [Online]. Available at:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Department for Education (2014a) National curriculum in England: English programmes of study.
[Online]. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-englandenglish-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study
(Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Department for Education (2017) Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage. [Online].
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-foundation-stage-framework--2
(Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Bloom, B. S. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive Domain. New York:
McKay.Hirst, P. (1974) Knowledge and the curriculum. Routledge.
Male, B. (2012a) Primary curriculum design handbook. Continuum.
Male, B. (2012b) The secondary curriculum design handbook. Continuum.
Marsh, C. & Willis, G. (2003) Curriculum: alternative approaches, ongoing issues. Prentice Hall.
Spady, W. (1993) Outcome-based education. Workshop report No 5. Canberra: ACSA.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum development: theory and practice. Harcourt College Publishers.
Thao, D P. & Boyd, W. A. (2014) Renovating early childhood education pedagogy: a case study in
Vietnam. International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol. 22 (2), pp. 184-196
Tyler, R. (1949) Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.:.
Pennsylvania Department for Education (2014) I[Online]. Available at:
http://www.pdesas.org/module/sas/curriculumframework (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2014)IOnline]. Available at:
https://www.qaa.ac.uk/news-events/news/updated-subject-benchmark-statements-for-arts-andhumanities-programmes (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Unit 3 the national curriculum
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
explain the timeline of curriculum development in England and Wales and appreciate the
founding of the National Curriculum
identify the principles that underpin a national curriculum
consider the inherent problems associated with a national curriculum and contemplate what
makes for a balanced, common curriculum
compare the product and process approaches to developing a common curriculum
This unit covers the development of state education and the emergence of the National Curriculum in
the UK. It will be of direct benefit to practitioners in schools and colleges, though it should also interest
those whose specialisms lie outside of statutory education and who teach in other countries, as its
theme is the effect of external influences on the design and review of a curriculum.
National agencies for uk curriculum development
From 1944 to the early 1960s, there was an evolving attitude to reform of the UK school curriculum. At
first, government was reluctant to engage with curriculum, as state control of education was
associated with the totalitarianism of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The first body dedicated to
promoting curriculum change was the Schools Council in England and Wales. Founded in 1964 by the
Department of Education and Science, its remit was to undertake research and development work on
the curriculum and to advise the secretary of state on matters relating to the curriculum and
examination policy. It endorsed curriculum development by teachers, who dominated its committees.
The council lasted for 20 years until, in 1984, following criticisms of its achievements and of its
dominance by teachers, funding was withdrawn. Its role was taken over by the School Curriculum
Development Council, a politically controlled body that paved the way for other political bodies, such
as the National Curriculum Council, the School Examinations and Curriculum Council, the School
Curriculum and Assessment Authority and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. These bodies
were established to oversee the policies established by the 1988 Education Act and the management
and administration of the National Curriculum.
The founding of the uk national curriculum
In the early years of the 20th century, the subjects English, mathematics, science, history, geography,
foreign languages, drawing, physical exercise and manual work / housewifery could be found on offer
in state secondary schools. In contrast, the primary curriculum was considered an experience rather
than a body of knowledge to be acquired or a set of subjects to be studied. Teachers and head
teachers enjoyed a huge degree of autonomy over their school curricula.
By the 1960s, education was deemed a right for every boy and girl. It was judged that such education
would be a national investment and, therefore, required curriculum experimentation at a national level.
The UK Schools Council was formed especially for this purpose.
Towards the end of the 1970s, surveys of schools in the UK indicated that educational programmes
lacked consistency. This started a growing belief that the curriculum would serve its pupils better if it
were planned as a whole, particularly in secondary schools. The idea was that there should be a
centrally planned common curriculum in all schools, just as there was in many other countries.
In 1988, the Education Reform Act introduced a national curriculum for all state schools. Until that
time, there had been no binding requirement on any school to include any particular subject or activity
in its curriculum, other than a weekly period of religious instruction. The National Curriculum
introduced a statutory core curriculum into primary and secondary schools.
Principles underpinning a national curriculum
The basis for a national curriculum hinges around several principles. Select each one to reveal more
information.
Equality of educational opportunity for all pupils
This is not simply the premise that, to maintain equality, everyone must be taught the same things.
Rather, it is the argument that pupils will not benefit from those subjects that are deemed important
should their particular school fail to offer the same content and experience as other schools (or
indeed, fail to offer the subject at all).
A balanced educational experience for everyone
A common curriculum is more likely to contain a balance of subject matter and associated learning
experiences. It is less likely to be overly influenced or biased by the culture, values and beliefs of a
single organisation (not that these are considered unimportant).
The maintenance of standards
The general aims and goals of studying each topic are determined by a common purpose and serve to
achieve similar, measurable behavioural outcomes.
Skills and knowledge are derived from the needs of the nation
It is the duty of every school to satisfy the technological and sociological needs of the nation and to
promote the culture of society. The curriculum must therefore be designed from the centre, with a
common core, such that it conveys what is worthwhile and promotes the development of pupils as
valuable members of society and as human beings.
Of course, what knowledge is needed; which skills are important; and what pupils will need to be
successful individuals and contribute to a flourishing society are not easily agreed. The curriculum is
political, and the national curriculum took agency away from teachers so that teaching has become
more technicist and managerial. In effect, teachers no longer had a say in what to teach, although in
some lessons there still is teacher autonomy in how to teach the content.
Activity 3.1: principles
Do you agree with the above principles? Are there others? What principles would you base your
curriculum on? Which, if any, are the most important and why? Read p.46 of Boyle & Charles
('Premises of a national curriculum') and see how your views and observations meet the criteria they
set down. Make notes in your Personal Journal. These notes will then be used in Activity 3.2. (These
notes are for your personal use and will not be commented upon by your tutor). Aim to spend between
1–2 hours on this activity.
Problems with a national curriculum
Commonality versus variety
Kelly (2009, p.246) states that
there is no logical connection between the idea of education for all and that of a common
curriculum, nor do demands for educational equality imply that all must have the same
educational diet.
How do we decide on content?
Even if the case for a common educational provision were largely supported, any opposition gains
ground when it comes to deciding what such basic provision should consist of.
Historically, many of the proposals that have been put forward for the content of the national
curriculum have been disputed. For example, should computing content be statutory? Should religious
education be compulsory or optional? Is systematic synthetic phonics preferable to analytical phonics?
In truth, there are relatively few activities that will have universal support for their inclusion in a
common curriculum. All too often, such activities arise from someone's view of the nature of
knowledge, from some idea of what is valuable in society or from a belief that certain kinds of
knowledge and human activity are superior to others. It could be argued though that such
idiosyncrasies are surely unacceptable, and the establishment of a common curriculum must consider
the practical issues of what should be included in it and who should decide on this.
State intervention
In promoting the culture of society, the curriculum that is imposed by the state becomes impossible to
define because of the many cultures that can be found in a modern multicultural society. To impose
one body of knowledge, one culture and one set of values on all pupils, regardless of their origins,
social class, race or creed, is to risk, at best, offering them a curriculum that is irrelevant, meaningless
and alienating and, at worst, using the educational system as a means of effecting an inhibiting form
of social control.
One example is the syllabus for history, which introduces children to areas of knowledge that they may
find irrelevant to their own lives and meaningless in relation to their own experience and culture.
Thus, we have the strange situation that the idea of a common educational provision, which is argued
for on grounds of equality, justice and fairness, is opposed most vigorously for precisely the same
reasons by those who see the imposition of knowledge as a form of social control and as a source of
alienation and disaffection.
Activity 3.2: curriculum design approaches
Consider these three statements:
Equality of educational opportunity and variety of educational provision are incompatible.
It will never be possible to entirely agree on the content of a national curriculum.
The very grounds for imposing a common curriculum are self-defeating.
Post your thoughts on the Unit 3 Discussion Board thread 'Problems with a national curriculum',
making reference to your thoughts / responses to Activity 3.1.
Balancing the curriculum
The balance of education is not an exact science. In truth, we all have our own view of what
constitutes a balanced curriculum, based on what we see as the fundamental principles of education.
In defining balance, we should consider not only the educational experiences of each individual but
also the balance of both personal and vocational preparation.
In order to achieve balance, the curriculum should be viewed in its totality, rather than considering
each subject in isolation. If a piecemeal approach is to be avoided, then curriculum planners and
teachers need a view of the school curriculum as a whole.
You might consider whether your own curriculum has a good balance and how you justify your views.
Are you in a position to influence that balance? What changes would you make? These thoughts will
be useful for your final assignment.
Subjects and content
In attempting to compose a common, balanced curriculum, we need to specify the subjects and the
subject content. This would normally result from an analysis of learner needs. However, regarding the
national curriculum, this is not the remit of schools, and any such analysis will have taken place
externally. The two most obvious results of such analysis are:
1. a set of directives or specific statements of subjects, subject content and objectives
2. a set of broad principles or guidelines
The former relates to the product model of curriculum development, while the latter relates to the
process model.
As we saw in unit 1, the product model tends to be the dominant model adopted however, this seems
to be at odds with the preference of many educational practitioners who favour a theme-based
approach. In adopting a process or developmental approach to curriculum planning, the basis of
educational planning would be broad principles, which are then open to individual interpretation and,
indeed, negotiation (Brundrett & Silcock 2002). This allows teachers the freedom to select appropriate
content, methods and approaches, rather than follow lists of goals or aims, translated into step-bystep hierarchies of objectives or attainment targets.
However, as White (1988, p. 114) argued when commenting on the newly founded national
curriculum:
Rationale is not in general its strong suit: it gives every impression of having been written
by people used to issuing orders with no questions asked.
What learners need to know
Intervention
Commentators on the 1988 national curriculum argued that it focused educational debate on
economic questions and disregarded research evidence and curriculum theory relating to the value of
certain bodies of knowledge, the achievement of equality of educational opportunity and what might
constitute a balanced curriculum. Indeed, the consultative document in 1987 justified the curriculum
on the basis of commerce and industry and defined it in terms of a national investment.
It might be argued that such emphasis on economic considerations is an inherent weakness of central
planning of the curriculum, at least in a democratic state. How else can the expenditure of taxpayers'
money on education be justified, if not as an investment from which taxpayers can expect to reap
financial dividends?
It is of course unlikely that you as a teacher see yourself as providing return on investment for
taxpayers; it is highly likely that you have a quite different rationale underpinning what you do.
Take a moment to consider what that rationale is. When you have done so, try to imagine how you
would present that rationale to the taxpayers who pay your salary. Do you think they would be
persuaded?
Add this to your Personal Journal.
School responses to imposed changes
Attempts to bring about change from outside the school have often proved difficult. Such changes may
have resulted in modifications to the 'official' curriculum, but what effect have they had on the 'taught'
curriculum?
Perhaps the only genuine changes to the official curriculum are those that are accepted by schools or
result from developments that are school based. If teachers are only at liberty to make small
adjustments to their methods and are not permitted to modify either the content or the outcomes of
their teaching, the implications for the continued development of curriculum theory are serious and farreaching. The official curriculum is likely to become lost in translation and possibly quite different to
what is actually taught by teachers and learned by pupils.
Content can be prescribed from the centre, assessments can be conducted to judge how effectively it
is being taught and inspections can be carried out to ensure that schools are doing what is required of
them. However, how far this will measure the quality of children's education, as opposed to their
acquisition of knowledge, is not easy to gauge (Eisner 1996).
Unit summary
This unit has examined the development of state education and the emergence of the national
curriculum in England. Its underlying theme has been the effect of external influences on the design
and review of a curriculum. It has raised the following key points:
The basis for a national curriculum hinges around the principles of equality of educational
opportunity, a balanced educational experience and the maintenance of standards. It serves to
satisfy the needs of the nation.
A national curriculum is problematic because it has always been difficult to reach agreement on
its content, balance and methods of delivery.
Political intervention has shifted the focus of education towards the needs of commerce and
industry at the expense of the general education of pupils. It has shifted control from the teacher
to the government.
The responses of schools to external influences are mixed, which may manifest in a divergence
of the taught (received) curriculum from the official (intended) curriculum
The architects of the current national curriculum advocate that schools should be given greater
freedom over the curriculum, despite having tied them to a body of 'essential knowledge'.
End of unit 3 activity analysing framework
Reflecting on the key issues covered in Units 1 to 3, consider the following resolution:
Any curriculum is best designed by those who are responsible for its implementation.
For example, this would suggest that teachers should control the design of the national curriculum.
Debate this on the Unit 3 Discussion Board thread 'End of Unit 3 Activity: Designing the National
Curriculum'.
You may support or oppose the resolution, or you may remain neutral. Please keep postings no longer
than 150 words and focus on one key point to allow others to introduce and explore together a range
of viewpoints and issues. Please ensure you engage with the debate as fully as possible but certainly
respond to at least two other post from other students.
Reference list
Alexander, R. (ed.) (2009) Children, their world, their education: final report and recommendations of
the Cambridge primary review. [online] Cambridge: University of Cambridge Faculty of Education.
Available at: https://cprtrust.org.uk/ (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Boyle, B. & Charles, M. (2016) Curriculum Development: a guide for Educators. London: Sage.
Brundrett, M. & Silcock, P. (2002) Achieving competence, success and excellence in teaching.
London: Routledge/Falmer. (Not available as an electronically)
Coughlan, S. (2014) Politicians' whims are harming schools. BBC News. [Online]. Available at: w 20
December 2019). www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-29851020 (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Eisner, E. (1996) Cognition and curriculum reconsidered. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. (Not
available electronically)
Great Britain. (2009) Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report. [Online]. Available
at: http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/ (Accessed: 14 April 2022).
Kelly, A. (2009) The curriculum: theory & practice. London: Sage.
Roberts, N. (2019) The school curriculum in England. BRIEFING PAPER Number 06798, 19
December 2019. [oline] London: House of Commons Library. Available at:
https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06798 (Accessed: 14 April
2022).
White, J. (1988) An unconstitutional national curriculum. In: Lawton, D. & Chitty, C. (eds.) The national
curriculum, Bedford Way papers 33, London: University of London Institute of Education, pp.113–22.