CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL AMENDMENT TO READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS (CAPE) SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES Contributors: David Browne Hamid Ghany Samuel Lochan Jeniffer Mohammed Patricia Worrell AMENDMENT TO THE READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS (CAPE) SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES Please note that the names of Modules 2 and 3 in the current CAPE Caribbean Studies syllabus "," (CXC A1/U1/03) were revised in 2003. ORIGINAL Module 2: Challenges of Development NEW Module 2: Issues in Caribbean Development Module 3: Conducting an Independent Study Module 3: Investigating Human and Social Development in the Caribbean The new names of the Modules reflect the focus of the current Specific Objectives and Content of Modules 2 and 3 in the revised syllabus. The text, READINGS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES: RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS (CAPE) SYLLABUS IN CARIBBEAN STUDIES, issued in October 2000, though containing the original names of the Modules, continues to provide guidance in critical areas of the revised CAPE Caribbean Studies syllabus. Western Zone Office 2005/02/08 Preface Caribbean Studies is an interdisciplinary subject. It draws from a broad field of knowledge in dealing with Caribbean issues in a global context. This reader reflects the interdisciplinary nature having been written by experts in history, geography, sociology, political science, economics, education, culture and research. The Caribbean is a highly diverse community and its issues, its behaviours, and its interactions unfold in different ways across the region. Hence, this reader can only provide general guidance for both teacher and student, as to how topics can be studied and the scope of relevant curriculum materials. Teachers and students are encouraged to apply the understandings acquired from the text, to their own territory. At the same time, the Caribbean Studies syllabus is premised on the need for widening the awareness of Caribbean peoples about each other, so that you are also encouraged to apply the concepts and themes in the text not only to what is familiar but to those parts of the Caribbean with which you are decidedly unfamiliar. The text adopts an easy-to-read style, directed at both teacher and student. It broadly resembles the structure and sequence of the syllabus. Relevant syllabus objectives are identified as footnotes at the start of each chapter. All the major concepts pertaining to each topic are boldened in the text and re-appear at the end of the chapter for your convenience, as a list of key concepts. A list of references is also provided at the end of each chapter. The list consists of sources used and further readings that can deepen your exploration of these topics. There are several student activities throughout the text. These are intended to encourage active engagement with the ideas, concepts, issues and knowledge within each topic. They can be used by teachers as examples of class activities or as ideas for further work. Students can also attempt the activities as tasks that require reflection by individuals on certain issues. Finally, the reader provides extensive guidelines for coursework and independent study. A major intention of the Caribbean Studies syllabus is to enable persons to develop research which are necessary for analyses of situations in the Caribbean and for charting a way forward. This reader should fill the 'gap' that teachers and students have identified in the past in dealing with this subject which has the Caribbean issues at its core and draws insights from various disciplines. Jeniffer Mohammed October 2000. CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL WESTERN ZONE OFFICE CARIBBEAN STUDIES RESOURCE MATERIAL CONTENTS Unit # Title Page Preface MODULE 1 CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE Chapter 1 Society and Culture Chapter 2 Geography, Society and Culture 23 Chapter 3 History, Society and Culture 43 Chapter 4 The Caribbean and the Wider World 68 Chapter 5 Exploring the Concept Development 84 MODULE 2 CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT Chapter 6 Culture, Environment and Development 109 Chapter 7 Regional Integration and Development 130 Chapter 8 The Arts, Popular Culture, Mass Media and Sports in Development 147 Chapter 9 Social Justice and Development 173 MODULE 3 CONDUCTING AN INDEPENDENT STUDY Chapter 10 Conducting an Independent study 1 191 / CAPE Caribbean Studies , CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE Module 1 Chapter 1 Society and Culture Overview Society and culture are key concepts used to examine the experience of Caribbean peoples. A study of society and c_ulture reveals the remarkably common traits and characteristics evident at the societal and cultural levels within the Caribbean Region. Closer examination also throws up the diversity that at first hand might be hidden from view. The concepts of society and culture can be studied with reference to countries as a whole as well as to you as individuals. For it is society and culture which have played a fundamental role in how you think about life, the choices you have made, and the communities you have built. In dwelling on the role of culture in your lives, you also become aware that culture is dynamic and that it is always in the process of change. Objectives1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1 These 1. explain the terms, 'society' and 'culture'; 2. use sociological concepts in explaining 'society' and 'culture'; 3. appreciate the diverse as well as the common features of Caribbean society and culture; 4. understand some of the factors shaping Caribbean society and culture; 5. evaluate the relevance of -concepts associated with society and culture to your roles, values, choices, and behaviours; 6. describe the effects of erasure, retention and renewal on the cultural practices of Caribbean peoples. objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 1,2,3 and 7 of the Caribbean Studies Syllabus Introduction The terms, 'society' and 'culture', are often used interchangeably. We will study each separately in order to recognize their individual meanings as well as their areas of overlap. In this way we will become more adept at interpreting the terms when they are used specifically and interchangeably. Sociological concepts will be used to explore the two concepts. From a general upderstanding of the two terms we move to apply them to the specific context of the Caribbean. In so doing we will be identifying the characteristics that put the particular or peculiar stamp Caribbean on our society and culture. This we can do through an examination of our own lives and the communities in which we live. Finally, we are led to appreciate the fact that culture does undergo change through the processes of erasure, retention and renewal. Society The definition of society often stresses collectivity - a collection of people occupying a defined geowaphical area over a long period of time. The area may or may not coincide with the boundaries of the nation state. For example, the large Cuban community in Florida, USA, can be still considered as constituting part of Cuba's society. This emphasis in the meaning of the term sees society as a large group, most times the largest social group, to which an individual may feel a sense of 'belongingness'. Society, then, refers to a group of people whose members for the most part occupy a bounded geographical context. In the Caribbean, society is often identified with the boundaries of each nation state. Therefore, for example, for the most part Dominicans will regard the insular boundaries of the island of Dominica as the limits of their society and their sense of 'belongingness' is so defined. Over time there is an increased urgency to recognize each constituency as part of a larger entity - the Caribbean. The success of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is contingent on the extent to which there is a liberation from the perceptions of what constitutes our land-space and where we feel comfortable in drawing the boundaries of our society. 2 The sociological understanding of the term, society, stresses interaction amongst its members. For example, society is thought of as a social system - an arrangement of interactions and patterns of behaviour that occur between members of social groups, small and large, in society. The largest social groups making up the social system are social institutions. They refer to the most fundamental, and the most overarching ways people in a society have for organizing the important aspects of their existence. The family, the economy, the polity, as well as, education and religion, are social institutions. Some cannot be seen. They are not concrete. They exist in the realm of ideas - the most cherished set of ideas we have for how our social life should be organized. They are considered to be groups because they involve concrete manifestations of ideas - that is, social organizations. Thus, the social institution of education will manifest social organizations such as ministries of education, primary and secondary schools, parent teacher associations and trade unions. This notion of society as patterns of interaction within well-defined groups allows the concept of culture to surface and shows how the two terms are linked. It is the interaction of, and within social groups, that produces culture. Society then, provides the framework of interaction in which culture develops. Society functions through the roles that are assigned to institutions, organizations and persons. A role is a set of ideas or expectations associated with a certain status or position. The interaction that has been mentioned above is really the relationships that occur between members of society carrying out their various roles. For example, there are different sets of understandings of the role of a teacher and the role of a student, which allow for interactions that are complementary. The patterns of interaction in a society over time allow certain ways of organizing life to become dominant and others to fade. In Caribbean society of not too long ago the patterns of interaction at the level of the social group (villagers) fostered a particular kind of culture that came to characterize village life. Today most Caribbean people tend to cherish modem conveniences as ways of organizing tasks and resp_onsibilities. The interactions of social groups now are different - more persons are educated, more can 3 afford modem conveniences, even villagers, more live in towns; these changes in interaction that spawn different behaviours manifest themselves as culture. Thus, there are two commonly accepted understandings of the term society. The one that stresses a collection of people occupying a well defined land-space, continued over time, is relatively unproblematic and sees society in static terms. On the other hand, an explanation of society as the interaction that goes on in groups, illustrates its dynamic nature, but also makes it difficult to clearly differentiate between society and culture; This is because group interaction seems to be based on, and at the same time, produces culture. Caribbean Society In the previous section we have studied general sociological concepts to help us understand society, and its link with culture. This section focuses on specific attributes of Caribbean societies. A major tendency of Caribbean societies is for persons to acknowledge the island or geographic borders as the limit of their society. Although there are many islands in the Caribbean, the tendency is, for the most part, for each island people to think of themselves as a separate society from the neighbouring islands. It is acknowledged that this way of thinking is an impediment to the success of the integration movement. It also assumes something of the nature of a problem when certain islands become 'merged' with each other to form a unitary state. Consider the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad is a multi-religious, multi-ethnic, multi-racial country with a fast pace of development and rising crime rate, especially associated with drug trafficking. Tobago is a much smaller island with a more homogeneous population than Trinidad. In addition, Tobago has a gentle pace to life that makes it superb as a tourist getaway. Although both islands have been twinned for more than a century, inhabitants still feel a strong sense of having separate societies. This experience is not unique. In 1980 the British Government formally recognized Anguilla's unwillingness to be associated with St.Kitts and Nevis. 4 Activity 1:1 As students of this course you come from many territories within the Caribbean. It is possible for you then to further explore the concept of Caribbean society and this trait of singularity or insularity in your own countries. • Ask a few persons about their feelings at the thought of including another neighbouring island or territory with your country to form one state or, disassociating from an already established relationship. You will need to use credible examples to elicit something of the true nature of their understandings about what constitutes society in the Caribbean. • Categorize the reasons they offer as important indicators of how values and attitudes help to shape behaviours. Credible examples you can use include - the Grenadines forming their own state or one of the islands wanting to secede; St.Kitts and Nevis; Antigua and Barbuda; what are the sentiments in Anguilla now?; Jamaica and the Cayman Islands; Guyana and Venezuela; Belize and Guatemala; or, Barbados and Grenada. The activity above will probably tend to show a natural distrust of sharing statehood with another territory. Even the large mainland territories of Suriname, Guyana and Belize seem to maintain a strong, 'island like' understanding of their society and its borders although they exist within large landmasses. Each of these territories is very different from-the states around and they have few ties with them. In each case the borders of the country signifies the limit to the society. It would seem that people belonging to a particular society feel that if they became incorporated into another state, chances are that their way of life would in some way be adversely affected. Even though they may stand to gain economically from the arrangement, there is a deep sense in which people value the traditions and cultural practices of their land and feel that sharing statehood would jeopardize that. Here we get an understanding that it is not the actual natural island frontier they value as the borders of the society (though that is important in maintaining separateness), but the cultural interactions produced by their society, which they deem to be different from other territories and of intrinsic value. 5 Activity 1:2 The findings from Activity 1 may have indicated certain traits common to Caribbean people in thinking about society such as singularity or insularity. In this exercise we would likto unearth differences in perspective to illustrate the diversity that is also characteristic of the Caribbean. · Discuss with your classmates the likely position that Cubans resident in Cuba adopt about Cubans resident in Florida. Are they likely to still regard them as part of their society? For the Cubans resident in Florida, how do you think they perceive themselves as members of 'society'? • Study the situation in islands comprising two states, for example, Haiti and Santo Domingo, and Saint Maarten (Dutch) and St. Martin (French). Do the typical values of singularity and insularity also characterize these societies? • In countries such as Belize, the Maya people are not confined within the borders of the state. They are also found in Guatemala and Mexico. Find out whether the Belize Maya population feels a strong sense of 'bondedness' with the nation of Belize or the Maya nation. (Note: persons inhabiting complex social groupings may not be capable of a simple either/ or option). Culture Culture is widely regarded as the ways of life of a people. It is often defined as learned behaviour. A very narrow interpretation of the term refers to forms of cultural expression - music, dance, art and craft. In the Caribbean Studies syllabus, culture is used in its widest sense - all forms of organization, ways of interacting, artifacts produced, popular culture, as well as, typical beliefs, ideas, values and norms. It can perhaps be better understood as subdivided into material and non-material culture. Material culture refers to the products of a people such as their styles of architecture, types of food preparation, economic organizations, and their forms of technology. Technology is an all-encompassing term referring to any tools or products man has devised to make his livelihood easier or supply his basic needs. This refers to both his modem inventions of machines and various types of equipment as well as his use through the ages of simpler implements. It also includes the application of scientific thinking and research to practical everyday life - for example, the use of fertilizers (whether natural or animal), mass production processes resulting in consumer goods, even more realistic dolls and toys for children as consumers, and more sophisticated musical instruments and devices. In the realm of education, there is the obvious use of audio-visual aids to support instruction. However, technology is also apparent in the research-based initiatives that help us to organize instructional materials according to general and specific objectives, 6 use graphic and other strategies such as colour, different fonts and layouts, and relate activities to the stated objectives, all deemed to be more reader friendly. Non-material culture refers to the cherished ideas, beliefs, values, and norms, which become tangible in the forms of behaviour and material objects to which they give rise. All are fonns of learned behaviour. Cultural beliefs refer to what the collective society feel is true. Cultural beliefs are important because it is from them that we construct what we take to be the reality of everyday life as well as not-so-everyday matters such as spirituality and cosmology. This is particularly true of the beliefs that are attached to various positions in social systems, assumptions that we use as a substitute for direct personal knowledge of people we interact with and depend on every day. We assume that bank tellers in fact place our deposits in the bank rather than absconding with them for an early retirement; we assume that people who identify themselves as doctors and display all the appropriate appearances know what they are doing;... (Johnson, 1995, p.24). Cultural values refer to a set of rankings people in a society confer on to a myriad of social behaviours. Certain practices are ranked highly if they are perceived as somehow good or of value to the society. For example, high positive regard is conferred on persons who demonstrate altruistic qualities, such as heroism, and patriotism, or on those who have performed great feats such as winning Olympic medals, becoming Prime Minister, or even being a self sacrificing mother. Forcibly condemned are murder, treason, adultery, incest, and promiscuity. Not as strongly condemned are being unmannerly or unclean, lying, cheating and bragging. Values then are shared ideas about how behaviours or dispositions are to be ranked in a given culture. Norms are standards of behaviour that are culturally accepted and emanate from the realm of cultural values that we share. Cultural values form an abstract set of rankings against which social behaviours, dispositions or attitudes are judged. The importance of norms is that they invoke a range of rewards and sanctions to be conferred on members of the society according to their behaviour. In this way norms are tied to social consequences and give tangible support for the realm of cultural values. 7 From the foregoing description you should realize that culture develops within the framework of a society. The two terms are therefore related. The interaction of members who belong to the same society produce culturally accepted ways of organizing their existence. This refers to the non-material world ofbeliefs and values as well as concrete material forms. Culture Creation In discussing the term culture much emphasis is put on it being created by the interaction of groups (society). We will now examine this idea about how and why culture is created. Any arrangements you see about you within the institutions of society, whether in the economy or religion, health or the family, have come about because our forefathers thought that such ways were best for the society to survive. In other words, culture allows the group (society) to organize itself and be perpetuated. These ideas and arrangements are taught to the younger generation so that society will not fall apart. Culture is the cohesive force that holds society together. From time immemorial, all societies have devised ways for the cultural knowledge of the society to be passed on. Family life and parenting practices, ways of governing, agricultural and other economic activities, artistic forms of expressions, and the accumulated store of skills, knowledge and competencies, become the task of one generation to transmit to the other. The process by which this is done is socialization. All societies socialize their people into the stock of cultural knowledge that they have developed. From our earliest years, our family assumes the responsibility of inculcating in us ways of behaving that are appropriate in our society. For example, along with teaching us everything else about the culture into which we were born, our family socializes us to understand gender roles - masculinity and femininity. Gender socialization is a form of cultural knowledge that may differ across societies. We learn all kinds of cultural knowledge in the home and at pre-schools through direct instruction but more commonly through observation, imitation, and the experience of reward and punishmenQ This early form of socialization, primary socialization, is thought to be a powerful conditioning that remains with us all our lives. r LSecondary socialization begins as we enter formal schooling and continues throughout our adult ·lifel Our socialization never ends. Society is inculcating in us culturally appropriate ways of behaving all the time. Schooling is a major socializing experience and is, therefore, compulsory in most societies. We learn a stock of knowledge that the society has decided is valuable knowledge. Schools in the Caribbean seem to value in­ depth knowledge of the disciplines - arts, sciences, social sciences whilst, in other societies equal value is placed on spiritual and moral education, or physical education, and the arts movement. In the Caribbean then we seem to be socialized into regarding certain kinds of knowledge as having higher status than others. At school we also learn from the hidden curriculum attitudes, values, and beliefs, that are culturally appropriate. The hidden curriculum refers to those experiences students have, planned and unplanned, that enable them to better understand the social rules for living. This is transmitted through an understanding of the intent behind the rules of the schools, or the implicit rules involved in classroom interaction or on the playground, or those governing teacher student relationships. In short, the hidden curriculum refers to the messages students internalize about appropriate or inappropriate behaviours. Whilst we learn positive norms having to do, for example, with respecting private property, we also are exposed to norms which denigrate others- those who are not academically able, the poor, the disabled. In adult life, your socialization into cultural beliefs, values and norms continues in roles related to work, marriage, and parenting, as well as in your other activities - leisure, church, charities, extended study. It is felt that we need these constant and diverse processes of socialization because we are not born with genetic programming to allow us to know intuitively about the rules for social living. Each society then has developed forms of interaction, for example, education, to bring about this learned behaviour (culture). It is important that we keep in mind the part socialization plays in maintaining a stable society and culture. However, as we have seen we are not always socialized into values that uphold civic responsibility and raise our social consciousness. As young people growing up in the Caribbean being groomed to take up adult roles, we need to be aware of the in.,;ciious effects of our socialization, and the culture that is reproduced through us. 9 This is effected in how our understanding of our society and culture is made manifest in the choices we make in our own lives, the roles we play, and how our behaviour impacts on our communities. Caribbean Culture In Caribbean societies we can separate out some specific behaviours (or norms) and try to relate them to the cultural value that lies behind the behaviour. For example, • norm: cultural value: 'dropping in' by friends and family without prior notice. informality/camaraderie • norm: cultural value: cooking more than is needed 'just in case' someone drops by hospitality • norm: having relatives come to stay for extended and undetermined periods, perhaps to be closer to school or work hospitality/valuing kinship bonds cultural value: This exercise of trying to unearth the cultural values deeply buried in behaviour- be it attitudes, dispositions or beliefs - starting from the isolation of norms, will stand you in good stead when you reflect on the values which have influenced your own choices and roles. Activity 1:3 Match the norms of behaviour in the table below with the cultural values listed in the second column (these are not necessarily listed in correct sequence). Norms Values 1. children being brought up by grandmothers, for example, when parents migrate a. Making fun of people/little importance put on being polite 2. keeping the elderly at home for as long as possible to be cared for by relatives b. Uniqueness/superiority/ insularity 3. children living with parents in family households beyond their 20's c. Kinship/strong family ties and responsibilities 4. A feeling of being apart and different from other Caribbean territories d. Such attributes often tell much about social standing 5. Giving 'nicknames', satirizing some aspect of a person's appearance or exploits e. Family is a support system/ independence not valued 6. Importance and emphasis put on race and colour f. Kinship/strong family ties and responsibilities You may tend to disagree sometimes with the phrasing of the sentiments involved in describing the cultural values listed in Activity 1:3. This is because you may see another value more dominant and giving rise to the particular norm. For example, the practice of 10 giving nicknames in Caribbean cultures can be attributed to valuing our sense of humour because often the names we create for people have an element of fun or picong in them. Similarly, the importance placed on race and colour does not have to stem only from our valuing that knowledge because of the hints it gives as to wealth, status and prestige. It could also stem from deeper concerns about keeping family members within the present ethnic bond and to exclude 'outsiders'. Thus, cultural values have their responsible, socially caring, empowering side and they have their downside such as when racism, xenophobia and ethnocentrism are allowed to give rise to norms. Activity 1:4 • Define the terms: racism, xenophobia and ethnocentrism. Reflect on norms that may be found in your society that stem from cultural values rooted in these dispositions. Cultural Erasure, Retention and Renewal No culture is a hermetically sealed entity. All cultures are influenced by and in turn influence other cultures. Nor is any culture changeless, invariant or static. All cultures are in a state of constant flux, driven by both internal and external forces. These forces may be accommodating, harmonious, benign and based on voluntary actions, or they may be involuntary, the result of violent conflict, force, domination and the exercise of illegitimate power. (UNESCO, 1995, p. 54). We live culture everyday. We have a dialectic relationship with it. Our changing ideas for ourselves and our societies impact on our present cultural practices, and in tum culture acts on us. Out of this synthesis, material and non-material forms of culture undergo processes of erasure, retention or renewal. Cultural erasure often stems from a 'tension' between traditional ways of doing things and the apparent efficiency and cost effectiveness that seem to characterize 'modem production. In comparison with modem technologies, traditional practices may be seen as redundant, too time consuming or laborious, for example, weaving by hand, cooking preparations that involve long periods of preservation, and story telling versus the immediate, packaged programming of radio, television, cinema and cable. Additionally, some cultural practices may die out because they do not seem to conform to 'modem' or 11 western values and lifestyles. Few persons are electing to live in the country and more are involved in rural-urban drift. In Caribbean countries with a rich and varied linguistic tradition, local rural languages are dying out. Schools, which are described as 'modem institutions' emphasize instruction in standard forms of language that can relate to an internationalized education system. In the home, we can see these processes clearly. Housekeeping has become mechanized by a proliferation of gadgets and appliances. Related to that, we also see changes in the non-material culture - a gradual erasure of women being cast in traditional roles. The processes of cultural erasure actually arise from a continuing contradiction in Caribbean society and culture. The folk culture - the cultural traditions of the masses, particularly those at the grassroots level and the rural areas- is gradually being displaced by more 'modem' ways. The old cultural traditions are generally considered to be not as useful as before, at least not in comparison with the material culture of metropolitan countries which carry with it cultural values of modernization. While we are aware that culture is dynamic and dialectic, the contradictory element here is that much of the impetus for change is driven by values from outside. While we value our rich folk tradition, we seem to value more the trappings of modernization. Cultural retentioy occur as a result of a deliberate desire to keep traditions alive and help some groups to preserve their sense of identity. Small groups may feel alienated within a larger community and try vigorously to preserve their traditions. The Maroon community of Jamaica, for example, at Moore Town is distinctive because of its centuries-long history in rebuffing European values and norms and vigorously retaining West African cultural practices. Palacio (1995) describes an agreement between the Maya of neighbouring countries and the Maya of Belize to promote tourism centred on the Maya,"... both archaeological and the living" (p. 36). Sometimes in efforts to realize the tourist dollar, distinctive cultural groups are supported in building infrastructure and provision of materials so that their ceremonies, crafts, and foods can be put on show. Governments in ethnically diverse countries also try to accord each group certain national holidays and festivals every year, so that their rituals, stories, images, and cultural practices, could be celebrated by the national community. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Christian community (the European tradition) celebrates on four occasions - Good 12 Friday, Easter Monday, Corpus Christi and Christmas. The East Indian community on three occasions- Arrival Day, the Hindu festival of Divali, and the Muslim festival of Eid ul Fitr (there are also Black Muslims). The Shouter Baptists celebrate their traditions on one day in the year. In Belize, Garifuna Settlement Day celebrates the traditions of the 'Black Caribs', descendants of the Caribs and African population (Dunn, 1980). Cultural retention of folk traditions is a process that should not rely only on the impetus from tourism or national recognition given by governments, but must certainly come from the people acting out' their cultural identity. The quote, however, notes some of the ways persons may self-identify and not necessarily be involved in cultural retention:- The social pressures against self-identification are generating responses from aboriginal peoples that need closer examination. Among the Garifuna in Belize language,among other diagnostics, has been a traditional marker. But with the mass migration from villages some of these markers no longer apply. In a recent study completed by the author in Belize City among immigrants from one of the villages, the informants revealed that they value descent and territoriality as two crucial markers even more than language. In other words, that one's parent is Garifuna makes one a Garifuna and especially· if one's parent was born in a Garifuna village. (Palacio,1995, p.33). Activity 1:5 Engage in a group research project to find out as much as you can about cultural erasure, retention and renewalamong:(a) the Garifuna of Belize, originally from St. Vincent, and (b) the Maroons of Jamaica, and similar groups in Hispaniola and Suriname • • What are the threats to cultural identity for these people today? What were your sources of information? Can you relate any problems you might have encountered in sourcing materials, to cultural values in the Caribbean? Cultural renewal refers to efforts to salvage parts of our past by fashioning new practices based on the old. They stem from a feeling that there is much of value in what we have. allowed to neglect, which may have been almost erased. Certain examples come readily to mind. Throughout the Caribbean there has been a renewed emphasis on African folk culture and many countries now observe Emancipation Day to celebrate their African heritage. Emancipation Day is a national holiday in the following Caribbean 13 countries:- the Bahamas (7th August), Barbados (1st August), Grenada (7th August), Guyana (7th August), St. Lucia (7th August), Suriname (1st July), Trinidad & Tobago (1st August) and Jamaica (1st August). Forms of African dress now can be seen on any occasion - not only connected with Emancipation day. There has been a revival of interest in African religions too, such as the Orisha faith in Trinidad and Tobago. This renewal of interest in our African heritage may be a direct reaction to the pervasive· influence of European culture across the Caribbean. Whatever the renewed forms that may arise and persist, they are likely to be syncretic. For example, today, worship in the established Christian churches is often accompanied by African musical instruments such as the drum, chac-chac, and steelpan. There is the feeling that the fashioning of renewed cultural forms based on syncretism with existing ones, leads to the creation of something that is uniquely 'Caribbean'. Thus the resurrection of African traditions may be only a prelude to them being incorporated into cultural life as Caribbean creations. It has been suggested that the struggle to supplant African and European centred cultural forms with syncretic Caribbean ones, may be a new cultural value (DEC, 1997). This struggle is evident in the movement known as Negritude associated with the Martiniquan, Aime Cesaire. Activity 1:6 Suggest examples of cultural erasure, retention and renewal in your country. You can examine areas that are not covered in the text, for example, leisure, entertainment, the foreign mass media, competitive sports, the influx of foreigners coming as settlers, family life patterns, medicines and healing practices, music, carnival, land use, environmentalpractices, rise in living standards. This section of the chapter explored the terms 'society' and 'culture', at first in a general way, to identify the main sociological concepts upon which the terms are built, then we investigated the peculiar stamp of 'Caribbean society' and 'Caribbean culture'. The important terms in the study of society were - collectivity (group), social system, institution, organization, role, singularity, and insularity.frhe impQitant terms in the study of culture were - traits, material culture, non-material culture, socialization, beliefs, values, and norms. In an attempt to represent the dynamic nature of culture the concepts cultural erasure, retention and renewal were studied. In the next section, students will be 14 given the opportunity to reflect on the relevance of these concepts to the choices they make as community members.] Factors Shaping Caribbean Society and Culture We will first identify the conditions or factors that are believed to be instrumental in shaping Caribbean society and culture. These factors give rise to some of the dominant cultural values we have recognized in the Caribbean. As you know by now, from these values will spring norms. Some factors are listed below. Enough similarity exists within these interactions and others to lead us to believe that we can speak, to a certain extent, of a common Caribbean culture. Some of the important conditions and factors that are believed to be influential in shaping the values we hold today are: • the near complete genocide of our aboriginal peoples; • common experiences of slavery, indentureship and the plantation system; • cultural diversity, social stratification, and hybridization of our people; • • colonial rule, and the legacy of a pervasive 'colonial mentality'; continuous resistance in efforts to establish emancipation, enfranchisement, and independence; • a fragmented existence as an archipelago and isolated mainland states; • dependent economies and efforts to diversify; • a 'culture' of migration to metropolitan countries and positive feelings for 'foreign' tastes; • the dissemination of Caribbean cultural art forms to a wide international audience; • syncretism of Caribbean cultural practices with those of other countries. The above list is not exhaustive. It merely seeks to provide some examples of 'starting points' for us to think of common Caribbean cultural values, and the norms of behaviours, to which they may give rise. This is an introspective and reflective activity. In this course on Caribbean Studies, the course work for Module 1 focuses on you, the student, and your ability to reflect on all the concepts you learned associated with society and culture, that you can in tum relate to your life, your personal experience. You are 15 required to continuously reflect in your journals on the concepts you are encountering, and to eventually complete an assignment based on the following themes. • how do you define your roles, values and patterns of behaviour within the communities of which you are members? • what are the kinds of understandings you have about society and culture that affect the choices you make in your own lives? • what are the responses you have to the policies of institutions in your country or the actions of individuals in your community? Reflecting on these Issues Some guidelines are given below to help you get started. They are posed as scenarios you may encounter, that you might be interested in reflecting on, using the concepts in the module. Alternatively, while you may not use any of the specific scenarios, they may suggest other themes that you prefer. • Do you encounter in your community norms that can be traced to exclusion, that is, practices that tend to exclude others by virtue of their gender, race, ethnicity, socio­ economic status, religion, or any other criterion? What has been your typical response to these norms of behaviour in your community? What has been the explanations or justifications given by members of the community for this behaviour? • Are there values among your peers which tend to revere 'things foreign'? How are they manifested as norms? If questioned about such preferences, what might you or your friends reply in order to justify such practices? To what extent do you believe young people reflect on the origins of such values in Caribbean societies and culture? • Is there a pattern to the political affiliations of people in your country or in your community? What are the criteria that people use to explain their affiliation? What cultural values may be associated with such norms? As an individual, how do you sec your role amidst what may tum out to be an overwhelming point of view? 16 • As a young person you are on the verge of making important choices for your life. These may lie in avenues for further study or a direct transition to the world of work. What are your thoughts about your options? Are there social expectations governing your deliberations as well as 'personal' inclinations? What you decide to study and where you decide to pursue such studies may have 'social' and 'cultural' connotations. These need to be examined. • In some rural communities there are institutional, sometimes governmental policies, to try to revive agriculture and make it more profitable. What are the sorts of reactions that such policies receive, especially from the youth of the community? How do you account for these positions? What socio-historical or socio-cultural explanations can you offer to justify these norms? • If you live in a country with a large aboriginal population, reflect on their lifestyles, their quality of life. To what extent are they on par with other groups? Since they have the longest continued presence of any other group in the Caribbean, why do you suppose there is not much interest in their practices and ways of life, in the wider Caribbean? • In considering marriage and family life, how 'individual' or 'personal' are your choices for a mate? Reflect on the types of biases you may have for such a person­ are they only about intellectual and personal characteristics or do they also invoke the 'whole package', and include certain expectations about physical appearance? Reflect on whether these are indeed cultural values, and how one can account for them. • Consider any occurrence in your community that surprised you in that it did not seem to conform to the usual stock of cultural values. Analyze why you were surprised what would have been the expected norm? What are the explanations that would have been used to support such behaviour? What other cultural value is now being manifest? What are your reactions to the act? These are some examples of scenarios that you may encounter daily. The purpose of the assignment is to help you to foster a reflective spirit about your society and culture using the key concepts provided. This does not only relate to large or grand occurrences. You 17 become extraordinarily perceptive when you are able to see past the minutiae of everyday life to the values behind it and the patterns to which they give rise. It is also the hope that the reflective spirit will lead to the promotion of attitudes of civic responsibility and heightened social consciousness. Latent and Manifest Functions In attempting the coursework assignment, there are certain 'tools' that you can use for developing a 'reflective spirit'. These tools refer to two sociological concepts, latent and manifest functions. They are to be used by you, the student, to investigate (reflectively) the sorts of social situations that have been described above. Every social situation or social act can have more than one consequence. Latent functions refer to the unintended, hidden or unexpected consequences of an act. Mani{est functions, on the other hand, refer to the anticipated, open or stated goals of an act. The point about engaging in this exercise at all is that looking for latent meanings or consequences can alert you to explanations at a deeper level of analysis than the obvious. In observing social situations such as the scenarios listed above, you have the opportunity to delve below the level of cultural acts to search for the hidden meanings that may give you clues about the cultural values operational there. An example will illustrate how this can be done. The decision of a government to supply a rural community with pipe borne water to their houses seems on the face of it to be a positive move for the community as it will enhance their quality of life. It will be less arduous for family members to get household chores done and it will probably take less time. This is an illustration of the manifest function of this act. On the other hand there are hidden consequences. The social contacts that were forged and maintained through years of meeting by the standpipe to bathe and wash clothes suddenly declined. These contacts were especially important to women tied to child minding and housework for most of the day. The new convenience actually made them more housebound than ever and removed th ir main form of respite and recreation. However, it may not be clear to the women concerned that they have been disadvantaged in this way because of the cultural values from which they operate. There is a prevailing 18 cultural value in the Caribbean, and other 'developing' countries, that gives overwhelming support to anything seen to be hri ngi ng about 'modernization'. This has connotations of 'progress' and 'development'. National governments and the man in the street seem to he equally vulnerable. Having running water in the house may be a dream come true for these women. Even if the downside is pointed out to them, chances are they will still prefer the modem convenience. They may say that not meeting their friends quite as regularly is a small price to pay for coming into the modem era. The norms associated with this cultural value will tend to downplay the importance of social contacts, daily interaction and perhaps, gossip, to the well being of a person. Having gone this far in reflecting and delving beneath the surface to uncover latent meanings, you may discover deeper truths about society and culture. On the whole, as the society takes on more and more of the trappings of modernization - the material culture there is less and less opportunities for the emotional, interactional, affirming qualities of human beings to be displayed. Think about it - modem electronic home entertainment is a rather passive activity and you can be entertained alone. Using a computer is similar, as is all the forms of technology we use at home and in our backyards, which preclude us from going to neighbours to enlist help, or give of it ourselves. The point is this - it is not that modem technology is necessarily bad for us but, that the value we have for it is so high that we cheerfully discount the parts of our lives that we lose when we become 'modem'. We think that we can make up for it, and we probably can. Perhaps, the more reflective you are about social and cultural processes, the more alert you will become to both manifest and latent functions, and be better able to assess what you are gaining, what you are losing, and how you can plan to minimize the loss. Cultural Relativism The course assignment for Module 1 will also expect you in your reflections to make some judgements and statements about the cultural practices of yourself and others. For example, the first two scenarios above allude to the exclusionary practices of others and the tastes of others for foreign goods and destinations. The concept of cultural relativism should be kept in mind as we prepare to analyze social situations involving the cultural beliefs of others. 19 Cultural relativism stresses that any element of culture is relative to a particular time, place and set of circumstances. It, therefore, fosters understanding of other groups and 'tolerance' for their practices. Jiowever, tolerance might only extend to respect for someone else's view, and not to emulate their actions. The concept allows one to search for, for example, the manifest and latent functions that may be motivating a group to want to exclude others. Then you can relate those functions to the operational cultural values and evaluate the act and the values behind the act. The objective of the coursework assignment is to help you develop attitudes of civic responsibility and heightened social consciousness, therefore, you must at some point evaluate the behaviours of yourself and others. However, it would not just be a judgement from you about others. The point is that it would be a reasoned account, a conscious selection of arguments, using the concepts of the module about society and culture as well as the 'tools' for analysis, latent and manifest functions and cultural relativism. Summary In this first chapter the major concepts to be used for Module 1, society and culture, were studied. Relevant sociological concepts such as role and norms, were used to build an understanding of these key terms. Attention to the specific stamp of Caribbean in society and culture, led to an appreciation of its diverse as well as common elements. Cultural erasure, retention and renewal illustrated the dynamism of the concept, culture. Finally, some guidelines were given for assignments for Module 1. Further Activities 1. Given the large numbers of Caribbean people living in metropolitan countries, how true is it to say that the limits to the society in the Caribbean is the geographical boundary? Discuss. 2. What are the origins of the term, 'diaspora'? How relevant is it to speak of a 'Caribbean diaspora' or an 'African diaspora'? 3. "The pervasive effects of the foreign mass media is reducing the 'Caribbean' element in Caribbean Society•. Discuss. 4. Distinguish between the terms, cultural identity and cultural heritage 20 Key Concepts Society Technology Exclusion Role Socialization Syncretism Collectivity Cultural erasure Primary socialization Social system Cultural retention Secondary socialization Social institution Cultural renewal Hidden curriculum Social organization Cultural beliefs Cultural relativism Culture Cultural values Latent functions Traits Cultural norms Manifest functions Material culture Non-material culture Folk culture Modernization Dialectics 21 References DEC. (1997). Introduction to sociology (Sy 14G). Social Sciences Study Guide. UWI, Barbados: Distance Education Centre. Dunn, J. (1980). The people of Belize. Social Studies Education. No. 16., pp.29-33 Johnson, A. (1995). The Blackwell dictionary of sociology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Palacio, J.O. (1995). Aboriginal peoples- their struggle with cultural identity in the Caricom Region. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs, 20(4), p. 25-40. ill\ SCO. (1995). Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development. Geneva: VESCO). Further Readings Rohlehr, G. (1992). My strangled city and other essays. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Longmans. Sylvester, M.,T. (1980). Values, family and our changing society. Social Studies Education. No. 16, pp.l2-13. West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian Commission. Mona: The Press. Chapter 2 Geography, Society & Culture Overview Chapter 1 dealt with society as providing the framework for culture. Culture, with its social institutions, organizations, cultural values and norms, develops within a confined geographical space, called its society. The culture that develops is geography-specific and the society's material and non-material culture must necessarily relate to the problems and potentials that are understood by members of that geographic space. However, culture is not something that can be studied satisfactorily by separating out one component such as geographic background, even though that is an important component. One must always be aware that attitudes and responses to the environment, are historically conditioned. In this chapter, therefore, Caribbean space is understood as being both geographically and historically configured. Objectives 1 By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: 1 1. describe how geography, history and human understand Caribbean society and culture; ecology, help 2. appreciate perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of Caribbean people; 3. explain the cultural responses of Caribbean society to plate tectonics, landforms, soils, coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds; 4. develop an awareness of, environment; 5. recognize that Caribbean identity is shaped by both the diverse and common cultural responses of people to their environment. and sensitivity to, the fragility of These objectives refer to those of Module I, specific objective 4, of the Caribbean Studies syllabus. 23 us to the Introduction The cultural responses of Caribbean people to various aspects of their environment are remarkably consistent across the region. Such responses could be thought of as constituting a basic component of the Caribbean identity. While that may be so, as Caribbean people we also know that there is a great deal of diversity within the various societies of the region. We can study these themes- identity, commonality, diversity­ through the relationships that have been fashioned between Caribbean people and their environment. The most fruitful way of unearthing these themes is through expanding our geographical knowledge of the Caribbean. Geography, as a field of study, emphasizes the relationship between human society and the physical environment. Human society is a product of a people's history. Thus, the geographic study of any area must incorporate its history. Human ecology, perhaps, provides us with the best synthesis of how to study the impact of geography on Caribbean society and culture. Human ecology refers to the interrelationships that are forged between a people and their environment. The sense they make of this environment is how they understand the place of people in nature. Human ecology refers to the lived experiences of a people (Unwin, 1992). It refers to how they perceive space, their sense of place. In order to understand the impact of features of the environment on Caribbean society and culture, the chapter takes into consideration historical and human ecological influences on Caribbean cultural responses. We should be able to discern commonality and diversity across the region and so better understand the Cmibbean identity. l{csponscs to Geographic Hazards J\n environmental hazard refers to a natural event having the potential to threaten man's life and property (Nagle, 1998). In the Caribbean, the occupation of a particular geographic space, makes the region vulnerable to a number of geological and meteorological hazan.ls. Hazards refer to the threat or the risk of damaoe to life and b property, whereas an environmental disaster refers to the realization of such a hazard. 24 The human ecology of the region demonstrates how people perceive and respond to threat and disaster. If we are examining cultural responses (material and non-material), they must necessarily have occurred over time and, thus, this discussion has an historical dimension to it. ·\:;;:; 1---+-E s ATLANTIC OCEAN 20 N ..,...Oominican Republic - - ama1r:a :' ... Puerto Rico ·./ / "'q. 'CI Lesser Antilles CARIBBEAN SEA \J 0 9 .• d Venezuela -Fig. 1 -The Caribbean Plate Geologic Hazards The geographical area known as the Caribbean is situated on a geologic feature known as the Caribbean Plate which has boundaries or margins with other plates nearby (Fig. 1). A plate is large piece of crust (on which there may be both land and ocean) and it moves in relation to other plates. largely propelled by currents in the heated mantle below the crust. On the whole, the surface of the globe is made up of six or seven large plates and many smaller ones. The Caribbean Plate is a small plate. 25 The theory of plate tectonics is an explanation of how plates move in relation to each other, thereby, creating certain tectonic activities at their margins. It is generally believed that plates meet each other at three kinds of margins, each with distinctive characteristics. These margins are described below. 1. The divergent (or, constructive margin), where magma upwells from the mantle on to the crustru surface. The plates move away from each other being pushed by this upwelling and diverging movement from below. This results in gentle volcanic eruptions and some earthquake activity, but on the whole such margins are not associated with severe environmental hazards. The Hawaiian Islands are situated on such a margin. In the Caribbean a very small divergent margin may be developing west of Jamaica (Sealey, 1992). 2. The transform margin (sometimes referred to as a fault), where plates slide past each other, generating earthquakes as the rocks move to release the stress of movement and friction with the other plate. The San Andreas Fault, along the west coast of North America, passing through San Francisco, is such a margin. In the Caribbean two major transform margins delineate the northern and southern boundaries of the Caribbean Plate (see Fig. 1) - note, the Cayman Trench, the site of many strong earthquakes. A majority of epicentres are associated with these two transform margins. An epicentre is the point on the surface of the earth where an earthquake is felt most intensely. This is because it is directly above the deep-seated origin of the earthquake, the focus. Earthquakes then pose an environmental hazard to Caribbean countries along the transform margins. 3. The convergent (or, destructive margin), where plates collide with each other forcing one back down into the mantle. This margin poses two kinds of environmental hazards - volcanic and seismic. For our purposes, we will emphasize the eastern edge of the Caribbean Plate, a convergent margin along the line of the Lesser Antilles. You will notice from Fig. 1 that the western edge of the Caribbean Plate lies in the Pacific Ocean and affects Central America in a similar fashion. 26 O• VJ""""' M•. O.Wni . CAR!OO!!AH EA · ...., BMbeJ03 arfV ATLANTIC --->MANTLE WEST EAST Fig. 2- The Convergent Margin Volcanic Activity In direct contrast to the volcanoes created at divergent margins, the volcanoes along the convergent margins have the potential to be destructive.. Fig. 2 shows how the oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle, a process known as subduction. This is accompanied by friction of plate grinding against plate, generating heat intense enough to melt the rocks back to their original molten form, magma. Through cracks and faults in the surface rocks, some of this magma bubbles to the surface, to form volcanoes The lava comprising these volcanoes varies in quality but tends to be much more viscous than the lava generated at divergent margins. (Once magma cools at the surface to from rocks, as in the fmmation of volcanoes, it is called lava). Viscous lava congeals quickly to form rock and seals the volcanic pipe (Fig. 2) so that the upwelling of more magma from below is blocked. Gases in the upwelling magma develop pressures high enough to forcibly eject the plug of old lava blocking the pipe. When this happens the situation is ripe for a disaster. The force of the eruption takes large pieces of the volcano itself into 27 the air breaking up as pyroclastic materials (clouds of hot ash, lava, debris and poisonous gases), and lava pours out as well to cover the surrounding areas. The theory of plate tectonics describes the dynamic nature of plate margins as going through a history themselves. The Greater Antilles were once situated on a convergent margin and experienced volcanic activity and seismic activity much like the Lesser Antilles today. Over time the margin changed to a transform margin. Today only extinct volcanoes occur along the margin of the Greater Antilles. Active and potentially dangerous volcanoes are Mt. Soufriere in St. Vincent, Mt. Pelee in Martinique, the Soufriere Hills in Montserrat but there are many other active volcanoes present in the Lesser Antilles. Kick em Jenny is an underwater volcano off Grenada. It is believed that volcanic activity may be dying out in the extreme north of the archipelago (Saba) and the extreme south (Grenada). However, the recent volcanic disasters in Montserrat may caution us to prefer to think in terms of volcanoes being dormant rather than extinct. Activity 2:1 • Consult a geography textbook to find out the range of volcanic phenomena that occur in the Caribbean. What are the volcanic features which occur in your country? What geological reasons can you offer if there is no volcanic activity, past or present, in your country? • Name the countries, the volcanoes, and dates of volcanic eruptions that have occurred in the Eastern Caribbean over the last century. If possible, find eye-witness accounts of at least one eruption. What was the response like to this disaster? • During a volcanic eruption, death and destruction can occur in different ways. Investigate some of those ways. (Hint: nuee ardente, volcanic bombs). Seismic Activity Along the convergent margin of the Lesser Antilles earthquakes are a common occurrence. Scientists have been able to show that earthquakes originating deep within the earth (130 km or 80 miles) are felt along the line of convergence, associated with subduction. Earthquakes in both the Greater and Lesser Antilles have not been particularly severe, compared with those in Central America along the western margin of the Caribbean Plate. There, subduction is believed to be occurring at a much greater rate than in the eastern Caribbean, and both volcanic and seismic activity are more 28 widespread and intense. On the whole though seismic activity represents a continuing environmental hazard to the people of the Caribbean. Activity 2:2 • Explain what is an earthquake? • It is widely known that the Richter Scale is used to record the magnitude of earthquakes. The Mercalli Scale is used to measure intensity. What is the difference between the two? • Which Caribbean countries have experienced the most severe earthquakes? When? What are the responses to such disasters over time? • Responses to earthquake disasters are often complicated by secondary hazards. Give examples of secondary hazards. • Name at least one landform resulting fran'! earthquake activity. Diversity If you look closely at Fig. 1 on page 26 you will realize that both Guyana to the south and the Bahamas to the north are some distance away from the instability associated with the margins of the Caribbean Plate. In both these areas volcanoes and earthquakes are virtually unknown. In fact, Guyana is situated on the Guiana Shield - a shield is an area of very old hard rocks- that underlie parts of Venezuela and neighbouring areas. Volcanic eruptions are not a feature of life in the Greater Antilles, while both volcanoes and earthquakes plague the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad and Tobago is influenced by the transform margin which forms the southern boundary of the Caribbean Plate. The islands are, therefore, prone to earthquakes. From this you realize that the perception of risk or hazard associated with earthquakes or volcanoes will differ from country to country within the region. This is simply because one becomes aware of a risk or hazard if a disaster has happened before. If it is not likely to happen in your country, or prediction is difficult, chances are that such hazards are relegated to the periphery of your awareness. This is an example of the understandings that spring from human ecology. A specific geographic space is perceived according to the relationships people forge there and the experiences they have. The perception of 'living' space or place to many Caribbean people is focused on their territory or society. For example, while the disaster in Montserrat appalled everyone, to many people in the 29 Caribbean living far away from Montserrat, or whose territory is non-volcanic, there was something of a spectacle about it. The realization that this was a disaster that destroyed a society and scattered its people, and which continues to be a nightmare, may not have touched many that closely. Activity 2:3 • Consider the archipelagic nature of Caribbean islands and the scattered, isolated distribution of the mainland territories. Do you believe that the study of human ecology can offer insights into the difficulties of the integration process in the Caribbean? The diversity of responses to hazards mentioned above can be summarized in the box below. Box 1 - How do people cope with environmental hazards? At an individual level there are three important influences upon an individual's response: • Experience- the more experience of environmental hazards the better the adjustment to the hazard • Material well-being- those who are financially better off have more choice about the hazard • Personality- is a person a leader or a follower,a risk-taker or risk-minimiser? Ultimately there are three choices - do nothing and accept the hazard; adjust to the situation of living in a hazardous environment; leave the area. It is the adjustment to the hazard that is of interest. The level of adjustment will depend, in part, upon the risks caused by the hazard. This includes:• Identification of the hazard • Estimation of the risk (probability) of the hazard • Evaluation of the cost (loss) caused by the hazard The adjustment to the hazard includes three main options:1. Modify the loss burden- spread the financial burden, for example. insurance, disaster relief. 2. Modify the hazard event- building design, building location, land-use zoning, flood relief schemes, seawalls, avalanche shelters and emergency procedures- efforts have been made to control extreme events including flood relief schemes, seawalls and avalanche shelters. 3. Modify human vulnerability to hazard - emergency procedures, forecasting, warning. Source: Nagle (1998),p. 9. 30 The excerpt in Box 1 is a generalized model used to understand the impact of hazards on society and culture. Rather than limiting the impact to only material"effects such as life and property loss, the model attempts to go deeper and probe the options people believe they have about hazards in their environments. Thus, people are not mere puppets. They have beliefs, values and experiences, which prompt them to be vigilant, fatalistic or imbued with a sense of urgency. The impact of a disaster then relates to perceptions, abilities, and possibilities, operating at both the societal and personal level. Activity 2:4 Having read the extract in Box 1, analyze the ways in which an earthquake or a volcanic eruption impacts on society and culture in the Caribbean. You can use a specific occurrence in an identified country. The following suggestions may help in organizing your answer:• What are the typical responses of people in that country to the threat of a disaster? In other words what are their perceptions of risk? What factors govern this perception of risk? For example, H the experience is that only shallow tremors occur in that country, then the likelihood is they have a reduced perception of the risk of a major earthquake. This factor is important when discussing the impact of a disaster on a specific country. • From such a discussion, you may be able to identify certain cultural values adopted towards the environment. You could make the point that the understandings and experiences people have of their land govern their relationships with it, their way of thinking about it. Thus, values underpin the human ecology of an area. • However, these values may not be enlightened or enabling. Rather, they could be complacent and irresponsible. The best examples tend to be places that are at risk but have not as yet experienced a major disaster. The model given above can be used to study any environmental hazard, for example, a hurricane, in its impact on Caribbean society and culture. Again, diversity of experience may be a significant factor in the eventual impact of a hurricane on a particular country. While we are all at risk some countries have experienced rather more hurricanes than others. However, countries near the Equator are not likely to experience a hurricane because the Coriolis Force is not well developed in this area. From this statement you understand that to examine the impact of a hazard across the Caribbean, some basic geographical knowledge about it is necessary. 31 Conceptions of Space and Place Landforms In geography, the study of landforms is referred to as geomorphology. Landforms are also known as physical features. They refer to familiar landscapes such as mountains, slopes, valleys, plains, volcanoes, plateaux, and coastal features such as bays, headlands, cliffs, beaches and coral reefs. Landforms have impacted on society and culture in the Caribbean largely through their influence on the location of different systems of production and the siting of settlements. In the study of landforms and the impact on society and culture we can see clear historical links. For the most part, the areas settled by the aboriginal inhabitants do not correspond with the major areas of settlement and production today. Our societal and cultural forms tend to be overwhelmingly represented in the areas favoured by colonial authorities. European settlers in the Lesser Antilles preferred the leeward coasts, offering sheltered locations, coastal plains, and wide river valleys, for the protection of shipping, the growing of crops and the building of settlements. The mountainous backbone of these countries became the hiding places and sites of resistance for the aboriginal peoples. The influence of landforms on systems of production, such as peasant or commercial farming, displays a remarkable degree of commonality across the Caribbean. Much the same can be said for settlement patterns. The wide, coastal plains of all countries but particularly, Jamaica, Trinidad, Belize, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Hispaniola, as well as the rolling landscape of Barbados, provided ideal conditions for the development of the plantation system of economic production. Many a traveler in the Caribbean has been amazed at the sameness in the landscape when visiting the sugar cane fields of Belize, Guyana or Trinidad. The flat land and coastal proximity ensured that raw materials could be easily exported to metropolitan countries and manufactured goods imported. Even today, centuries later the plantation economy continues with its major features intact and the largest settlements, the capital cities, are mainly the old European ports of call. 32 However, diversity has been introduced. The freed African population often preferred to cultivate small plots of land for themselves than continue to work on the estates. This was possible in larger territories where they could retreat to hilly interiors and marginal lands to escape harassment. In smaller territories, this was not possible. Many islands of the Lesser Antilles abandoned sugar cane production as conditions had never been ideal there for plantations. The sugar economy had been forced onto a landscape ill suited to it. Today they have diversified agricultural production, to suit the hilly terrain by planting many crops and rearing animals on small plots of land. Hence, in many territories today there is a strong tradition of peasant agriculture associated with the production· of food crops. Developing.alongside this, was the. growth of a free and independent spirit. Thus, it is possible to see in the Caribbean, instances of where people have wrested back from the Europeans forms of life closer to their ancestral roots, aided by thphysical features of the environment. The Maroons are a classic example. However, equally strong is the European tradition in areas where the landscape has been judged ideal for the plantation economy. Aspects of human ecology It is possible to see in the account above two differing conceptions of land and space. The European tradition translates into our modern world of increased economic utilization of resources and urbanization. This is the modernization road to progress that we have adopted based on the Western model. Relationships with the land are characterized by exploitative means of production. Land is valued for its economic worth. Land that is labelled unfit for economic exploitation, is often abandoned, used as a dump, or left unprotected to the elements. Moreover, little attention is paid to steep, forested terrain taken over by squatters. We often detect undercurrents of these values when people describe a place as primitive or 'not developed', actually meaning that it should be put 'right'. These are referred to as mainstream values about the man-land relationship. On the other hand, small-scale peasant farmers who own land value it for other reasons. It is tied to family values and inheritance norms. Often it is family land and thus valued, not as one person's property but as a source of sustainable livelihood for many members 33 of the family, which is eventually given as a productive legacy to the younger generation. It is valued as a continuing source of independence for a people who had to win it with struggle. Human ecology helps us to see that peasant farmers' relationships with their land are bound up with the historical need of their ancestors for freedom (from the cultural values of the oppressor). And, bound up with the kind of landscapes that were available to them - lands that were marginal for cultivation, hilly, and in the interior. Thus, we see again history and geography shaping the human ecology (cultural values about land) of the Caribbean. The Caribs and Creoles of Dominica The cultural landscape seen through aboriginal eyes offers a third and different view. The aboriginal concept of land and the impact of landforms on their society and culture are often ignored today and there is the persistent myth that they have been largely exterminated. But, Palacio in 1995 reported that "... there are over 75, 000 aboriginal peoples in the CARICOM countries of Dominica, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and·Belize" (p. 25). We can learn much about the human ecology of aboriginal landscapes through a study carried out by Honeychurch (1995) amongst the Caribs and creoles of Dominica. As Fig. 3 shows Dominica is sandwiched between, and within sight of, two territories of France - Martinique and Guadeloupe. Both the Dominican and the French governments have sought to regularize the sea borders between their states. However, the Caribs of northeast Dominica for centuries now have established informal trading, smuggling and family ties with the descendants of the African population, the Creoles, in Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, Desirade, and Les Saintes. The language, Creole, is spoken on both sides. The dugout canoe of the Caribs has facilitated fast and easy access across the international divide as it has done for hundreds of years. Honeychurch refers to landforms as a crucial consideration in understanding the human ecology of the Caribs, not only in northern Dominica, but in neighbouring islands as well. From Grenada to Guadeloupe the islands of the Lesser Antilles are marked by a high, rugged, central range. This was convenient to the Caribs in their centuries of resistance to 34 the Europeans. Small pockets along the windward coasts became their strongholds, away from the Eurocentric economies and settlement patterns developing on the leeward side of the island. The islands actually came to reflect in miniature the core-periphery nature of dependent economies with metropolitan countries - modem influences in the capital cities directly communicating with the metropole, and the wild, isolated, windward coasts where knowledge dating from pre-Columbian times comprised the folk culture. 6Z 0 W MOllS( RR 1\ - i SG;t.t-e }: J;lSD.ooo """'""' j. ---------------- -i-. ----------------------------·t-50 ;-!. " """""" Fig. 3 Dominica & the Overseas Departments of France The human ecology of aboriginal society differ from those of the 'Europeanized' governments of the islands. In the eyes of a hunter, gatherer, fisherman, warrior, basket weaver, smuggler, the Caribbean was configured very differently. There was no respect for artificial borders that now officially separated friends, relations customer and kin, speaking a common language even across the sea. Actually, because the land was so inhospitable to a sedentary way of life, this particular human ecology developed of outward looking to others across the channel who were similarly marginalized by the geography of their own island. 35 The human ecology of aboriginal society encouraged a view of the Caribbean that did not stop at the sea border because the canoe was an integral part of their culture. They were more adept on the sea than negotiating the mountainous ridges of their islands. It did not stop at international frontiers, first imposed by European invaders and then sanctioned by the newly independent Caribbean states, because those frontiers divided their kith and kin. "For them the intervening sea channels are a continuous territory which transcends the physical and legislative confines of landform and nation state; it is the all­ encompassing geocultural space of their wider Creole world" (Honeychurch, 1995, p. 69). The impact of landforms on aboriginal and Creole society and culture in these islands has been and continues to be fundamental in understanding the human ecology of the area. It contributes to the diversity of culture in the region. Accommodations to the Environment Soils, Winds & Ocean Currents One way of understanding the human ecology response to the environment is to view it as accommodating to what the environment·has to offer. We can use this interpretation in developing an understanding of how soils and winds and ocean currents have influenced Caribbean society and culture and continue to do so. Activity 2:5 • Use an atlas to draw a soil map of your country. Find out the characteristics of the principal soil type. • Contrast the soil map with one showing land use. This term refers to how man has used the land - agriculture, settlement, roads, unused land -and, therefore, relates to the production of a cultural landscape. • • Analyze the information to explain the influence of soil type on the cultural practices of the society. Can you detect the role of cultural values in how soil has been utilized in your country? In a similar fashion, we can investigate the impact of winds and ocean currents on the development of Caribbean society and culture. The prevailing wind in the Caribbean region is the North East Trades. Prevailing winds refer to strong and constant winds that blow all the year round. The combination of these winds and ocean currents were influential in bringing the Europeans this far west and led them to believe they had 'discovered' a 'new' world when they landed in the Bahamas in 1492. In the days of sail 36 and only rudimentary forms of navigation, the winds and ocean currents in the Caribbean region, facilitated European voyages further than they had ever gone before in open sea. Hurricanes are critical to any study of winds in the region. The north-east trades bring weather disturbances, formed off the coast of Africa, westwards into the Caribbean. These may begin as easterly waves and weak tropical depressions. A few will develop into full-blown tropical storms and intense low-pressure systems known as hurricanes. Accommodating to the incidence of hurricanes is a feature of Caribbean society and culture. Activity 2:6 • Reflect on the various ways in which winds in the Caribbean have influenced material culture. For example, in your country are building styles (of roofs and other structures) a response to winds? • What about settlement patterns on the whole? There is a particular type of rainfall that is caused by moist winds being forced to rise over coastal mountains. Find out about this kind of rainfall. Does it have the potential to influence settlement patterns in your country. • How do fishermen adjust to the patterns of winds and currents near shore? (Hint: consult a geography text about land and sea breezes). Attitudes to the Environment Coral Reefs Almost all the islands of the Caribbean, and the territory of Belize, are fringed by coral reefs. The clear, warm, shallow waters allow coral polyps to thrive. The massive structure of the reef is built up over thousands of years. Fringing reefs and atolls are the more common reef structures in the Caribbean. However, the second largest barrier reef in the world is found off Belize. The complex nature of reefs provides habitats, shelter and food for thousands of species of marine flora and fauna. This is referred to as the rich biodiversity of coral reefs. They also offer great potential for producing new forms of medicines. This is because the many organisms comprising the reef produce different chemicals for self-protection which are presently being researched by scientists. 37 Reefs are extensive structures that break the force of waves approaching shore. They enable coastal harbours and beaches to be protected especially during storms and high waves. The survival of swamps, mangroves and wetland ecosystems can also be attributed to the prevalence of reefs. Reefs are economically valuable to human populations. Fishing is productive because of the rich biodiversity. Reefs are a major earner of the tourist dollar. They offer varied underwater experiences such as snorkelling, scuba diving, game fishing, and photography. They are also visited by many spectators who view the corals through glass bottomed boats. The corals and shells of the reef have decorative value and are used by craftsmen to fashion jewellery and other items to sell to tourists. Threats to Coral Reefs It is precisely because reefs are so abundant in species and spectacular in themselves that they have come under direct threat from man. In indirect ways too man has threatened the life of coral reefs. Not too long ago reefs were threatened only by storm damage and the unlikely events of volcanic eruptions or climatic changes over vast periods of time such as the ice a es. Activity 2:7 Below is a list of various ways man has threatened the survival of reefs. Collect information about these threats especially in relation to reefs near you. • Over-fishing • Extracting corals, sand and limestone • Tourist traffic (walking on the corals, fuel from boats, dropping anchors) • • • Coastaldevelopment Pollution Bleaching • Cyanide Fishing The quote below discusses some interrelationships in complex ecosystems, such as the coral reef. It shows that a succession of destructive events is put in train when natural systems are over-exploited by man. 38 In the Caribbean decades of overfishing has led in many places to very low levels of grazing fish species. Because of this, herbivorous sea urchins have played an increasingly important role in keeping algal growth down. In the early 1980's, huge numbers of these urchins succumbed to disease. Without grazing fish or urchin populations, and spurred on in many areas by organic pollution, algae quickly dominated the reefs, inhibiting coral settlement and sometimes overgrowing living corals. In areas such as Jamaica, hurricanes further compounded the damage, reducing coral to rubble. Formerly thriving reefs were replaced by low-diversity and low-productivity algal systems. ,(Bryant et al, 1998, p.12). This proclivity of man to destroy the environment should be studied in some depth. Interrogating issues such as this ought to go a long way in helping Caribbean people develop more enabling and empowering attitudes to the land and its resources. The study described below may be used as a starting point. Potter (1992) in a study carried out in Barbados, found that people's perceptions of the environment and land were bound up in its economic importance. He refers to Lowenthal's (1961) earlier work where he stated that the ... "view that land is valueless save as commodity persists in many aspects of West Indian life today" (Potter, 1992, p.236). He goes on to say that - "The reasons given by Lowenthal for the disinclination to adopt non-economic and non-commercial perspectives on land in the Caribbean, basically involve the influence of slavery and colonialism. Thus, writing in the mid 1980's, his analysis initially stresses that the Caribbean is a place and not a people, due largely to the heterogeneity of the population, which it was argued gives rise to a lack of attachment between Caribbean lands and their inhabitants." (p. 236). In an earlier section of this chapter we described these attitudes as mainstream. Activity 2:8 • Discuss Lowenthal's ideas about the instrumental value land and environment seems to have for Caribbean people. Think of any arguments that show a different side to this analysis. Potter in his later analysis indicted Caribbean governments, rather than Caribbean people, in pursuing policies for quick economic benefit. He says that: 39 .....what may be described as the basically uncritical promotion of tourism has occurred in many caribbean territories despite the most visible ecosystem _ degradation, including the destruction of coral reefs, mangroves and wetland areas,coastal marine pollution and loss of biodiversity (p. 242). Coral reefs have been incorporated into the cultural activities of Caribbean people as a source of livelihood and a means of recreation. The wider uses of coral reefs in marine protection and as a source of medicines have not been generally recognized. Mainstream attitudes to the environment tend to prevail and there is considerable evidence that Caribbean governments allow such practices to take place for economic gain. The impact of coral reefs on Caribbean society and culture then can largely be attributed to the cultural value of understanding the environment in an instrumental way. Indeed in some countries it is now illegal to remove coral. Today there is evidence in most countries that mainstream attitudes to the environment are gradually being infused with environmentalist values. These relate to an appreciation of the fragility of the environment, the usefulness of the environment in supporting our way of life, and the understanding that at even our present levels of technology there are aspects to the environment that we cannot replace. Summary Various disciplines contribute to an understanding of the evolution of Caribbean society and culture. Geography, history and human ecology provide the main concepts in developing an appreciation of the perceptions and conceptions of space on the part of Caribbean people. The areas of emphasis chosen in this chapter to discuss material and non-material cultural responses to the landscape were plate tectonics, landforms, soils, coral reefs, hurricanes, ocean currents and winds. We learned that values attached to the landscape are to a certain extent historically conditioned and that there is much scope for continuing to develop our awareness of, and sensitivity to, the fragility of the environment. There is evidence of commonality in the impact of the environment on Caribbean people's way of life. However, because of differences in history and, landscape, variations also occurred from place to place in the human ecology response of Caribbean societies and cultures. This overlay of commonality underlying diversity is thought to be characteristic of the Caribbean identity. 40 Further Activities 1. For two identified Caribbean countries describe the relationships between settlement patterns and agriculture, mining sites and tourism? 2. Explain the formation of easterly waves and hurricanes. Why do hurricanes rarely hit land close to the Equator? 3. If there are large numbers of aboriginal people in your country, try to find out if their conceptions of land and space, differ from that of the mainstream population. Key Concepts GEOGRAPHICAL: Geography Space Mountains Slopes Valleys Plains Volcanoes Plateaux Coasts Bays Headlands Cliffs Beaches Coral reefs Archipelago Shield Plate tectonics Plates Crust Mantle Seismicity Subduction Pyroclastic Focus Epicentre Magma Lava Fault Volcanic pipe Volcanic plug Land use North-east trades Prevailing winds Hurricanes Depressions Easterly waves Polyps Fringing reefs Barrier reefs Atolls Biodiversity Richter Scale Mercalli Scale Divergent margin Convergent margin Active volcano Extinct volcano Dormant volcano Transform margin Environmental hazard Environmental disaster OTHER CONCEPTS: Commonality Diversity History Identity Core-periphery Family land Human ecology Mainstream values 41 References Bryant, D., Burke, L.. McManus, J.. & Spalding, M. (1998). Reefs at tisk- a map-hased indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute. Honychurch, L. (1995). Caribs, c_reoles and concepts of territory: the boundary between France and Dominica. Caribbean Geography. .Q( 1). pp. 61-70. Lowenthal. D. (1961). Caribbean views of Caribbean Land, Canadian Geographer, 2. pp. 1-9. Nagle, G. (1998). Hazards. Surrey, U.K.: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. Palacio, J. 0. (1995). Aboriginal peoples - their struggle with cultural identity in the Caricom Region. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs, 20(4), pp. 25-40. Potter, R.B. (1992). Caribbean views on environment and development: a cognitive perspective. Caribbean Geography, 3(4), pp.236-243. Sealey, N. (1992). Caribbean world- a complete geography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Unwin, T. (1992). The place of geography. Essex, U.K.:Longmans. Further Readings Hendry, M. (1983). The influence of the sea-land breeze regime on beach erosion and accretion- an example from Jamaica. Caribbean Geography, vol. 1. (1). Sealey, N. (1991). The significance of the geography of the Bahamas in reconstructing Columbus' route in 1492. Caribbean Geography, vol. 3, (1). Robertson, R. (1995). Volcano surveillance and hazard mitigation m the Eastern Caribbean. Caribbean Geography, vol. 6, (2). 42 Chapter 3 History, Society and Culture Overview Chapter 2 focused on the interrelationships of geography, society and culture which have shaped the Caribbean and pointed to the need to examine the imprint of history on the geographical face of the land. We saw the importance of human ecology, the ways in which a people have shaped and adapted to their environment over time. This chapter focuses on the historical processes that have shaped the cultural landscape, both the material culture and non-material culture of Caribbean people. While geography gtves you a sense of place, history gives a sense of time, in the evolution of the Caribbean cultural landscape. Both are necessary ingredients in developing a Caribbean identity. Objectives 1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1 1 assess the impact of certain historical processes on Caribbean society and culture; 2. analyse the impact of human migration on settlement patterns m the Caribbean; 3. assess the role forced labour systems, such as encomienda, indentureship, plantation systems, and slavery, played in shaping Caribbean society; 4. explain the nature of cultural diversity and social stratification in the Caribbean; 5. analyse the positive and negative effects of Caribbean contacts with the global community. These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 5 and 6 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus 43 Introduction In 1492, when Christopher Columbus made his intervention into the Americas, he set in motion a number of processes that have shaped Caribbean society and culture. Two worlds, European and Native American, sometimes referred to as the Old World and the New World respectively, collided. The collision resulted in genocide for many groups of indigenous peoples, who were then replaced by a feeble attempt at white indentureship, and later by African people. As slavery was dismantled in various places during the nineteenth century, the former slave owners attempted to maintain hegemonic control over the former enslaved through various means. Oppressive legislation and other means to restrict the mobility of the newly emancipated were put in place. In addition, as the former enslaved population made attempts to maximize their freedom by controlling their lives through peasant formations and village settlements, mass immigration was seen as the answer to the labour vacuum that was created. The importation of labour in the nineteenth century resulted in several racial and ethnic groups coming to the Caribbean - for example, East Indians, Chinese and Madeirans. These immigrant groups brought with them their cultural experiences. And, like the European and African groups of an earlier era, added to the cultural milieu of the - Caribbean. In essence, the cultural diversity of the Caribbean was, therefore, enhanced m many ways. Migratory Movements Human migration has been an integral feature of Caribbean society for a long time. Some 10,000- 13,000 years ago, when ocean levels were lower, and a land bridge developed between Siberia and Alaska in the area known as the Bering Straits, people of Asiatic stock crossed from Siberia to North America, Central America and South America in less than two thousand years. 44 We are unsure of the exact date of early human migration in the West Indies. It is estimated that the first settlers arrived about 5000 B.C. after a series of migratory waves lasting for hundreds of years. Perhaps the earliest people to occupy the Greater Antilles came through Central America, crossing the narrow stretch between Belize and Hispaniola. Subsequent waves came through South America in the Orinoco region and migrated via the island chain of the Eastern Caribbean on to Puerto Rico towards the North. It is believed that this was the route taken by the Taino (Arawaks) and Kalinago (Caribs). For thousands of years before the arrival of the Spanish, aboriginal people migrated throughout the region. The artefacts that they left are testimony of their presence. By 1492, the Taino settled largely in the islands of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. While the Kalinago, who had always been in a bitter contest for space with the Taino, occupied the islands of the Lesser Antilles. The settlement patterns of the Taino and Kalinago were quite distinct before the arrival of the Europeans. To understand these historical processesf migration, we must have a strong sense of the geographical background against which such processes were taking place. Activity 3:1 is designed to establish a sense of place in the evolution of the historical Caribbean. Activity 3:1 1. On a blank map of the world, locate in the following places: Belize, Mexico, Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, Alaska and Siberia. 2. Draw a circle around the area in Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles where the Kalinago and Taino were located. 3. Draw an arrow indicating Carib and Arawak migration out of South America into the islands of the Caribbean Sea Western Europeans who entered the Caribbean after 1492 came as migrants, in search of wealth and fortune. This dimension of our historical evolution needs to be stressed,. After Columbus' propaganda about the inexhaustible supply of gold to be found, streams of European migrants settled in Hispaniola, Cuba and later Central and South America. 45 These migrants came with a special mission to conquer and colonise. The Spanish conquistadores, in particular, were ruthless in their exploitation of the native peoples. Later on, there was an inward migration of white settlers who established settlements on plantations as an economic group exploiting the labour available to them. As the plantation system developed, especially in relation to sugar cane cultivation popularly referred to as the "Sugar Revolution" of the seventeenth century, African slaves were forcibly brought into the region. The importation of Blacks from West Africa for more than three hundred years was a different kind of migration. They were involved in a system of forced migration called the Atlantic slave trade. Even though migration is considered as a voluntary movement of people from one locale to the next on a temporary basis, we include the movement of Africans during the slave trade, and white indentureship, to highlight the culture of migration that appears to be endemic to the Caribbean. In other words, people are always on the move in the Caribbean, as we have seen, voluntarily and involuntarily. Migration and the Evolution of Caribbean Society To talk of migration, is to talk of the beginnings of Caribbean society. When we speak of major historical processes in the Caribbean, migration is associated with the evolution of the society amidst the European powers search for wealth. The history of the Dutch, French, Spanish, and English Caribbean, begins with the violent oppression and domination of the original Amerindians. The Europeans settled the conquered areas, ---- imported labour in the form of slaves, and, later indentured Chinese, liberated Africans, East Indians and Portuguese in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It is perhaps the constant movement of people into and out of the Caribbean that led Richardson (1992) to refer to a "regional migration tradition". This propensity to migrate, he argued, took off immediately after emancipation in the 1830s when thousands of men and women, most notably from the smaller islands, migrated to Trinidad and British Guiana in search of higher wages and better conditions. By 1845, more than I0,000 46 migrants from small West Indian islands had travelled to Trinidad and over 8,000 others had gone to British Guiana. Many of these emigrants eventually returned home, displaying the fruits of their labour. This movement continued for a long time as a feature of Caribbean people, that is, to move from the small islands of the Eastern Caribbean to the larger ones in a complex inter-island migration. Activity 3: 2 By a process of interviewing family members and neighbours try to determine if a culture of intra-Caribbean migration has been experienced in your country or region. • • Find out approximately when such migration took place. Where were the main destinations? What kind of work was associated with it? Find out also if many of the migrants remained or if they settled in the other Caribbean territory. Do families then in your area have relatives today in different Caribbean countries? Caribbean migration continued unabated in the nineteenth century influenced largely, though not totally, by economic crises, which led to joblessness. Repression on the part of the planters also played a part. Human migration was as much a response to planter repression as it was a desire to make a better living in a foreign land. Jamaica provided the bulk of the labour during the failed French effort at constructing a canal across Panama from 1881 to 1888. When the Americans took over the task of building the canal, other West Indians travf'lled there. More than 40,000 Barbadians, as well as men and women from the Spanish, French and Dutch islands, joined them. The culture of migration does not only encompass the propensity to move. There are behaviours attached to the migrant and his relations with home with which all Caribbean people can identify. There is a common feeling among us to think of our migrant family members abroad as "doing well". Closely related to that is the expectation that some of that good fortune should come back to "help out" the situation at home. This could be as foreign currency (remittances) or gifts. In the activity below we explore further this aspect of our culture and society that has been spawned by our culture of migration. We begin with an extended quote that describes some of these behaviours. 47 "The faithful sending home of money and gifts from Caribbean peoples abroad is neither an irrational fetish nor indicative of a preoccupation with the commercial gimcrackery available in metropolitan department stores. Remittances of money and gifts play a functional role for the migrants themselves, especially if external circumstance force them to return. Young men or women who have regularly remitted money in their absence invariably receive warmer homecomings than those who have not. The legendary faithfulness of migrants is, moreover, spread by stories circulated at home, stories that reinforce such faithfulness. Every small Caribbean island has similar stories which often tell of loyal returning migrants sewing money into their clothing to avoid currency regulations or smuggling expensive goods home to benefit their families." (Richardson, 1992, p.lSO) Activity 3:3 1. Explain what the write meant by "commercial gimcrackery" (line 3)? 2. How serious today is the expectation that migrants ought to send back home gifts on a regular basis. How does that benefit the migrant? When the Panama Canal was completed in 1914, hundreds of West Indian migrants continued the outward trend to the new American banana plantations in Honduras and Costa Rica. Many others joined the British West India Regiment and served in Europe during World War I. It was largely members of the British West India Regiment who were involved in the mutiny at the Cimino Camp, Taranto, Italy. Out of this experience, many West Indian leaders returned to the region with a heightened consciousness and took an active part in many political organizations, campaigning for change. In essence, returning war veterans played an active part in the anti-colonial struggle that eventually led to a strengthening of the regional integration movement. Migration of West Indians outside of the Caribbean continued through the twentieth century. Their search for freedom and economic independence was pursued with vigour and enterprise. The outbreak of World War II provided short-lived relief, especially to the United States. Two special agencies, The War Food Administration and The War 48 Manpower Commission, were set up by the US Federal Government to perform the distinct task of filling the vacuum left by the thousands of young men engaged on the war front mainly in Europe and the Pacific. About 40,000 West Indians seized the opportunity to be employed in the United States for the duration of the war. The construction of military bases in the Caribbean region during the Second World War also provided opportunities for inter-island migration. Jobs were created on US military bases in Trinidad, Antigua, British Guiana, St. Thomas and St. Lucia. The need for skilled labour in Britain after 1945 resulted in massive emigration of British West Indians to the UK in the 1950s. Most West Indians, and indeed almost every Barbadian family, can boast of having at least one relative in the UK. Between 230 000, and 280 000 Caribbean migrants entered Britain between 1951 and 1961. Activity 3:4 a) Read one of the following novels: Samuel Selvon's, The Lonely Londoners OR George Lamming's, The Emigrants. b) What difficulties, according to these writers, did West Indians experience in a modern European city like London? c) Read Chapter 6 "Human Migrations" in Bonham Richardson's book, The Caribbean in the Wider World 1492-1992. d) How are the narrative accounts of the novel (in 'a' above) different and/or similar to the facts and opinions of the historian (in 'c' above)? The trek of West Indians to Britain and to North America during the 20th century, has occupied the attention of many scholars for a long time. Husbands and fathers sending for their families after establishing a foothold in the adopted country is the subject of many fascinating narratives. But more importantly, West Indian migrants, whether in New York or London, established cultural enclaves in the host countries. Notting Hill carnival in England and May Day mas' in New York, have become major West Indian cultural expressions in England and the United States. In short, West Indian migrants have introduced their culture to peoples outside the region in a way that cannot be ignored. 49 Summary There have been different modes of migration shaping patterns of settlement in the Caribbean. Early man, over hundreds of years ago, settled throughout the region - our concern here is largely with the Taino and Kalinago. They established island communities ruled by caciques in the various islands. European invaders, bent on exploration and conquest, displaced the Native American through genocide, strange European diseases and wars, took their land and transformed it into plantations, haciendas and mines. There was a forced migration of West Africans into the region for more than three hundred years. Inter-island migration during the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century then took place. Not exactly forced, but a large coercive element was part of Asian immigration into the Caribbean. We then witnessed an outward migration from the Caribbean mainly by labouring classes to Panama, Costa Rica, the United States, Canada and England. Systems of Production The encomienda Once the conquest of the indigenous people of the Caribbean was completed, the next task of the Europeans was to exploit their labour. The Spanish settlers, for example, instituted the encomienda system in the West Indies as early as 1503. The indigenous . population of a certain district was placed under the rule of a Spanish overlord who was expected to Christianise them and teach them the Spanish culture. They, in tum, were to work part time for him as well as contribute to their Spanish overlord a share of the crops they raised for themselves. ")3_artholomew de Las Casas exposed the abuses of this system by the Spanish settlers. Although the Spanish government always insisted that the Native American population were free citizens, they were treated inhumanely, being bought and sold, and worked literally to death. 50 They fared no better under the labour institution of repartimiento. A percentage of the male population of any village between the ages of eighteen and sixty could be recruited to work for a Spaniard desiring their services for a week or fortnight. Again, even though the Spaniards usually agreed to pay wages and treat the native peoples well, the system was subject to abuse, as the former seldom lived up to their end of the bargain. In some cases, their desire to exploit the land for the growing of crops, rearing of cattle on haciendas, or mining, ignored the cohesive communal arrangements of the indigenous peoples worked out over many generations. Cattle, horses, pigs, goats and sheep, introduced by the Spaniards, trampled their fieWs and destroyed growing crops of the Native Americans. To a large extent, the process of food production adopted by the local people was destroyed as a result of European intervention. Many Native Americans starved or, for the most part, struggled to survive. In the extract below, Bartholomew de las Casas, the Defender of the Indians, writes about their treatment at the hands of the Spanish. After all the Indians of this island [Cuba] were reduced to servitude and misfortune like those of Hispaniola, and when they saw they were perishing inevitably, some began to flee to the mountains, others to hang themselves, together with their children, and through the cruelty of one very tyrannical Spaniard whom I knew, more than two hundred Indians hanged themselves. In this way numberless people perished. There was an officer of the King in this island, to whose share three hundred Indians fell, and by the end of the three months he had, through labour in the mines, caused the death of two hundred and seventy; so that he had only thirty left, which was the tenth part. The authorities afterwards gave him as many again, and again he killed them, and they continued to give, and he to kill, until he came to die, and the devil carried away his soul. (Las Casas, 1552 in Benjamin Keen,1986). Activity 3:5 1. What evidence in the extract suggests the author is opposed to the Spanish treatment of the indigenous peoples? 2. What light does the extract shed on the reaction of indigenous peoples to Spanish bondage? 3. What does the extract reveal about the encomienda system. 51 White lndentureship With the decimation of the aboriginal people and the lobbying of Las Casas, indentureship introduced an alternative system of forced labour. White indentured servitude was an arrangement whereby white settlers in the French and English colonies in the Caribbean entered into written agreements with their white counterparts in the metropolis, to work five to seven years usually without pay. The settlers were responsible for looking after the white indenture who, at the end of his service, should receive a passage back home, a sum of money or a piece of land. Much guile and trickery played a part in these agreements. It is known that many people in a drunken state were kidnapped and shipped against their free will to the Caribbean. Deprived whites, many of them political prisoners and criminals, contributed to the white indentured population. Between 1654 and 1658 ten thousand indentured servants sailed from Bristol alone, chiefly for the West Indies and Virginia. It has been estimated that more than a quarter of a million persons were of this class during the colonial period in the thirteen colonies of North America. In Barbados, which had the highest numbers of indentured servants in the British West Indies, some 12,000 arrived between 1644 and 1655. Even though they were not slaves, their harsh treatment resembled that of a heinous system of exploitation more akin to bondage than freedom. Many died before completing their contracts, no doubt an advantage to their employers who were released from their obligations under the signed agreements. Descendants of these white indentured servants can be found in some rural districts of Barbados. How aware are you of similar groups of people in your society? For example, was white indentureship experienced in your country? The following activity explores these issues. 52 Activity 3:6 a) Descendants of indentured servants are often labelled differently to well-to-do whites in our societies. Identify the labels that may be used in your country. Poor Whites, red-legs, Backra Johnnies are terms used in the Eastern Caribbean. Reflect on the derogatory nature of these labels. Why are such people so described? b) Discuss why indentured servitude, even though it was beset with harshness, still cannot be classified as slavery. The system of white indentureship in the British and French colonies was eventually abandoned. It was becoming increasingly difficu,lt to supply the planters with labour, as indentured servants were not forthcoming in sufficient quantities to replace those who had served their terms. Plantation owners went to great expense to recruit labour, which could only be exploited for a five to seven year period. In addition, some indentured servants made life difficult for their employers by resorting to legal proceedings whenever they were mistreated. And, moreover, public opinion in England was turning against the harsh treatment of white servants. Slavery & the Plantation System For more than three centuries, slavery was to remain the principal system of unfree labour in many areas of the Americas. Approximately, 9 million Africans were brought to the Americas: 1,665,000 to the British Caribbean; 1,600,000 to the French Caribbean; 500,000 to the Dutch Caribbean; 28,000 to the Danish Caribbean, and an estimated 809,000 to the Spanish Caribbean. One cannot underestimate the demographic catastrophe and human suffering brought on African peoples as a result of chattel slavery. Its true exposure raises legitimate claims for reparations by Africans in the diaspora. The journey of slave ships between West Africa and the Americas (the Middle Passage) was wrought with horror, waste of human life and was characterized by high mortality rates. Life on the slave plantation in the Americas, especially the sugar plantation, was a living hell for most black enslaved persons. To live as a slave was to live a life of humiliation. Through it all, African people survived, to forge a society and culture in the Caribbean. 53 Like all oppressed peoples, enslaved Africans in the Caribbean demonstrated a remarkable capacity for survival. They explored the flora of the region and used the familiar plants in their cuisine and folk medicine. A rich folk medicine has survived in many Caribbean societies. The black enslaved created institutions like the Susu (or, sou­ sou), and in the urban areas some were thrifty higglers, traders and innkeepers. They worked their provision grounds and sought manumission (buying of their freedom) on every occasion. Many African words survived in the syntax of the dialects of many territories. The slave family became the linchpin of the slave experience. Slave social and cultural independence were very much evident throughout the region. African burial practices, folklore, customs and child-rearing practices were kept alive everywhere. The historical literature suggests that musical creations loomed very large in the slaves' lives everywhere. In the Caribbean, on the plantations and in the urban centres, slaves held their own dances on holidays and off days. Enslaved Africans in the Caribbean showed a remarkable adaptability to the violence perpetrated on them. Like any forced migrant group, Africans had to conquer their environment to build a life in a transplanted society. They openly resisted when the opportunity provided itself, and accommodated when it suited them. In essence, they demonstrated a very sophisticated understanding of the precarious position they were in and responded with an equivalent sophistication. Activity 3:7 • In this chapter the African population in the Caribbean during the period of slavery are referred to as the black population or the black enslaved or enslaved Africans. Care has been taken, as far as possible, not to label them as slaves. Reflect on the reasoning behind such a decision? Africans, in essence, had survived acts of violence from their capture in Africa to life in their homes on the plantation. The threat of the whip, for example, was ever present or torture and mutilation awaited them for serious acts of defiance or rebellion. Not surprisingly, they fought back. Every day they adopted a variety of non-violent means to resist their enslavement. Destruction of animals, tools, machinery and arson of cane fields, hit the planter class hard. In short, most of the enslaved were naturally "rebellious" 54 and sought to free themselves, physically and/or psychologically, from the harsh regime of slavery. Therefore, to suggest that the black enslaved peoples of the Americas, and even the Caribbean, acquiesced under the inhumanity of slavery is to deny them dignity, pride, even humanity. Activity 3:8 (a) One historian, Stanley Elkins, has argued that the mental stress of slavery forced the enslaved to adopt a Sambo personality. Research what Elkins meant by a Sambo personality. (b) Organize a class debate to discuss the statement that : -the most "... non-violent methods of resistance among slaves were more effective than revolts". Slave Resistance The most spectacular act of rebellion and defiance was in St. Domingue (Haiti). St. Domingue, by the 1790s was the richest slave colony in the Caribbean with an enslaved population of more than 480,000. A colony influenced by the debate of rights emanating from the French Revolution, exploded in defiance of the local planters to rule from the metropolis. Slaves organized themselves into a formidable fighting force under the leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, Henry Christophe and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, brushed aside plantocratic control, threw out the French and destroyed a British invading army and, in 1804, declared the independence of the first Black republic in the Western Hemisphere. However, the basis of Haiti's wealth in the sugar and coffee industries was destroyed. And the downward spiral continued largely because of diplomatic isolation, inept leaders and the need to pay reparations from an already exhausted economy. The fact that Haiti is today's poorest country in the Western Hemisphere has historical antecedents that are not always fully ventilated in the European literature and the press. The Haitian Revolution, however, was a grim reminder to other slave societies in the Caribbean of the potentially awful power of slave resistance. Those who fled from Haiti spread the word of horror, a reminder of planters' predictions of what could happen if the 55 enslaved were not controlled with vigilance. In addition, the debate over rights inspired slaves elsewhere to approach rebellion with deep philosophical and ideological positions. In a way, planters lived in the shadow of permanent slave revolt after the success of the revolution in Haiti. The plantocracy's feeling of unease was aggravated by the escalation of slave rebellions in the British Caribbean in the early nineteenth century. Rebellions had been a regular feature of slave society in the Caribbean from the early days of settlement. Slave resistance was endemic to Caribbean slave societies. Activity 3:9 a) Was there ever a slave revolt in your territory? If so, visit the local archives and research how the plantocracy reacted to the uprisings. Was it a local affair or did it spread throughout the territory? b) Discuss the view that Haiti's poverty today is a result of its severance of its ties with the imperial power. Marronage Maroons were the runaway slaves who established communities in the hilly terrain of many areas of the Americas. Marronage was not always an option in island communities, but existed in large territories where the hilly terrain was ideal for settlements. The most famous Maroons in the Curibbean were found in Suriname, in the Blue Mountains and the Cockpit Country of Jamaica and in Las Villas in Cuba. Many savage wars were fought between the Maroons and the planters, with the former adopting remarkable guerrilla tactics in order to defend their liberty. So successful were the Maroons in Jamaica in defending their liberty and territory, that the British were forced to sign a treaty of peace conceding Maroon independence in 1739. Marronage, and the restlessness of the enslaved blacks in the Caribbean during the nineteenth century, played a big part in speeding up the emancipation process. A growing sense of unease prevailed in the British Caribbean as Barbados (1816), Demerara (British Guiana) (1823) and Jamaica (1831) all exploded in slave revolts in the last days of slavery in the British Empire, a grim reminder of impatience with the system 56 of oppression. Slave rebellion and the constant rum0urs of rebellion were exposing the fragility of the system of slavery. Slavery as an institution had to go, it was just a matter of time. Personal freedom from slavery eventually prevailed in the nineteenth century. The British Emancipation Act of 1833 made provision for an apprenticeship scheme from 1834, and this ended prematurely in 1838. Danish and French slaves received their freedom in 1848 and Dutch slaves in 1863. An Emancipation Proclamation, in the midst of the Civil War, freed the black enslaved in the United States in 1863. In the Spanish islands, slavery was ended in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in 1886 in Cuba. Except for Haiti, which experienced a violent, successful slave revolution, the transition from slavery to freedom in the Caribbean was gradual, and guided by imperial legislation. Struggles for Independence Apart from open protest in the form of riots in the nineteenth century, the newly emancipated resorted to means of defining their freedom. One way was to establish new, and continue old, informal social networks and economic institutions. The Susu, for example, became even more entrenched in the post-emancipation era. It has survived to this day in Barbados as the meeting tum and in Antigua as the box. Friendly Societies, Lodges and various native churches also played a role by assisting the poor in surviving the hostile economic climate of the late nineteenth century. But more central to the struggle of the newly emancipated blacks to survive was the establishment of village settlements, popularly referred to as the independent villages. In any agrarian economy, such as existed in the British Caribbean in the nineteenth century, land was a crucial economic resource. And the class that controlled access to land had an excellent opportunity to exercise hegemonic control over the society. So whereas the planter class, as a rule, conspired to deny blacks land in any great quantity, blacks struggled to acquire it. Ownership of land provided blacks with a degree of mdependence, and immunity, from the caprices of the plantation system. 57 Dynamism of the Former Enslaved Large numbers of village settlements emerged in almost every British Caribbean territory, especially the large ones of the Greater Antilles and the mainland of South America. With the assistance of the Baptist missionaries, many Blacks in Jamaica were able to obtain land and establish free villages. In Guyana, communal villages were established as Blacks pooled their financial resources, bought entire estates and then subdivided the land among them. In the independent village settlements, Blacks continued the activities that they adopted as proto-peasants during slavery (proto-peasants is a term that was applied to the enslaved Africans on plantations who worked their provision grounds and learned the skills of crop husbandry and marketing). In essence, the skills the former enslaved learned through working their provision grounds as slaves were put to good use as peasants later. As Woodville Marshall (1968) has demonstrated, the peasants who occupied the free villages contributed much to the economy of the British Caribbean through their dynamism and innovation. They were the pioneers of non-sugar agriculture, introducing new crops and re-introducing old ones. The plantocracy remained conservatively wedded to the sugar industry, ever imploring the metropolitan government to continue price support and financial assistance. The black peasant, unlike the plantocracy, had no agency to lean on and had to rely on his own innovation and devices. Many village communities in contemporary Caribbean society can trace their ancestry back to the struggles of the nineteenth century and, like the Maroons, are proud of their heritage. Activity 3:10 a) Is the "Susu" still vibrant in your territory? By what other name is it called? b) Find out two ways in which the Susu is different from the Friendly Society. c) Interview some elderly folk in your community to ascertain whether they were ever members of a Friendly Society. d) Reflect on the role that credit unions play now among the poorer sectors of the population. Is there some similarity to these older forms of savings? 58 Other than these forms of savings as a means to ensure their independence, village people developed a strong culture of co-operation and extending help to each other largely because of the precariousness of their existence. In villages today people have much stronger sense of community and neighbourliness than in the urban areas. Although we are quite familiar with these aspects of our culture and society, often we do not reflect on how they came to be. Here we see the seeming friendliness and helpfulness of village life coming down from a century of knowing that co-operation among themselves was the surest way of preventing the encroachment of the planter class back in their lives. Plantation Society and Social Stratification In the British Caribbean, and more particularly in a territory like Barbados, the plantation came to play a dominant role in the economic, social, political and cultural life of the region. The Caribbean plantation, in many instances, dominated not only the physical landscape, but also spread its influence into all aspects of Caribbean life. Hence, scholars refer to a plantation society. Caribbean historians have argued that the plantation placed hegemonic control over our societies for centuries. Moreover, the plantations' effects in all spheres of life in the Caribbean lasted well into the twentieth century. One prominent scholar, George Beckford (1983), like many others, perceived the plantation as a total economic institution. He argued that the "plantation economy" is applicable to "those countries where the internal and external dimensions of the plantation system dominate the country's economic, social and political structure and its relations with the rest of the world''. More recently, Jay Mandie (1973) has linked the debate on plantation society to the transition to capitalism in Europe. The plantation economy, he argued, not only coerced labour, but also required that the plantations themselves be intensely profit-oriented, commercial enterprises that responded readily to changing international market signals. As a result of these features, a plantation society and economy is rife with inequalities 59 and dominated by a market-oriented ruling class. It was a production machine. People were separated by race, colour, status, occupation and cthnicity and the glaring system of social stratification along these lines was quite wide everywhere. One social scientist sums up the situation in the Caribbean: In societies whose social arrangements have been laid partly on racial grounds, as is the case for many societies of the Caribbean region, the crucial social criteria are still social rather than biological. The social structure is predicated upon a distribution of statuses, life opportunities, and prestige allotments associated with ... ascriptions. (Padilla, 1978) Plantation, Society and Culture Despite many differences - for there are sugar, coffee, cocoa, coconut, and sisal plantations scattered throughout the Caribbean - the Caribbean plantation has displayed distinct features. Plantation is a "capitalist" type of enterprise in which land is treated like a commodity. Plantations historically have opened up previously uncultivated land and resorted to coercion in the form of slavery and, later, white and Indian indentureship, to secure adequate labour supplies. Control of the plantation has been centralized, exerted either directly by the owner or his attorney. Absenteeism has been an annoying feature of most Caribbean plantation societies. A substantial importation of technology and equipment has also been a feature of the Caribbean plantation. Plantation has not only been a product of metropolitan capital, as already stated, but has also produced monocrops for an overseas market. As a result of this key role in our development, certain features of the Caribbean should be noted: (a) the prevalence of monocrop agriculture; (b) marginalisation of the peasantry due to hostility from the plantocracy; (c) dependence on foreign capital and enterprise as the main investors; (d) dependence on foreign markets for our crops; (e) forced labour systems from early settlement to the twentieth century; 60 (f) a taste for foreign products; (g) social stratification based on the gradations of colour and race; (h) lack of democratic tradition because of the long existence of slavery. The circumstances under which these societies in the Caribbean were formed five hundred years ago led to a struggle for freedom and have woven a common thread of conflict throughout our history. Exploitation of Amerindians led to genocide but met much resistance in the Eastern Caribbean from the Kalinago. White indentured servants were known to put up resistance to their servitude in Barbados. Slavery in the Caribbean was beset by rebellion throughout its existence. After emancipation, riots, disturbances and labour protests, like the slave revolts of the slavery era, punctuated the British West Indies. The most explosive riots during the nineteenth century can be mentioned here to highlight the significance of them to the social transformation of Caribbean society. The Guerre Negre riot occurred in Dominica in 1844, the Angel of Gabriel riots in Guyana in 1856, the Vox Popular riots in St Vincent in 1862, the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865 and the Confederation Rebellion in Barbados in 1876. Activity 3:11 a) What are the differences between riots, rebellions and revolutions? b) Caribbean people are always accused of having a "dependency syndrome". Is this a fair judgement on our people: if you think it is true, where did it originate? What can Caribbean leaders do to break out of this dependency syndrome? Write an essay of about 2000 words explaining how the plantation system in the Caribbean contributed in any way to a feeling of dependency in the region. c) Plantation System and Cultural Diversity The plantation system brought about complex systems of social stratification, especially in colonies that experienced the arrivals of large numbers of varying ethnic groups. Guyana, Trinidad and Jamaica readily come to mind for they experienced considerable immigration of large numbers of people from outside regions, especially East Indians and Chinese. Between 1838 and 1917, more than half a million Asian indentures entered the region. In these colonies, the emergence of colour, race and class divisions became 61 pronounced. Hostility developed between Blacks and East Indians over space and wage rates. Nevertheless, the new immigrant population also brought their cultural traits and values to add to the cultural richness of the region. East Indian cuisine has spread through the region. In Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana, there is the Hindu and Muslim festivals such as Divali, Phagwa and Eid-ul-Fitr, and the holy days recognised by this community, all existing alongside Christianity with its festivals and religious ceremonies. Over a period of time cultural hybridisation occurred as well. This process has been referred to as a unique form of creolisation, that is, mixing of cultural traits and exchange of values. What has also occurred in the Caribbean was a process of racial admixture. Whites and Blacks produced an offspring of mul ttoes and this racial mixing occurred from as early as the slavery era. Blacks and Indians produced a racial mixture called the dougla. The emergence of groups as a result of racial mixing has created a bewildering number of skin colours and features that are unique to the Caribbean. A specific kind of cultural milieu evolved with the adaptation to the specific environment of the plantation economies in the Caribbean. Food, dance, music, language and family all adapted in their specific setting. It is this adaptation that has created the remarkable cultural variations seen in the region and which are developed as tourist attractions around the Caribbean. Carnival, limbo dancing, calypso, steel pan, are examples of our cultural riches. Some scholars have argued that, in many ways, a combination of European and African cultural practices adjusted to the new circumstances to create Creole culture expressions in the Caribbean. The Shango religion in Trinidad and Tobago and Pocomania in Jamaica are examples of such cultural expressions of creolisation. Many West Indian "dialects" show evidence of mixing of African and European linguistic influences. St. Lucia, Dominica and Grenada have standard and non-standard forms of English and a French-based Creole. The Netherlands Antilles has Dutch and Papiamento. In Haiti and the French West Indies, 62 French and a French-based Creole coexist. Trinidad and Tobago has standard and non­ standard forms of English, Bhojpuri and Urdu, and a French-based Creole and Yoruba are still used by small segments of the society. Activity 3:12 • Rese rch the. conceof.cultural plurali m. Describe the relationship between the plantation system, pluralism, soc1al strat1flcat1on and cultural diversity in the Caribbean. The Aftermath of Plantation The Tumultuous Thirties During the early twentieth century, the culture of oppression and conflict from an earlier era persisted. Severe material deprivation and poverty remained with the majority of the working population well into the 1930s. Labour rebellions occurred in almost every colony in the British Caribbean, commencing in Belize in 1934 and culminating in Jamaica in 1938. The fact that social upheavals should have occurred in a short span of four years in colonies separated by hundreds of miles of Caribbean Sea suggests that there was widespread discontent among the masses in the Anglophone Caribbean. Various local commissions that inquired into the causes of the social rebellion, such as the Deane Commission ( 1935) in Barbados and the Forster Commission ( 1935) in Trinidad, exposed a sad state of decay and crisis in West Indian society. The British Government, ever alarmed at the regularity of social unrest during the 1930s, dispatched the Royal Commission (Moyne) in 1938 to investigate the social conditions. The findings of the Moyne Commission were an embarrassment to the British Government. Some of the most disgusting forms of poverty existing anywhere in the British Empire were revealed by the investigations. The British Government, fearful that the Nazis would use the conditions of the British Caribbean as propaganda against them, released the evidence after 1945 when the Second World War was over. The social rebellions, however, were a watershed in the political history of the region upon which contemporary Caribbean society is built. 63 Out of the social rebellions of the 1930s emerged trade unions and the rise of political parties. This was the era of mass politics and the gradual political enfranchisement of the working classes. As early as 1943, the Jamaican working classes had achieved the right to vote. The process continued in a gradual fashion until 1951 when most of the colonies in the Caribbean had achieved adult suffrage. But, more importantly, the new political leaders, in almost every territory, started a process of social and political transformation designed to correct the ills that led to the labour rebellions in the first place. It is in the post-1930s era that we experienced the building of truly democratic and modem societies in the Caribbean through the promulgation of radical social legislation. The right to self-government also featured prominently in the Caribbean. The days of Crown Colony government were also numbered. The West Indian Federation and, later, constitutional independence during the 1960s and 1970s, became the means by which the British Caribbean severed ties with their former colonial masters. The French Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe chose to remain French Departments. In the Dutch colonies, a special arrangement under the Dutch Tripartite Kingdom was put in place. In short, some Caribbean nations chose to sever ties with the imperial powers, while others agreed to remain in various constitutional arrangements. Activity 3:13 a) The labour rebellions of the 1930s in the British Caribbean were triggered by a number of social, political and economic factors that impacted negatively on the Caribbean. Interview an elderly person who lived through the period to obtain a firsthand account of living and working conditions, housing and wage rates in your territory. To what extent did your findings concur with what you discussed in your class? b) Build up a profile of two persons in your society who were pioneers of the labour movement or founder of a major political party in the decades of the 1940s. 64 Summary The major historical trends that have shaped Caribbean society and culture exposed a region in turmoil and conflict and the emergence of the dominant form of economic and social organization known as the plantation system. The legacies of this system, particularly social stratification and cultural diversity, have continued to shape our society and culture. The plantation during all its phases of development relied on some form of forced labour. The importation of labour from many societies outside the Caribbean region threw various people into a cultural pot. The plurality of ethnicities and racial groups has resulted in a cultural diversity that is unique to the region. All the racial groups, especially those that entered the region by force, had to reconstruct elements of their culture in order to survive. This was very evident among African peoples who found their culture under constant threat by the dominant white plantocracy. In many instances, the oppressed groups had to adapt, assimilate, innovate, resist and openly rebel in order to survive. It was this cultural tussle, the constant struggle for freedom, which has contributed to cultural diversity in the Caribbean and the forging of a cultural identity. Further Activities 1. Oppression has been part of the Caribbean's historical experience. Discuss some of the ways in which Caribbean people, past and present, have responded to the problem of oppression. 2. In your opinion, does cultural diversity threaten national unity and stability? Provide examples of Caribbean culture and society to support your view. 3. "There is no cultural diversity within the Caribbean. There are only micro-differences as one moves from country to country." Discuss this statement with reference to at least THREE Caribbean countries. 4. Choose a country in the Caribbean with which you are unfamiliar, that is, you know very little about its history, society and culture. Engage in a research project to highlight that country- from its earliest history of migration, production systems, responses to oppression and movements towards independence. If any of these categories do not apply, reflect on why that is so. 65 Key Concepts Hegemonic control Plantocracy Atlantic Slave Trade Slavery Chattel slavery Middle Passage Encomienda Repartimiento Intra-Caribbean migration Indentureship Immigration White indentureship Genocide Remittances Cultural diversity Artefacts Conquistadores Social stratification Manumission Free villages Cultural pluralism Plantation society Emancipation Cultural hybridization Aboriginal people Monocrops Sugar revolution Diaspora Reparations Creolization Mulattoes Dougla Culture of migration Riots Revolution Anti-colonial struggle Rebellion Revolts Regional integration Marronage Trade unions Enfranchisement Adult suffrage Political parties Self government Crown colony W.l. Federation Constitutional independence References Bannon, J. F. (1982). The colonial world of Latin America. StLouis: Forum Press. Chapter 1 Beckford, G. (1983). Persistent poverty: Underdevelopment in plantation economies of the Third World. London: Zed Books. Pp. 84-110 Deosaran, R. (ed.) (1995). Cultural diversity, politics. education and society in Trinidad. St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago: The Ansa MeAl Psychological Research Centre. Pp. 14-61 Fagan, R. L. (ed.) (1995). Spain. Europe and the Atlantic world. Essays in honour of John H. Elliott. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chapter 12 Gmelch, G. (1992). Double passage. The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back 66 home. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Chapters 14, 15 Mandie, Jay R. (1973) 'The Plantation Economy: An Essay in Definition" in Eugene D. Genovese (ed) The Slave Economies: Hist01ical and Theoretical Perspectives, New York: John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Marshall, W. (1968) "Notes on Peasant Development in the West Indies since 1838:_: Social and Economic Studies Vol. 17. Palmer, C. A. (1995). The first passage: Blacks in the Americas 1502- 1617. New York: Oxford University Press. Chapters 1, 3 Richardson, B. (1992). The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492- 1992: A regional geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapters 3, 5, 6, 7 Simpson, L. B. (1966). Spanish Utopia. In J. F. Bannon (ed), Indian labour in the Spanish Indies: Was there another solution? Boston: D. C. Heath. Smith, M.G. (1994). Culture, race and class in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Mona, Jamaica: Department of Extra-Mural Studies. Chapters 2, 3 Thompson, A. (1997). The haunting past: politics, economics and race in Caribbean life. New York: M. E. Sharpe. Chapters 1, 7, 8 Vertovec, S. (1992). Hindu Trinidad religion. ethnicity and socio-economic change. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan. Chapter 2 Further References Fiet, L., & Becerra, J., (eds.) (1998). Caribbean 2000: Regional and/or national definitions. identities and cultures Faculty of Humanities, University of Puerto Rico. Neinecek, S. (2000). Who were the first Americans? Scientific American. 67 Chapter 4 The Caribbean and the Wider World Overview Previous chapters dealt with some central concepts necessary for understanding society and culture and, in particular, the impact of geography and history on Caribbean society and culture. This chapter deals with the Caribbean in terms of its interactions with the wider world, the influences the outside world is having in shaping Caribbean society and culture today and the impact that Caribbean society and culture seems to be having in metropolitan countries. At the same time, we realize that the interactions with the wider world cannot be similar in frequency and impact. The strength of any interaction is a function of the perceived power or acclaim of each region. Objectives• By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1. describe how interactions between the Caribbean and the wider world have shaped aspects of Caribbean society and culture; 2. appreciate that the pervasive image of metropolitan countries is a problematic aspect of this interaction; 3. evaluate the impact of Caribbean society and culture upon aspects of the politics and the economics of the wider world; 4. apply an understanding of the differences in power between the Caribbean and the wider world to the nature of their interactions; 5. analyze the impact of Caribbean society and culture upon aspects of the cultural practices of countries outside the Caribbean region. 1 These objectives refer to those of Module 1, specific objectives 8,9 and 10 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus 68 Introduction The Caribbean, for the most part, welcomes interactions emanating from metropolitan countries in the form of trade agreements, education opportunities, global information and communication networks, for modernization and progress. On the other hand, the practices of Caribbean people, while being increasingly represented on the world stage, have met with mixed reactions abroad. You should keep in miud though that what you­ are witnessing is the meeting of different cultures and it is interesting to reflect on the conditions that allow for cultural domination, assimilation and or accommodation. GLOBAL INFLUENCES ON CARIBBEAN CULTURE AND SOCIETY History is the major determinant of the strength of the influences we experience today from the wider world. The Caribbean has been forged in a contest between superpowers. We all belonged to them for periods of time. During those periods we experienced cultural domination, as the major one-way influence, from metropolitan countries. Now that much of the Caribbean is independent, we should examine the kinds of arrangements or influences that are maintained with the former imperial powers and reflect on their impact on Caribbean society and culture today. As a result of our colonial experience, we have countries in the Caribbean with a range of arrangements with their former imperial powers. These are mostly independent countries in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Montserrat, Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, the British Virgin Islands and the Turks and Caicos are still colonies of the United Kingdom. Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Martin are departments of France and some Dutch islands are still colonies of the Netherlands. These countries have strong ties with the imperial power. Thus, in some Caribbean countries the influences of the metropolitan country remain as strong as ever. The cultural ties of those countries are directed northwards to the Netherlands, England and France. These arrangements seem to have remained in place because it appeared to be in the best economic interests of the islanders. This is an aspect of Caribbean society and culture where there is much tension. While Anguilla opted to 69 remain under the control of Britain, the continuing heavy hand of France in her overseas departments is causing considerable local opposition. However, amidst the wider Caribbean, these countries represent living outposts of metropolitan lifestyles and valu s. Independent Caribbean The independent Caribbean countries that have assumed self-responsibility and sovereignty have a different relationship to the metropole than do the non-independent territories. Although independent, the ties with the colonial power through investment, monetary arrangements, educational connections, traditions of government and law, enable us to benefit from contacts with certain centres of influence in Britain, France or Spain. In the case of the Commonwealth Caribbean we benefited from belonging to the Commonwealth. Britain, even after giving independence to territories, still accepted some responsibility for their welfare. Aid and other forms of technical assistance were made available and the Commonwealth Secretariat was set up for this specific purpose. Development assistance and research are offered to former territories in areas of education, business development and other technical fields. The whole range of goods and services which we import came at first from the U.K. and then the USA and Canada. Both consumer items and capital and intermediate goods are imported in vast quantities throughout the Caribbean. Cultural imports in the form of music, fashion, foods and mass media, are voraciously devoured in the Caribbean.{:his potential benefit that we enjoy can be to our detriment as the possibilities for generating alternatives are destroyed by our affinity to imports. We have also benefited from preferential trade agreements. Caribbean bananas and sugar have been allowed special protection by European countries under the Lome agreement. Trading within a given language zone with a similar legal system and a financial system into which we were already integrated proved advantageous. 70 Activity 4:1 Recently the banana industry of the Windward Islands was affected by a dispute between the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the European Union (EU). • Find out about preferential agreements between the Caribbean and the European Union relating to bananas. • Explain the role played by the World Trade Organization in this issue. • What has been the outcome of the dispute? In the case of the Commonwealth, Britain was an early outlet for migration and higher educational opportunities. The first set of West Indians studying abroad went to the UK. In addition, through migration, sizeable West Indian communities developed in the UK and later the USA and Canada. Our heroes in cricket and football have honed their skills in British clubs that accepted them as professionals. These opportunities contributed to our dominance in world cricket for more than a decade. The interactions and opportumties described above cannot be interpreted as merely mutually advantageous arrangements between equals. Caribbean nationals benefited because they were able to take advantage of what the metropole had to offer. Even in institutional arrangements we merely cany on the legacy of the colonial power. For example, our legal and education systems mirror those of industrialized countries, because we envision working and or studying abroad and value certification from that quarter. In any event, thert> is a definite preference for internationalized systems - of business, law, education - so that we can better articulate with developments in foreign countries. In a very real way keeping abreast of how things are done in the metropole, signifies whether you are knowledgeable about, and au courant with, your field of endeavour. Up to now the metropole represents the standard, the cutting edge of education and research, and as responsible people we actively participate in this interaction. Here we see elements of a dilemma for Caribbean people. How do we maintain a commitment to our Caribbean cultural heritage and at the same time admit that the modem, eurocentric ideas emanating from developed countries are what we truly uphold as progress. If you reflect on this tension in our societies, you will find that we have relied on the metropole to do a lot of our thinking for us. For example, the premium we put on an 71 education abroad not only socializes us into the usual array of norms and values but, fashions how we think even about our Caribbean problems and what we allow ourselves to entertain as solutions. We will now examine contemporary interactions that stem largely from North America and could be construed as another wave of cultural domination or cultural imperialism. Cultural imperialism In the world today, given the improvements in communication, images can be transported worldwide. Print, audio and visual images can be easily accessed in homes, schools and businesses. While the potential for good exists in small countries in search of identity and self-definition, the continuous penetration of foreign images, views of the world and lifestyles could inhibit the development of small countries. The very capacity to recognize their own problems and set priorities, is affected by the psychological conditioning of the mass media. Approaches to consumption, sexuality and leisure are all sold on the screen. The preference for basketball over cricket or fast foods over local foods has implications for local industries and jobs. The fact of the matter is that the dominant images in the Caribbean continue to be those of the metropole. Although location of metropole has changed and our governance arrangements also - we arfor the most part independent and no longer colonial outposts­ we continue to be flooded with patterns and lifestyles of foreign countries. Activity 4:2 deals with this dilemma that is part of the Caribbean cultural experience. Activity 4:2 1. Consider instances of your country's relationship with any major metropolitan country, be it financial, commercial, cultural, technological, or educational, and determine whether the needs and interests of your country are satisfactorily dealt with. 2. Why are the international fast food chains growing so rapidly in the Caribbean? What values are being challenged by the proliferation of fast food outlets? This section explored the cultural domination that the metropolitan countries enjoy in the region. It is directly related to our historical experience. Today it continues because of our small size, limited resources, and little power. In order to accomplish most of our goals as a people and as individuals, we find that we have to adopt and adapt to cultural 72 practices originating in the metropole. While some may say this encourages dependency, others say we have little choice in the matter, it is life in the real world. THE IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN CULTURE ON POLITICS AND ECONOMICS OUTSIDE THE REGION There are sizeable communities of Caribbean people in the largest cities of the developed world and they impact in various ways on the politics and economies of those countries. Large numbers of Caribbean populations live and work in cities like New York, Toronto, and Miami as well as London, Paris and Amsterdam. Their influence has led to cultural innovations in the fmm of Carnivals, music and other festivals. In all of these cities their political relevance is growing as their populations grow. This will be important to the development of a Caribbean identity as the social pressures of metropolitan societies cause immigrants from the Caribbean to either undergo assimilation or assert their own identity and sense of Caribbean self. It is interesting to study the impact our migrant communities are having in the metropole. For example, do we see examples of cultural assimilation on their part and cultural accommodation within foreign societies? Politics The huge presence of Cubans living in Florida form a powerful lobby to pressure the US government to formulate policies designed to destabilize the communist regime of Fidel Castro in Cuba. The controversy over a home for the little boy, Elian, a refugee fleeing from Cuba, became international in its intensity. The Cubans in Florida have taken up residence as close to Cuba as possible so as to remain a political force and see the overthrow of Castro's government. Their interests become part and parcel of the South Florida political scene, particularly as the US will not be averse to seeing the removal of what they consider a communist dictatorship from their doorstep. The presence of large numbers of Haitians in Florida also represent a Caribbean force in the US which has compelled the latter to step up immigration surveillance measures in an effort to halt the flow of boat people attempting to get into the country illegally. The treatment of these political refugees sometimes erupts onto the international media and forces the US government to take cognisance of its role as a superpower in close proximity to one of the poorest nations of Earth. 73 In similar ways the large Caribbean populations in New York, Toronto and London, find their concerns cropping up on the political agenda in relation to immigration policy, refugee status, deportations, work permits and the like. The aspects of politics they impact upon have much to do with being migrants. Recently, Canada's immigration policy changed in response to large numbers of citizens of Trinidad and Tobago overstaying their welcome. Now an expensive visa has to be obtained and an interview conducted when previously there were no such strictures. Activity 4:3 • Brainstorm the kinds of ways, not mentioned above, in which Caribbean people impact on the politics of countries outside the region. • A continuing problem, around which you may focus your discussion, is the clash of cultures and prejudices in big cities. What political repercussions and accommodations result from such incidents or interactions? Politics and economics In the following section we will explore some hard to define ways in which Caribbean society and culture impact on the politics and economies of metropolitan countries. We will do so by examining how controlling forces in the economies of metropolitan countries have manipulated aspects of Caribbean society and culture for economic gain. We will also notice that it was co-operation between the political machinery of the metropolitan countries and the Caribbean, which was responsible for exposing these acts. One of the scourges of developing countries has been their inability to cope with corruption in governmental circles (both at the level of the political directorate and the public service). Some leaders ha (! been corrupt and many of their ministers and other officials have also been corrupt. :]he abuse of influence and power for personal financial gain is a common denominator.' In many countries there are millions of people who cannot enjoy a decent quality 'o f life because the resources have not been properly managed or the benefits for the population have had to be sacrificed in order to accommodate bribes, sweetheart deals, and kickbacks. Countries outside the region have through their democratic institutions and judicial systems, unravelled ways in which big business has courted and taken advantage of political players in the Caribbean. Why has the Caribbean been so vulnerable to corruption amongst its highest officials? Probably, because in Caribbean countries the 74 state has played a dominant role in the economy and this has contributed to a dependency syndrome. Many people are, therefore, dependent upon the largesse of the state. Political parties and leaders have also a assumed a role in determining the personal circumstances of individuals based on their loyalty to one political party or another. Erring politicians resist being held accountable, especially if they arc supported by the maximum leaders, powerful political heads of state who have enjoyed extended stays at the helm. hus, the_ political culture in many of the new democracies in the Caribbean encouraged the forces of big business from outside the region to obtain lucrative contracts through bribery of public official The quote below puts the issue in perspective. The Caribbean Basin was one of the first parts of the globe to experience colonization and the region where British imperialism survived longest; it remains an area which the most powerful nation in the contemporary system, the US, defines as crucial for its national security; and as a region made-up of small peripheral states, it is vulnerable to a variety of outside pressures in policy-making. These factors combine to give external agents an unusual degree of influence over politics in the region and to raise doubts about the sovereignty in the area. (Grugel, 1995, p.84). International crime in Caribbean countries also impacts on the politics and economies of countries outside the region. Issues such as money laundering, drug trafficking, gun running, and cross-border crime, pose problems beyond the capabilities of small developing countries and are usually based on influences from other metropolitan centres of the world. For example, the enormous cocaine industry in South America is a response to the great demand for it in North America. As a result, Caribbean states have to look towards forging alliances with the major powers of the world in order to deal with problems of international crime in a realistic manner. In doing so, the issue of dependence on former colonial powers will arise. Small Caribbean countries cannot fight these cross-border problems on their own and they need developed countries to assist them. In many instances, there are mutual interests involved in fighting these problems. Activity 4:4 Identify one area of international crime that is of concern in your country. What forms of co-operation exist to help your country deal with this situation? 75 IMPACT OF CARIBBEAN CULTURAL PRACTICES ON COUNTRIES OUTSIDE THE REGION Why have they migrated? And what, if any, are the peculiar pleasures of exile? ... In the Caribbean we have a glorious opportunity for making some valid and permanent contributions to man's life in this century. But we must stand up, and we must move. (Lamming, 1960) You have already seen how, throughout the twentieth century, the people of the Caribbean have been migrating to North, Central and South American countries, and to many countries in Europe, especially Britain. In addition, our presence is felt in various countries of the world as new communication technologies continue to erase the boundaries between countries. As Thompson ( 1995) noted: We must not lose sight of the fact that, in a world increasingly permeated by the products of the media industries, a major new arena has been created for the process of self fashioning. It is an arena, which is severed from the spatial and temporal constraints of face-to-face interaction, and ... is increasingly available to individuals worldwide (p. 43). The works of our artists and our national festivals have perhaps been made especially visible thwugh the mass media. The tourist trade has also meant that visitors from the Caribbean go to other countries of the world, while the people of those countries come to us, so that aspects of our lifestyle have become accessible to people of other countries on an ongoing basis. First the colonial governments, and then our own leaders of state, have continuously attempted to market our goods and services to the people of other countries. The cumulative result of migration, trade and the mass media has been that our own society and culture have contributed to patterns of cultural contact and exchange worldwide. And, whether those life ways have been welcomed or resisted, they have nonetheless made an impact on cultures and societies outside the Caribbean, for example, our national festivals. 76 The impact of our National Festivals The excerpt below illustrates how one such cultural expression, the Trinidad Carnival, became part of the way of life of the people of England, through the Notting Hill Carnival. The process was not always a smooth one. In fact, the excerpt illustrates how the influence of other cultures may be exerted in a context, which sometimes comes to be characterized, by conflict and even violence. The passage represents the interpretation of one member of the Black community in Britain about how the Notting Hill Carnival evolved in the thirty years it has been celebrated in Britain. The Notting Hill Carnival started within the framework of culture - it was a cultural event. What it emphatically did not start as was potentially challenging culture. ... And so, for the first years of its life, the Notting Hill Carnival was left alone. Why was that so? A number of reasons. The police participated,incidentally in Netting Hill Carnival for all those years, and they got enormous propaganda out of it: reassurance to the black community that they were nice people ... reassurance to the white public that they were ... relating enjoyably to black people ... The early black organisers were men and women who were black culturalists ... Carnival was about two things, really. First, African bands like Ginger Johnson played an important part, and secondly steel and costume bands from the Eastern Caribbean,particularly Trinidad ... And,as long as the Carnival continued to be culturally about the two modes of music, everything was 'cool','wonderful','beautiful',and allowed for 'dose vibes' ... and then Palmer decided that he would do something to appeal to a different element ... Palmer introduced reggae music, the music that moves the vast majority of the young people, - and, if you check the "blues parties" the old as well - from the Caribbean. In this country ... And he had massive publicity before hand. Naturally, five hundred thousand people, or thereabouts,attended the Carnival ... Once that happened, the Carnival entered the domain of threatening culture, because it was their mass culture, active mass culture, and had to be suppressed. (Gutzmore,2000,pp. 338-341). Over the years, the Notting Hill Carnival has been marked by clashes with the police as well as by much calmer enjoyment. It was stopped for some years because it was perceived as threatening. Nonetheless, it has continued and has grown, and become a tradition in the area. As has happened with the Caribana festival in Toronto, and the Brooklyn Labour Day celebrations, elements of the society in these countries have sometimes resisted these celebrations. However, partly because they have contributed to the economies of these countries, and partly because the West Indian communities have fought for their inclusion, pointing out, for example, that Caribana has earned millions of dollars for metro Toronto, Carnival has started to take root in these countries, and become 77 part of their cultural practice. Indeed the Notting Hill Carnival has now become one of Europe's largest street festivals. As the excerpt suggests, one of the distinguishing marks of the festival in Europe is the merging of inputs from different Caribbean countries. The adoption of our music The Steelband With the influx of pannists or steelband men into these countries, too, the steelband as a musical instrument has become increasingly popular. Steelband men came to these countries to play mas and often settled there. They have now started teaching the citizens of these countries to play the pans and to tune them. Today, steelband music is on the curriculum of some schools in North American countries, and the fashioning of pans is a growing skill which has the potential to contribute to the economies of countries, both there and in Europe. In fact, in October 2000, when the International Steelband Festival was held in Trinidad and Tobago, more than 600 pannists, playing in steelbands from countries of Europe and North America, as well as from the Caribbean, participated in the festival. One Association, Pan European, is increasingly assuming the responsibility for creating a network to promote the development of pan in Europe. The steelband has, in fact, taken root firmly enough that in Europe it is now being incorporated on a small scale into other forms of music, like rap. The impact of Reggae Just as Carnival has caught on in parts of Europe and North America , the Jamaican Reggae Sunsplash festival, which started in 1978, was for years a premier international reggae event, with people coming from all over the world to take part. The popularity of the festival is just one small indication of how reggae has taken root in countries throughout the world. In fact, the Washington Post, describing the popularity of the festival, described how among the audience were Japanese kids with com rows, and WASPafarians from the USA. (WASP is an acronym meaning White Anglo Saxon Protestant. It suggests a group whose values would traditionally have been opposed to all that reggae and Rastafarianism represents). 78 Today, reggae has also started to be incorporated into the music of other countries throughout the world. In Japan, for instance, a well-known female vocalist Sayoko, has cut a reworking of the Japanese pop classic Ue 0 Muite Aruko (Sukiyaki) as an extended CD single that includes both the Japanese and English versions of the song, set to a reggae beat. And, in Nicaragua, the band Good Vibrations wrote a reggae protest song, Election Time, to protest the political victory of President Chamorro, who opposed the revolutionary Sandinistas. And in Zambia, Rastafarians and reggae artists and fans shaped their own Sunsplash outside Lusaka every year since 1990. Perhaps one of the surest signs of how reggae is taking root in the United States is that Madison Avenue is using the music to market products- Shaggy's Boombastic has been used to sell jeans for Levi Strauss. Furthermore, reggae is also being incorporated into other music forms - one punk rock group in the USA, for instance, now produces a kind of crossover reggae they call Jah rock. In fact, so much is the music now recognized as a significant part of popular culture in the United States that the University of Vermont has advertised a course in The Rhetoric of Reggae on the Web. Apparently, it was one of the more popular courses in the year it was first offered too! The impact of Rastafarianism Even though Rastafarianism initially caused uneasiness in the countries where it was introduced, the popularity of Bob Marley, is one factor that has also helped to maintain interest in the practices of Rastafarianism. Marley became almost an idol for young people all over the world, and his music continues to be popular years after his death.This interest manifests itself today in the growing practice of Rastafarianism in other countries of the world. The Rastafarian dreadlocks are now adopted by many African-American who are not themselves Rastafarians, but who say they use dreadlocks as a manifestation of deeply held beliefs which they share with Rastafarians. Chevannes (1995) has shown how Rastafarians in the USA have so made the religion their own that some have started modifying it to make it more in harmony with their own cultural values as Americans. Thus, they have exchanged discourse about a purely black brotherhood for a wider concept of brotherhood that includes all races in the USA. 79 Another way in which the music helped to make Rastafarianism influential with the cultures of other countries was that the language and ideology that underpin Rastafarian black consciousness - the words of Marcus Garvey and Franz Fanon, for instance, became familiar to people from other countries through people like Marley. Interestingly too, given that part of reggae's attraction at first was as protest music (I Shot the Sheriff, But I Swear It Was in Self Defence), the messages of peace that were also part of the content of Marley's music were incorporated into the calls for peace in the world. The youths of North America used these messages in protesting the United States' involvement in Vietnam. Thus, some beliefs and expressions of Rastafarianism found acceptance partly because at first the music articulated what people in these countries felt in a time of turmoil and transition, but they have now permeated the discourse of those countries. Changes within social institutions Even when, as described in the narrative about the Notting Hill Carnival, the response to cultural influences from the Caribbean has produced discomfort and a sense of conflict in other countries, you will find that attempts to reconcile this perception of conflict have themselves helped to create some measure of change in cultural practices and social institutions. Establishment of structures to deal with conflict As our people and our cultural traditions have taken root in countries throughout the world, those countries have had to acknowledge that the meeting of different cultures can give rise to conflict and disruptions to accepted patterns of social behaviour. As a result, they have been led to develop laws and policies, and to make various arrangements to minimize the possibility of conflict and accommodate these cultural practices. Chevannes (1995) relates, for instance, how in 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a 1986 ruling by the New York State Appeal Court that New York State prison officials could not constitutionally require inmates who adhere to the Rastafarian religion to cut their own hair. 80 Changes in education The growing presence of the children of Caribbean immigrants in schools in North America and Europe has also made an impact on the education process. For Instance, the dominant language in many countries is no longer the only one to find an accepted place within the oral and written texts in classrooms. Now various languages, including our Caribbean Creoles, have been explicitly accommodated within many national curricula. Courses like Cultural Studies have also been included on the curriculum to encourage awareness of, and respect for, diverse cultures, including our own. As you have learned, education is an important means of socialisation of young people into culturally appropriate ways of behaving. Such changes in the curriculum, therefore, suggest that some influences from our cultural practices are now being systematically incorporated into the cultural practices of countries throughout the world, through the education of their children. Activity 4: 5 Research Project: For any major festival in your country, investigate how the festival is being promoted abroad, and about the influx of tourists into your country at the time when it is staged. 1. How many tourists from outside the Caribbean visit yearly at the time of this festival? 2. What opportunities for learning about, and taking part in, important cultural practices do they have when they visit? 3. Draw an illustrated map. Locate tourist destinations in your country where tourists can take part in major cultural events. Activity 4:6 For any one major form of popular music or one national festival in the Caribbean, summarize: i) What information about it is available on the Web? ii) What arrangements are made to market it internationally? iii) What evidence is there of its growing popularity in countries outside the Caribbean? Summary In this chapter our focus was on interactions. We were interested in finding out what was the nature ofthe interaction like between the Caribbean and the wider world. We saw the 81 impact of metropolitan societies on our region in terms of cultural domination and saw as problematic the pervasive image of those societies in the interaction. In examining our impact on metropolitan countries, we noted that cultural contact has been marred by ---- conflict and violence, even corruption. Such occurrences could be attributed to the differences in power between the two societies. However, there were also elements of accommodation on the part of the host society and assimilation on the part of migrants in the metropole. Further Activities 1. On the bulletin board in your classroom, or on any other convenient space, design an exhibit showing evidence of how people in other countries of the world are beginning to adopt elements of our culture, for example, Caribbean restaurants in cities abroad or posters advertising shows and festivals. 2. Read the excerpt from the Gutzmore article again, and suggest reasons why people may have come to perceive the Notting Hill Carnival as "threatening", based on your understanding of how cultures and societies evolve. What are some other more posnive ways in which people of other countries have responded as our cu ural practices started to make significant inroads there? 3. How would you respond to people who say that the region needs to beware of how important aspects of its cultural heritage are being taken over by countries outside the Caribbean. You may wish to consider the following- specify some of the consequences they fear; suggest ways in which the process accords with what you know about what happens when cultures interact; and, suggest policies which you believe may help to prevent important features of our cultural heritage from being lost to us in the process. Key Concepts Interaction Metropolitan Modernization Dependency Commonwealth Lome Agreement Identity Cultural accommodation Cultural assimilation Politics Cultural domination European Union Economics World Trade Organization Rastafarianism Reggae Cultural expression Communist Ganja Black consciousness Carnival Steelband Dreadlocks Largesse Corruption Cultural contact Lobby 82 References Chevannes, B. (1995). Rastafari: roots and ideology. Syracuse, N>Y>: Syracuse University. Grugel, J. (1995). Politics and development in the Caribbean Basin. London: Macmillan. Gutzmore, C. (2000). Carnival, the state and the black masses in the United Kingdom. In_ K. Owusu (ed). Black British culture and society: a reader. London Routledge. Lamming, G. (1960). The occasion for speaking. The pleasures of exile. London: Michael Joseph. Thompson, J. (1995) The Media and Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. Further Readings James, C.L.R. (1963). Beyond a boundary. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd. Manley, R. (1996). Drumblair: memories of a Jamaican childhood. Kingston: Ian Randle. 83 Chapter 5 Exploring the Concept, Development Overview Since development will be the focus of our discussion for subsequent chapters, we will explore the concept in this chapter to first get a good understanding of its dimensions and interrelationships. Development is a challenge for the Caribbean. To be better able to make a contribution to development, we need to educate ourselves about the potential of development. We will see that various approaches to development have been tried and abandoned, or are followed without consideration of alternative approaches. This chapter attempts to clarify the concept of development. Objectives• By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1 1. distinguish between economic growth and development; 2. apply and use indices of economic growth; 3. compare and contrast older and contemporary notions of development; 4. articulate the development challenge facing Caribbean societies; 5. define and use measures associated with human development. These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objectives 1, 2, 3, and 10 of the Caribbean Studies Syllabus. 84 Introduction Dominant ideas on development have tended to follow an economistic model. More recent understandings emanating largely from the UN have stressed a people-centred approach. To fully appreciate recent concept of development, we will explore models of development that we have inherited. These include various versions of the plantation system, industrialization according to the Puerto Rican model and experiments with economic ideologies. Finally, no explanation of the concept of development, will be relevant without some idea of its interrelationships with technology, especially in this world of increasing globalization. What is development? Up to the middle of the twentieth century and perhaps a little later, the development of countries was conceived in mainly economic terms. The indicators used to assess development were growth in national income, per capita income, levels of diversification, levels of personal income, levels of investment and levels of infrastructure. Other supporting measures of a strategic nature included fiscal balance, trade balances, levels of unemployment and inflation. Moving away from the economistic approach While the above economic measurements are still relevant indicators of the well-being of a country, the thinking on development has shifted away from solely material factors to include non-material factors. Development today is much more people- and process­ centred. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines development, for instance, as the enlargement of peoples' choices. Today there is a strong consciousness in development thinking that development is for people and that people must be equipped to carry out the processes themselves. 85 Environmental concerns Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, human beings on planet earth have become conscious of the need to conserve the environment. It is now common knowledge that our quest to produce more goods and services can destroy the atmosphere, pollute the ocean and rivers and destroy precious ecosystems that in tum combine to reduce the quality of life for all. So environmental concerns were put squarely on the development agenda and people began talking about sustainable development. Environmental impact assessments are now standard requirements for any significant project. In fact, a whole new ara of knowledge known as environmental science has evolved as well as a whole new legal framework to support conservation efforts in commercial and industrial life. Activity 5:1 1. Identify crucial infringements of good environmental practice by any agency in your country as well as in another Caribbean territory. 2. Identify the present beneficiaries, and the long-term losers, from this malpractice. 3. Suggest ways to deal with this problem immediately and in the long run. Gender, minorities and development The late decades of the twentieth century brought gender and issues relevant to minority groups squarely onto the development agenda. The world became conscious of the valuable and undervalued role women played in society. Women as leaders m households, purveyors of culture who could contribute fully to the improvement of societies if they were brought into the mainstream of education and economic and community life. Inclusiveness became a valued factor in the development process. This, therefore, meant that the development process should also include minority groups within any audit. Inclusiveness made for greater participation and equity which ensured greater sustainability in the long run. 86 Activity 5:2 1. 2. Describe any plan, programme or project in your country in which you can identify the exclusion of any relevant stakeholders. How can this affect the future success of this project/plan/programme? 3. Suggest approaches and identify difficulties in dealing with such exclusion. Participation and development Development should not bypass the processes by which a community of people learn to set goals and arrive at consensus. Processes of participation ensure sustainability by actively involving those who have to implement and use certain facilities. It ensures that they are involved at all stages in the decision-making in planning and implementation. People-centred development Today it is recognised more than ever that the productivity of a nation has to do with the skill and education of its human resources. In the age of information technology the production of wealth requires individuals with problem solving and information management capabilities in order to harness the technology in both new and old endeavours. This means that investment in people is important, that is, in their education, training and retraining as well as in their health. Development and culture Another major departure (although not entirely new) in thinking about development is the emphasis on culture. UNESCO called the last decade of the twentieth century the decade of culture. The concern was that the culture of a people reflects their natural strengths, values, tastes, technologies and use of resources. To the extent that plans, programmes, projects in a community begin from the point of recognition of these natural strengths and build on them, then the development process is highly likely to bring valuable, fruitful, sustainable results. Of course, this recognition of culture would encompass and inform 87 all the other concerns here stated about environment, gender, community participation and people-centeredness. Activity 5:3 Read the extract below about a technological innovation in Sri Lanka that was designed to spur on economic development in the region. Then attempt the following questions. 1. How did the society gain from the new arrangements? 2. How did the society lose? 3. Did this strategy respect culture and encourage community empowerment? 4. Could you identify and similar case in your country? A cautionary tale from Sri Lanka From the 1960s to the mid-1970s, 2000 inboard motorcraft were brought into fishing villages of Sri Lanka to improve yields. Costing each about 10 to 15 years' of a village family's income, the boats were introduced under a hire­ purchase scheme. Few of the fishermen thus precipitated into a cash economy had any savings. Wage costs plus loan repayments placed their new income under considerable strain. With no margins to draw on, many of the fishermen went bankrupt. The critical, unforeseen expenditure was for repairs, nothing in their past experience having prepared them for the task of maintaining Norwegian boats equipped with Japanese engines. When a boat broke down and the owner could not fix it, it lay idle, thus preventing the continued repayment of loans. This allowed wealthier owners to acquire the second-hand boats, and build up fleets that increased their advantage over the previous "inefficient" canoe-based fishing system. Fishing output in one village rose by 7 to 8 times in 15 years. Meanwhile the total number of people employed in fishing decreased by 50 percent, and unemployment reached the point where 35 percent of males under 25 had no job at all. Formerly, there had been a very small elite of one or two families and a large class of free peasants; now there was a somewhat larger elite of ten to fifteen families, while about 200 families lived close to, or below, subsistence level. Finally, traditional obligations of village life disappeared as a result of the erosion of traditional social relations governing production, and the fish, which had once been eaten in the village, was now exported 210 kilometres away to Colombo. Report of the World Commission on Culture and Development. UNESCO, 1995 88 Redefining development The economic approach to development emphasizes the material, that is the goods and services, consumed by people. The output of the nation's economy was, therefore, the key significant indicator. If the econ9my grew it was assumed that people would be better off. Growth without development This material conception of development was long ago recognised as insufficient, especially in cases where there was the "growth without development syndrome" and the "quality of life" argument. Countries like Trinidad and Tobago in the 1970s experienced rapid growth in the.nation's output, but the country became ever more dependent on the single export - oil. This prosperity was not sustainable as the price of oil tumbled in the early 1980s and the country was forced to tum to the IMF. Gr wth with declining "quality of life" A country's output of goods and services can grow, but the process generates accompanying ills that reduce people's capacity to enjoy life, for example, pollution, crime, destruction of family life, traffic congestion, ill health and rise in the cost of living. Defining the modern conception of development From the preceding discussion of development as a process that deals with culture, gender, environment, community power, and people-centredness, one can discern a sharp contrast to the economistic approach to development. At the end of the twentieth century, within the UNDP, a new paradigm of development evolved called the Human Development paradigm. Development in this new approach is defined simply as the enlargement of people's choices. This paradigm is based on four main pillars: equity without which the process is P0t socially sustainable; sustainability that emphasizes the need for longevity of the 89 project or programme; productivity that emphasizes investment in people; empowerment that emphasizes the need for people in a community to have autonomy and control. Enlarging people's choices raises many issues. It is not only about goods and services: it also involves leisure, health, education and various needs of human beings, including freedom and security. Issues also include the human capability to produce, the freedom to participate and the autonomy that comes from reduced centralised control. Indicators of development A whole range of indicators of development is now possible. The economic indicators still have their place. They are still worthwhile measures of material changes in output. Output and material growth have not been abandoned but they are now recognised as necessary, but not sufficient, indicators of development. Economic indicators GNP/National Income - the sum total of goods and services, the value of which accrues to nationals of a country in a given year. Per capita income- National income divided by total population. Levels of diversification- Sectoral component of GNP divided by total GNP. Level of investment/domestic capital formation - level of investment by the government and private sector in a given year. Unemployment level - the percentage of the labour force willing to work and unsuccessful at finding work. Inflation rate- percentage increase in the level of prices in a given year. Fiscal balance - the difference between proposed expenditure and revenue in a given year by the central government. Trade balance - the current account balance is the difference between the exports and imports of goods and services in a country for a given year. 90 Non-material indicators By contrast, non-material indicators have become more important with the evolution of the human development paradigm that defines development as the enlargement of people's choices. - (1) Level of social services- health, recreation, sports. (2) Level of educational opportunities. (3) Sophistication of the public services- civil services. (4) Media freedom. (5) Level of environmental conservation/pollution. (6) Treatment of women, children, the marginalised. (7) Level of civic consciousness and participation. (8) Levels of crime. (9) Housing. Relevance to the Caribbean Given the historical legacy of the Caribbean, with countries being organised for production by some metropolitan interests, a key development challenge is how to reorganise production and exchange to suit the needs of an independent society. Most, if not all, Caribbean societies have the legacy of mono-crop dependence on foreign capital and entrepreneurship, narrow market dependence and lack of development of local resources and technology. In the quest for transformation of these societies, the non­ material indicators are extremely important. We have to aim at the diversification of these economies, away from dependence on oil and bananas and bauxite. remove inequities internally, develop mindedness and political participation. our educational capability, We have to increase civic­ The economic transformation, which we seek, can result only from a holistic transformation of our societies involving education and training, gaining commitment to societal goals through increased social commitment and 91 \ ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AnnualIndicators GOP at market encea (J$ m} GOP (US$ bn} Real GOP growth (2il Consumer (!rice inflation (av; %} Poeulation (m} Merchandise e orts fob (US$ m} Merchandise imeorts fob (US$ m) Current-account balance (US$ m} Reserves excl gold (US$ m) Total external debt (US$ bn} Debt-service ratio, eaid (%) Exchange rate (av; J$:US$} 1tH 170,133 4.8 0.5 19.5 2.5 1,796 2,625 -74.1 681 4.3 16.3 1917 220,556 6.2 -2.4 9.5 2.6 1,700 2,833 -312.3 682 3.9 15.2 37.1 39.1 1818 203,109 5.5 -1.8 26.3 2.5 1,721 2,715 -111.6 880 4.0 16.3 35.1 19191 262,410 6.7 -1.1 6.0 2.6 1,447 2,589 -220.7 560 3.8 14.7 36.6 1191 251,122 6.9 -0.7 8.7 2.6 1,613 2,710 -255.3 710 3.8 13.1 35.4 ... January 28th 2000 J$42.3:US$1 Origins of gross domestic product 1998 %of total Components of gross domestic product 1998 ! %of total ' Agriculture & fishing Mining & guar ing Manufacturing Electricit& water Construction Distribution Transeort, storage & communications Financing & insurance GOP at factor cost incl.others Princieal exeorts 1998b Alumina Sugar Bauxite Bananas Total incl.others Main destinations of exports 1998 us Canada UK EU excl UK 1 EIU estimates. 7.3 10.1 17.3 5.5 8.4 22.9 15.8 12.2 100.0 Private consumetion Government consumetion Fixed investment Stockbuilding Exeorts of goods & services lmeorts of goods & services GOP at market erices 66.5 17.8 28.9 0.2 42.7 -56.0 100.0 US$m 575 81 95 33 1,316 Princieal imeorts 1998b Raw materials (excl. fueQ Consumer goods (incl. food) Caeital goods Fuels Total incl. others US$m 1,224 922 551 295 2,992 %of total 39.5 15.6 13.4 17.1 Main origins of imeorts 1998 us EU excl UK Caricom Latin America %of total 47.7 12.8 10.2 6.7 bCustoms basis. Table 1: JAMAICA (source: Economist Intelligence Unit 2000) EIU Country Repon 1" quaner 2000 10 The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2000 through institutions, which promote participation at all levels. These are fundamental pillars for sustainable living standards. Activity 5:4 From Table 1 for Jamaica, comment on the following, making calculations where necessary: 1. How has the Jamaican GOP grown over this period? What are the implications? 2. Comment on the rate of inflation in Jamaica. 3. Comment on trade pos ion? 4. Which are the most important sectors in the Jamaican economy? 5. Compare the nature of Jamaica's exports to its imports. How diversified are Jamaica's exports markets? The Human Development Index Since 1990 the UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) has produced a Human Development Report annually. This report gives indices of development of different countries and provides a ranking in terms of development for the different countries of the world. Table 2 gives the last ranking for 1998 done in its year 2000 report. Barbados ranks number thirty ahead of all the other Caribbean countries. Canada is ranked number one and Sierra Leone is last in line. Where is your country placed in this ranking? The Human Development Report measures average achievements in basic human development in a simple composite index. The statistical procedures and techniques may be controversial. The measures taken into consideration include per capita national income as well as life expectancy, adult literacy rates, and school enrolment. Background to the economic concept of development If we view Caribbean economies historically, then we begin with pre-Columbian economy and society where trade would have been based on barter, technology was simple, life was communal and a whole ethos of existence based on a different way of 92 - L TABLE 2 HOI ranks, 1998 TABLE 2: (source: UNDP (2000), pp.149). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Canada Norway United States Australia Iceland 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. United Arab Emirates Estonia Saint Kitts and Nevis Costa Rica Croatia 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. Maldives Azerbaijan Ecuador Jordan Armenia 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. Papua New Guinea Cameroon Pakistan Cambodia Comoros 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Sweden Belgium Netherlands Japan United Kingdom 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Trinidad and Tobago Dominica Lithuania Seychelles Grenada 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. Albania Samoa (Western) Guyana Iran, Islamic Rep. of Kyrgyzstan 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. Kenya Congo Lao People's Dem. Rep. Madagascar Bhutan 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Finland France Switzerland Germany Denmark 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. Mexico Cuba Belarus Belize Panama 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. China Turkmenistan Tunisia Moldova, Rep. of South Africa 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. Sudan Nepal Togo Bangladesh Mauritania 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Austria Lexembourg Ireland Italy New Zealand 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. Bulgaria Malaysia Russian Federation Latvia Romania 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. El Salvador Cape Verde Uzbekistan Algeria VietNam 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. Yemen Djibouti Haiti Nigeria Congo, Dem. Rep. of the 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Spain Cyprus Israel Singapore Greece 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. Venezuela Fiji Suriname Colombia Macedonia, TFYR 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. Indonesia Tajikistan Syrian Arab Republic Swaziland Honduras 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. Zambia Cole d'lvoire Senegal Tanzania, U. Rep. of Benin 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Hong Kong, China (SAR) Malta Portugal Slovenia Barbados 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Georgia Mauritius Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Kazakhstan Brazil 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. Bolivia Namibia Nicaragua Mongolia Vanuatu Egypt 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. Uganda Eritrea Angola Garnbia Guinea 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Korea, Rep. of Brunei Darussalam Bahamas Czech Republic Argentina 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. Saudi Arabia Thailand Philippines Ukraine Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 120. 121. 122. 123. Guatemala Solomon Islands Botswana Gabon 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. Malawi Rwanda Mali Central African Republic Chad 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Kuwait Antigua and Barbuda Chile Uruguay Slovakia 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. Peru Paraguay Lebanon Jamaica Sri Lanka 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. Morocco Myanmar Iraq Lesotho India 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. Mozambique Guinea-Bissau Burundi Ethiopia Burkina Faso 41. 42. 43. 44. Bahrain Qatar Hungary Poland 85. 86. 87. 88. Turkey Oman Dominican Republic Saint Lucia 129. 130. 131. 132. Ghana Zimbabwe Equatorial Guinea Sao Tome and Principe 173. 174. Niger Sierra Leone relating to time and space existed. This civilization was wiped out by the capitalist, materialist march of the European powers. Plantation Economy The model of plantation economy helps to set the framework for the emergence of Caribbean economy and society. In the early 16th and 17th centuries, islands like Barbados, Jamaica, Antigua and Dominica were places where Britain found it convenient to grow sugar for export. Some core features of pure plantation economy in its earliest phase are given below: (1) the dependence on foreign enterprise, skill and capital; (2) the complete specialisation of the island in the export crop; (3) importation of all necessary inputs; (4) technology wholly imported; (5) a total institution, completely reg lated internally. Plantation Economy Modified At emancipation the society was modified, as slaves were set free. From 1834 to the early 20th century, the evolution of society took place with developments in education, changes in government, rise of a black middle class, rise of a black peasantry and the development of trade and commerce to facilitate the needs of a free society. However the legacies of the pure colonial economy proved hard to unravel. These countries governed from abroad still depended on sugar as the main support of the islands. There was no significant development of any local resource and the societies remained largely agrarian and dependent on the imperial power for aid and trade. The colonial economy in the Caribbean exploded in the 1930s, as the economy was unable to provide for the needs of the growing population. 93 Plantation Economy Further Modified The twentieth century saw self-government, labour movements and adult suffrage but the colonial economy remained intact up till the 1950s. A local private sector developed, engaging in commerce and distribution but the economies were still undiversified, dependent on sugar, bauxite or bananas. Some countries developed new sectors such as tourism or oil, but these were completely in the hands of foreigners and so the syndrome of dependency on foreign capital enterprise continued, with the lion's share of profits going abroad. After the Second World War, the Moyne Commission from London said that, to all intents and purposes, these islands were good for agriculture and nothing else. .. Industrialisation In the 1950s, following the Puerto Rican model, countries throughout the Caribbean and Latin America began earnest attempts at industrialisation. The argument ran like this: since these countries did not possess the relevant technology, enterprise capital and market conne tions, then it made sense to invite special firms to set up in production within our territories. The firms would have all the capital and market connections. Certain incentives would be offered to these firms such as tax-free holidays, exemption from taxation on raw materials and equipment, and free factory shells. The idea was that local investors would learn the tricks of the trade, investors would reinvest and the process of economic growth would take off. · This strategy was aimed at developing a manufacturing sector. The results of these policies were not very encouraging ten years later. By the late 1960s, the effects on employment and increased industrial activity were very limited. Most firms engaged in screwdriver-type industries for which the employment effects and the generation of linkages were minor. Some firms folded after the tax holidays were over. So, while some economies have a small manufacturing class, it is not significant enough to generate sufficient foreign exchange or employment. Most economies are still dependent on single exports to narrow markets for survival. But, while "industrialisation 94 by invitation" was seen to be unsuccessful by the 1960s, it remained, strangely enough, the main strategy in the Caribbean until today, as many of the biggest countries see their survival as tied mainly to their ability to attract direct foreign investment. These territories still see themselves as having to import technology, lock, stock and barrel, even when local producers are attempting to set up shop. Not that there is not a need to do so. But we have not reached very far in devising ways to use local resources to produce goods that we can sell abroad. We have not as yet learnt to build markets or promote local goods. The legacy of foreign tastes and lack of acquaintance with technology are continuing constraints. Economic Ideologies The Caribbean offers experiences of a range of ideologies. Cuba in 1959 took the socialist option and has survived till today. Grenada took the socialist option that did not last. Jamaica took the socialist option and retreated. socialism and suffered. Guyana took up a variant of The other countries of the Caribbean remained with the conservative and approved options but even the wealthier countries in the region, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados and Jamaica, ended up in the hands of the IMF in the latter part of the twentieth century. The Socialist Option The socialist option always proved difficult given the geopolitical context of the Caribbean vis-a-vis the needs of American society. With the existence of socialist Cuba, the USA was not prepared to permit another rival ideology to exist in the Caribbean. Any other socialist country would have suffered all the possible sanctions of trade, aid, and technology that could have been brought to bear on such a country. Secondly, while such an approach to governance may give power to the state, it does not solve the central problem of shortage of enterprise, technology and generation of local goods and services. 95 Statist Policies From the period of the 1950s to the late 1970s, the attempt by the state to control the "commanding heights of the economy" was the key ideology. Most of these economies were mixed with a strong state sector and a weaker private sector. Governments saw themselves as the prime movers with the responsibility to produce employment and a better standard of living for all. Not only were governments seen as managers of the economy, but also as owners of enterprises. Large state sectors developed in countries like Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. Na onali _ tion was a respected word even up to the late 1970s. ,. Liberalisation With the fall of the Eastern Bloc countries and the dismal experience of state enterprises in other parts of the world, countries entered an era of free market capitalism in the last two decades of the twentieth century. The rise of information technology and its application tQ trade and commerce made the world into one marketplace. This meant that protection of home markets could not be sustained in the future. Under the aegis of the World Bank and the IMF, countries were forced in the direction of free market capitalism with the implications listed below. 1) Removal of restrictions against foreign goods. 2) Removal of restrictions against financial flows. 3) Privatisation of state companies. 4) Reduction of state subsidies to industry. 5) Reduction of state involvement in economic activity generally. Caribbean countries have all gone down this path. The danger is that we are now more than ever inundated with foreign goods, culture and tastes. We still have un-diversified economies and, in the case of bananas, we are facing the consequence of losing preferential markets. In the context of the information age, we are challenged to educate 96 and train m order to obtain local entrepreneurs who can develop other areas of the economy. The challenge of technology and the new Information Age Throughout our history, we have been dependent on technology from abroad. The nature of any technology, however, is its cultural heritage. Every process or tool implies the use of certain kinds of resources to produce certain kinds of outputs to satisfy certain needs and wants. The plantation experiences gave a limited exposure to technology, but one that could be built on by freed slaves. The manufacturing class that subsequently evolved imported all technology from abroad. In order to reduce this technological dependence considerable technology research and innovation are required. The development of computer technology and the application of such to production, trade and exchange, presents a new technological environment within which countries have to survive. E-commerce is the new buzzword of the day and the use of the Web and digital technology is radically changing banking, education and distributive trades. In this era, the skill and depth of human resources will determine a country's ability to survive. Unequal Distribution of Income Inequality of income distribution is a distinct heritage of the colonial economy and society. Immediately after emancipation, there existed a large-scale agricultural sector alongside small-scale peasant agriculture. The peasant sector was starved of support and infrastructure in the 19th century while the large-scale sector controlled major land resources and benefited from better infrastructure. the society. Structurally, inequality was built into The lack of success in diversifying the economy also meant that the traditional lead sector gave higher wages while other sectors gave low wages. Also, as these populations grow, unemployment increases as economic activity does not increase in scope. This could worsen the distribution of income. 97 Activity 5:5 1. Identify some local entrepreneurs in your country. 2. Describe the area of involvement and the extent of involvement of locals in business 3. Comment on observable patterns. Activity 5:6 1. How diversified is the economy of your country? 2. How have attempts at diversification fared? 3. What suggestions for future diversification do you have? The political process and development A crucial requirement for development is to include people both as beneficiaries of the process and products of the political system.. How are the political processes crafted to encourage participation of the widest sort? Genuine participation involves people in decision making at all levels so that the setting of priorities and use and distribution of resources have consensus and commitment. Corning out of a system of direct rule from abroad, the British Caribbean has had a problem of crafting political institutions that reflect and incorporate people in the development of their countries. The two most important developments in this direction have been the size of the labour movement and political parties. Trade Unions As chapter 3 showed, trade unions were the first organisations that won rights and freedom and struggled to improve the living standards of citizens. This was the experience in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago as well as in some of the. smaller islands. Union leaders like Uriah Butler in Trinidad and Tobago, Bustamante in Jamaica, Clement Payne in Barbados, Antonio Soberanis and T. A. Marryshow, were all struggling for better living conditions for people before there was universal adult 98 suffrage. Trade unions are still significant in the political life of many Caribbean territories. Activity 5:7 1. Name a few trade unions 1n your country. 2. Examine critically the functions and activities of these unions. 3. How have they contributed to the development of your country? 4. /ve unions in your country growing or declining in strength? Give reasons. Political parties and nationalist government The growth of nationalist politics, the granting of universal adult suffrage from the 1950s brought advantages to the general citizenry. The formation of political parties meant a lifting of' national consciousness and the coming of independence meant that Black people now occupied the higher echelons of the entire civil service. The control of public policy with national governments in charge meant that a concerted effort was made to improve the livelihoods of ordinary citizens. Today, however, many of the independent countries are questioning whether or not the Westminster model of democracy is working in a way as to include ordinary citizens in the decision-making process. This may mean that decisions made by those in authority may not have the commitment of the masses. Also, the political process may not be appropriate for expressing the needs and interests of the population. For example, many people feel that they only 'participate' in their country's government once every five years at election time and after that they are not included in the process of decision making. Globalization and the influence of global markets The Caribbean has always been integrated into the north, as we have already seen in this chapter. From the early sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we became incorporated 99 into the world economy and Europe was the leading power in that world economy. We were already involved in a global system. We supplied Europe with some form of raw materials; all our needs were supplied from Europe; people were transplanted from China, India, and Africa and from Europe to a lesser degree. Of course, the global system had to use sea transport as the only form of cross-border communication. The technologies for transporting goods and making financial transactions were limited and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, each European power sought to protect its trade with its colonies from other countries through navigation laws. This form of protectionism was referred to a mercantilism. The global system today has changed. Besides the improvements in air and sea transport, the application of digital technology to telecommunication has revolutionised the transmission of print, audio and visual data. Protectionism is now not possible in a borderless world. Goods and services can be transmitted anywhere and payments can be made once a source of power exists along with an efficient mail system. In addition, as has been explained earlier, the dominant ideology in the world today is free market capitalism that is facilitated by information technology. International agencies like the World Trade Organisation, International Monetary Fund and the World Bank set out to reduce trade barriers, free up the international movement of money and reduce governments' involvement in the economy. Dependence In this kind of global economy the leaders in technology will be able to dominate the globe in a more complete way than ever before. Countries like the USA will be able to literally sell their culture freely to the rest of the world. Small countries with weaker cultures may find themselves inundated with images from the north that are so compelling and consistent that these countries may be kept dependent as their citizens adopt foreign lifestyles and purchase foreign goods. 100 As technology improves in the northern countries, the gap in living standards between the European and North American countries and the poorer countries of the south will widen even further. As technology improves also and new techniques are discovered for making products, certain resources from the poorer countries may no longer be needed. Technological dependence would be reinforced in the future as we seek to improve production in the fields that the developed countries have charted. The range of our imports from them will increase and will be of less significance to them. Activity 5:8 1. Compare the situation of a sixteenth-century planter importing a commodity from Europe to that of a producer today making a similar import. 2. Identify positive and negative ways in which the process of globalisation has begun to affect your country International Firms The Plantation The first international firm that came to the Caribbean was the plantation. It was set up with foreign capital, enterpric and technology. It produced for a foreign market abroad and purchased all of its inputs abroad. And, through a process of transfer accounting and book transfers, it could settle all its accounts in the UK. The plantation was a total institution. It had no production links with other plantations on the islands and catered to the needs of all its residents. Plantations, therefore, do not generate inter-industry linkages, the lion share of profits are repatriated and it decides the parts of the production process it wishes to hold abroad and so its impact on the economy is limited to wages and taxes. Transnational Corporations/Multinational Corporations Essentially a TNC pulls together the factors of finance, technology, supply of raw materials, manufacturing, distribution and marketing in one organisation. This kind of organisation is privately owned and controlled in one country but draws 101 upon the resources of as many other countries as are necessary to secure an operation which flows in an integrated way, from raw materials through processing and manufacturing to final market. It represents, therefore, the highest phase in productive organisation because it extends the principles of vertical integration beyond national boundaries to a global theatre of operations. (Manley 1987, p. 194) The plantation, therefore, was the forerunner of the transnational corporation that was to dominate the main sectors of some countries in the Caribbean: oil in Trinidad and Tobago and bauxite in Jamaica and Guyana. The impact of these types of firms can be limiting to a country in the following ways: 1. the firms can restrict the transfer of technology and management skills to the host country; 2. the firms can repatriate the lion's share of profits; 3. it may not be in their global interests to reinvest in the host territory; 4. the firms may not operate in conformity with national development plans; 5. the firms can use their leverage to indulge in restrictive business practices. The modem transnational is now more footloose than the transnational of two decades ago. Given the new information technology and efficient communication and power supplies, essentially any set of activities can be networked to produce in any chosen location. Especially in high-tech operations and in the information technology industries, firms may simply go where the labour force is well trained. Such industries can change location very quickly and may have negative consequences for small countries. Activity 5:9 1. Examine any TNC operating out of your country and assess the negative and positive impact on your country. 2. Do TNCs still have a role to play in the development of small countries? Strategic Alliances International firms may penetrate the economy of another country by forming partnerships with local companies. Many such strategic alliances are being formed today 102 between insurance firms, accounting firms and banks. In this way, the foreign firm enters that country through the connection with the local partner. Both may benefit from the alliance. In the present liberalised environment, this has become an increasing practice as local firms seek to become internationally competitive. Licensing Agreements Licencing agreements are not new. Locals own KFC, MacDonald's, and many international brand name companies' franchises. The locals get permission to use the brand name under a specific contractual agreement. The foreign firm may sell them the equipment and raw materials, train workers and do regular quality control audits. This was a preferred strategy when we had protected markets. Today, foreign firms can come in directly if they so wish. Multilateral Agencies Historical Evolution At the end of the Second World War, in order to manage the international system of trade and payments, three key institutions were formed: the International Monetary Fund; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); and, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The latter has now been transformed into the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The International Monetary Fund The IMF was set up in 1947. Each member of the IMF is required to contribute a quota of money to the Fund dependent upon the size of the natiqnal income of the country and its share of world trade. The purpose of the IMF is to stabilise exchange rates across the globe by providing balance of payments support for countries experiencing trade and payment difficulties. There are various loan facilities available. 103 Policies of the IMF A central concern is the nature of the economic philosophies that the IMF practices and the conditionalities it uses for the disbursement of funds. Conditionalities Fund lending to any country has to be repaid at a given rate of interest. Loans negotiated are released to the central bank of a country as the country passes certain 'fitness' tests. If the country does not meet certain targets within given timeframes, money is not released and that country is unable to obtain. Targets set may include reduction of the public sector, removal of state subsidies or removal of barriers to trade. The nature and speed of these targets are of concern to developing countries. Economic Philosophy The IMF operates within the paradigm of laissez-faire free market capitalism and seeks to invoke the market as a cure for the payments problem. Its main objective is to deal with the balance of payments. The Fund's actions pivot around three main tools: the rate of exchange, the level of wages and the rate of interest. Also, the Fund seeks to reduce state activity and encourage private-sector activity. Devaluations Devaluation is a key tool, since the orthodox economic argument suggests that it will increase outflows of money and increase inflows. But in societies like ours where we import such a range of essential items both our cost of living and our productive capacity are negatively affected. Monetary Policy Rates of interest are pushed upwards to reduce domestic expenditure generally in order to reduce the purchase of imports, to curb state borrowing and even to attract funds from 104 outside. However, the latter effect never occurs in this part of the world. And business activity may also suffer from high rates of interest. Wage Rates Declining wage rates in order to reduce the demand for imports and to reduce the local costs of production are seen as desirable. Every action the government took over the period was influenced by the anticipated reactions of the IMF or the perceived impact, which it could have on the conditions of the agreement in force. Government actions were guided only by what would seem to be the most relevant section of the current agreement ... long term economic planning became more remote ... the official socio­ economic plan was never used in guiding policy at any stage ... (Davies,1986, p. 87) Activity 5:10 Read the above quotation describing the Jamaica situation. 1. What does it suggest about the role of the international agency vis-a-vis the government? 2. What does it suggest about the priorities in pul;>lic policy? 3. What are the implications for development? The World Bank The World Bank was set up in 1947 as the sister organisation of the IMF. Its original aim was to make loans to develop the war-shattered economies of Europe. It subsequently began to finance projects and programmes of developing countries on a long-term basis. Most World Bank loans are used to finance infrastructure investment in transportation, electric power, agriculture, water supply and education. Policies of the Bank While IMF programmes govern macro-economic variables, with special emphasis on reducing the availability of domestic credit to the public sectors, the structural adjustment programmes of the World Bank address "economic efficiency" at the micro-economic level. Public enterprises are forced to operate on a profitability criterion- showing profits 105 and reducing costs. Wherever possible, they should be practised or divested. Government should not operate. Additionally, emphasis has been placed on the lowering of all protectionism in trade. The principal thrust of the micro-economic policy of the Bank is toward the liberalisation of trade and payments. As with the IMF, failure to comply will result in refusal to lend. World Trade Organisation At the same time that the World Bank and the IMP were formed, another organisation called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was formed. GATT was converted into the WTO in 1995. The purpose of GATT was to promote free trade by consistently bargaining with countries for the reduction of tariffs and encouraging countries to adhere to trade agreements. While GATT did have some success in reducing tariffs, GATT did not include trade in agricultural goods, or services. The latter has increased in significance in world trade and raises a whole range of issues about copyright and intellectual property. WTO was formed in 1995 and has taken the latter two areas into its portfolio. WTO has a much tighter dispute settlement procedure and a new trade policy review mechanism. Activity 5:11 Some common criticisms of stabilisation and adjustment programmes are: • they do not recognise that each country is unique in its economic, social and political structure; • the timeframe for adjustment is usually too short; • • the mechanisms are counter-developmental and actually prevent what they set out to achieve. What are the consequences for development in countries in the Caribbean of these findings? Summary In this chapter the economic model of development was explored because it remains a dominant concept of development in the minds of people. The Human Development Model was also offered as a more holistic concept of development that we should 106 embrace. Attention was paid to the many dimensions and interrelationships that are inherent in the development process. Further Activities 1. What is the role of the state in the economy of your country? 2. Do you advocate a greater role for the private sector? Give your reasons. 3. What kinds of technologicalprocesses and skills are required for new areas of production? Are the arrangements for education and training suitable and sufficient? 4. Are there foreign firms in your country? Are they the dominant firms? Why? Key Concepts Sustainable development lnclusiveness Diversification Non-material indicators Cultural heritage E-commerce Adult suffrage Westminster model Navigation Laws Protectionism Mercantilism Market capitalism Total institution Footloose Devaluation Transnational corporations Economic ideologies Statistical policies 107 References Beckford, G. (1972). Persistent poverty. Oxford University Press. Girvan, N., & Jefferson, 0. (eds.) (1974). Readings in the political economy of the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: New World Group. Manley, M. (1987). Up the down escalator. Economist Intelligence Unit. Andre Deutsch. OECS London: The The Economist Intelligence Unit (2000). Country Report. Jamaica. Belize. Todaro, M. (1985). Economics for a developing world Notes: Read Chapters 5, 6, 7. Later edition may be available (2nd ed.).Longman. UNDP (2000). Human Development Report New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press. UNESCO. (1995). Our creative diversity. Report of the World Commission on Culture and development. Paris: UNESCO Further Readings Dunn, H. S. (ed.). (1995). Globalization. communications and Caribbean identity. Kingston: Ian Randle. Girvan, N. (ed.). (1995). Rethinking development. Kingston: Consortium Graduate School in the Social Sciences. CAPE Caribbean Studies CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT Module2 Chapter6 Culture, Environment and Development Overview Chapter 5 examined different emphases in meaning of development over time. Today we are still to a great extent enmeshed in an understanding of development with an economic emphasis. Yet, we are receiving strong signals from the United Nations and other world bodies committed to sustainable development that economic development is merely one component of a larger human development conception of development. This chapter examines some human behaviours that affect the environment. Those behaviours will be analyzed in order to identify the impact on the development process · a process leading towards human development. Objectives1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1 1. explain the concept of development enshrined in the human development paradigm; 2. describe some human behaviours associated with an understanding of development as economic development; 3. assess the effects upon the environment of those human behaviours; 4. appreciate that other forms of learned behaviour can positively affect efforts towards the realization of human development. These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objective 4 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus. 109 Introduction The human development paradigm rests on four pillars - equity, productivity, empowerment and sustainability. This notion of development is considered to be more holistic, and thus more appropriate, than a notion with an emphasis on economic progress. We can better understan,d this if we study examples of cultural behaviours such as those leading to rising population growth, urbanization, and patterns of agricultural land use, and examine the reasons behind such behaviours. These cultural behaviours can lead to adverse effects on the environment and eventually jeopardize development. The Human Development paradigm The human development paradigm focuses on the human being. People are looked at not as means to an end but as both the means and ends of development. In other words, the people of a country are given the broadest possible opportunities and choices to upgrade their capabilities in order to enable and empower them to take the development process forward in self-sustaining ways. The human development process begins with the pillar of equity which refers to fairness and justice to all groups within the society. Exclusion, such as excluding any group from accessing efforts to improve their lives is considered to be sabotaging the development process by gatekeepers. One example that can clarify this is easily seen in education. Although in many Caribbean countries there is universal primary education, secondary education is still allocated as a prize to those who seemingly demonstrate the most progress in academic abilities. At the tertiary level, exclusion is a major preoccupation. What this means is that only some people are invested in certain skills, knowledge and capabilities for personal and national progress. Marxists sociologists claim that those privileged to obtain an education are largely the children of the elites, who will now become eligible for the better jobs on the labour market. The human development paradigm criticizes these assumptions. The human development paradigm only accepts an education system (formal, informal and non-formal) as serious 110 about development, if there is equity of access to all levels, and if the choices of programmes are broad enough to interest people in all walks of life. Thus, tertiary education cannot be restricted only to universities or community colleges, but to all forms of specialist knowledge. Equity is envisaged as occurring in all aspects of social life, not only education. It is described this way by one of the architects of this development paradigm: Equal access to opportunities is based on the philosophical foundations of the universalism of life claims of everyone. The human development paradigm values human life for itself. It does not value life merely because people can produce material goods - important though that is. It values life because of its built-in assumption that all individuals must be enabled to develop their human capabilities to the fullest and to put those capabilities to the best use in all areas of their lives. (UIHaq, 1995, p. 17) You must have realized then that for a society to become more equitable in affording all its citizens access to opportunities, all aspects of that society have to come under scrutiny. Thus, access to employment opportunity, credit facilities, lands for agriculture and housing, participation in political and community affairs are all bound up in equity. The thinking of human development is that no person should be left out of the development process. This is the first step, on which productivity depends. Productivity is a familiar concept as it occupies a central position in the understanding of development as economic progress. It relates to efficiency and cost effectiveness in the production of ever more goods and services. It is hinged on linear logical thinking in developing the cheapest and most timely route from raw material to finished product. Productivity of this kind is easily spoken of in numerical terms as its central concepts (efficiency, cost effectiveness, and production totals) are easy to quantify. The bottom line is understood only as profits in dollars and cents. The economistic idea of development then values figures and quantifiable data that make comparisons from year to year and across countries. 111 On the other hand, the human development paradigm deals with productivity in less easily defined ways. Productivity is considered in terms of achievement of maximum potential, by persons enjoying equity of access to all kinds of opportunities. These persons experience enabling conditions in their work and, thus, feel a sense of efficaby about their lives. For example, let us suppose that in a society serious about implementing the human development model, citizens will have equity of access to a broad choice of educational and occupational opportunities. They choose freely the areas of productivity they enjoy and for which they feel they have an aptitude. Moreover, at work they are valued as human beings rather than as mere cogs in a wheel of industrial production. Recently, we have become aware of attempts to implement worker-friendly strategies by some firms to ensure commitment to the workplace, to generate a sense of ownership about the work and, generally to improve the quality of people's work lives. Activity 6:1 List as many examples as possible of strategies that you know which are designed to ensure worker satisfaction and thus productivity. How prevalent are these practices in your own country? Empowerment is built on a foundation of equity and productivity. The assumption is that if persons enjoy equity in life chances and opportunities and a deep sense of involvement in their work, then the likelihood is that such circumstances will encourage feelings of efficacy and self worth. Persons will tend to act from a reaso!led understanding about the world and a desire to be responsible towards it. In other words, empowerment is really about taking responsibility and not giving up your power to others. We can see this easily in terms of the environment. In societies where the power lies with the rich, the elites and the gatekeepers, people experience difficulties in earning a living. In such society inequities abound in every walk of life, and marginalized groups eke out an existence. These elite often comprise the government, the leaders, and the captains of industry and it is not difficult to see that society's problems, for example pollution, are not taken on board by its citizens in any individual way, as a challenge that a single person could do something about. If it is ever thought of at all, the consensus is that such matters be left to the people with the power. Everyone else is having a hard time just existing. 112 In the human development paradigm, however, development is understood to be the r responsibility of everyone(Through a sense of empowerment people feel that they can make a difference to issues that matter to them)They, thus, participate widely in all manner of developmental activities such as political meetings, community groups, demonstrations for the recognition of national issues and, educating younger ones about the value and fragility of the environment. Through equity, productivity and empowerment, it is felt that any country's developmental efforts are characterized by sustainability. The components of a sustainable project will have been in-built by high levels of awareness and public participation. It would have been in-built through attention first ,to equity, then productivity, leading to a sense of empowerment. Ul Haq further clarifies the model of human development. The real point of departure of human development strategies is to approach every issue in the traditional growth models from the vantage point of people. Do they participate in economic growth as well as benefit from it? Do they have full access to the opportunities of expanded trade? Are their choices enlarged or narrowed by new technologies? Is economic expansion leading to job-led growth or jobless growth? Are budgets being balanced without unbalancing the lives of future generations? Are "free" markets open to all people? Are we increasing the options only of the present generation or also of the future generations? ul Haq, 1995,p.23). We can add our specific concerns here and say that the human development paradigm should incorporate concern for the environment. This refers to both its material and non­ material culture, that is, the specific technologies used as well as the beliefs and values which accompany the use of such technologies. The human development model may seem too good to be true but it is a start. Many nations are signatories to a number of charters and resolutions that are imbued with the spirit of human development. For example, the many declarations dealing with rights of children, women, the disabled and first peoples, emphasis inclusion. Decisions on 'Health For All' and 'Education For All' again emphasis equity. Conventions about 113 procedures and legislation governing interactions at the workplace, tor example, sexual harassment and worker representation, focus on promoting a working environment that will enhance productivity. However, there is need for more initiatives that empower people in areas such as self help projects and cooperative ventures or that encourage participation in grassroots and community meetings on issues of national importance. The acceptance of the basic pillars as the inevitable means to a sustained pathway to holistic development is slow. This is because it is based on choice and each society must develop its own strategy. Countries may become signatories to a number of conventions about enlightened practices, but take a long time to enact relevant procedures to put those practices in place. This very often stems from local forces of opposition that see their wealth, power and prestige threatened. The success of the human development paradigm extends to an idea of the world as something we all share. Borders must be transcended if, for example, problems of environmental stress are to be addressed. The international convention on population and development held in cairo in 1994 agreed that US$17 billion would be needed annually to provide better reproductive health care. It was agreed that ELDCs would provide US$11.3 billion and EMDCs the remaining US$5.7 billion towards the UN programme. Whereas ELDCs kept close to their promise and provided US$10.7 billion, EMDCs provided less than US$2.5 billio·n - less than half of what they promised. (Nagle, 1998, p. 31) Activity 6:2 ELDCs refer to economically less developed countries and EMDCs to economically more developed countries. Suggest why EMDCs were given a much smaller target to contribute to the fund? Why do you suppose they were unable to meet their target whilst poorer countries came close to doing so? Traditional growth models and the Environment The following section identifies examples of human behaviours that impact negatively on the environment. These behaviours stem largely from thinking that is associated with a 114 notion of development that emphasizes economic growth over social and personal (human) development. In the Caribbean our colonial overlords treated land and resources as commodities that were to be exploited for the economic gain of the metropole. We have inherited such ideas about the environment and they continue to remain strong because even with the advent of independence the Caribbean continues to be dominated by the values and mind set emanating from the metropole. Economic development has been an accepted part of our modernization programme which emphasise a balance sheet understanding of productivity and does not extend to non-quantifiable components, such as respect for the fragility of the environment, the sustainable development, the co-existence of people and the preservation of the environment. Human Behaviours and Environmental Impact Population growth Tremendous expansion in the actual numbers of people in a country is more a feature of societies described as ELDCs rather than EMDCs. The latter are characterized by close to zero population growth. Pepulations grow as a result of natural increase or immigration. In the Caribbean rampant population growth is associated with high rates of natural increase rather than with immigration. In fact, the rates of population growth have been so high in the past that emigration has acted as a safety valve. Natural increase of population results from an excess of births over deaths. In the Caribbean as in most ELDCs birth rates are high. The birth rate is described as the number of live births per 1000 people per year. Average birth rates over the Caribbean are estimated to be between 27 to 36 births per thousand of the population. Figures vary among the countries. Haiti has a higher birth rate the average and Barbados is lower. EMDCs such as northern Europe record 16 and lower births per thousand of the population (Waugh, 1995). 115 Death rates on the other hand are low worldwide. The death rate is the numbers of deaths per 1000 people per year. The tremendous improvements in medicine, hygiene and sanitation that occurred in EMDCs in the 19th and 20th centuries, were gradually adopted by ELDCs, even amidst high birth rates. The result was that death rates fell dramatically and birth rates remained relatively high, so that the rate of population growth soared. This means that more persons were staying alive and living longer. Life expectancy has also increased tremendously in ELDCs. The average rate of population growth in EMDCs is 0.64% (zero population growth). In the ELDCs it is 2.07% (Waugh, 1995). Activity 6:3 1. If improvements in medicine, hygiene and sanitation were discovered in EMDCs earlier on, why is n that they did not suffer from problems of rampant population growth as is being experienced in the ELDCs now? 2. Conduct research to find out the most up to date demographic statistics for Caribbean countries: birth and death rates, rates of natural increase, and life expectancy. Cultural behaviours If birth rates .are the most influential factor in maintaining high rates of natural increase, then we have to attempt to find out why human behaviours resulting in high birth rates persist. Although there has been somewhat of a decline in recent years in rates of population growth in the Caribbean, as we have seen the figures continue to be relatively high when compared with EMDCs. Activity 6:4 Reflect on the persistence of relatively high birth rates in Caribbean countries. 1. What are some of the cultural behaviours (attitudes and values) that you believe are responsible for high birth rates in the Caribbean. 2. Refer to activity 6:3. Speculate on the reasons why some countries in the Caribbean have distinctly higher birth rates than others. Throughout the Caribbean traditional attitudes to family life, marriage, sexual relationships, child bearing and women's role in the home, come under scrutiny when reflecting on issues of population growth. Having children is an important cultural value in the Caribbean. As a result of the high birth rates, much of the population is a young 116 population. Thus, fertility levels are high. Marriages and consensual relationships tend to occur from very early in life so that each female enjoys many long years of being fertile with the potential to have many children. Birth control has been heavily promoted over the last two decades as an important method of reducing the birth rate and consequently population growth. Yet, attitudes towards birth control remain ambivalent. It has been said that possibly the best method of curbing rampant population growth is the education of women and facilitating their entrance into the labour market at relatively high paying levels. This is in recognition of the fact that higher education seems to increase awareness of options and choices for women, beyond the traditional. Playing many different roles - wife, mother, career person, own person - forces on women the need to make practical choices, such as limiting their family size. The ways they do this often bring them into conflict with the prevailing strong cultural values about having children and being at home to take care of them. Environmental effects of cultural beh viours Inevitably the predominance of young people in Caribbean populations creates an unhealthy dependency ratio. This is an estimate of how many dependents (old and young) the working population has to support. The thinking is that, the less persons dependent on you, the better you are able to enjoy a higher standard of living. The dependency ratio is calculated in this way. Numbers of non-economically active population x 100 Numbers of the economically active population The dependency ratio for the EMDCs is between 50 and 70 and for ELDCs it is often over 100 (Waugh, 1995). What this means is that there is a tremendous struggle for the working population to provide for their dependents. Governments are forced into a syndrome where they can only attempt to provide basic needs such as food, shelter, medicines, and schools. They must necessarily cutback on their development programme - job creation, building infrastructure, provision of a range of services - to accommodate 117 the basic needs of a youthful population. In other words, existence becomes a matter of survival. Providing for large numbers of people puts inordinate pressures on land. The carrying capacity of land is often exceeded. Inappropriate farming practices become endemic to try as people try to expand food production and make even small plots commercially viable. Marginal lands are drawn into cultivation on a regular basis. These are hilly lands which should only be cultivated in emergencies and then very carefully so as to reduce the effects of fertility loss and soil erosion. Loss of fertility occurs when the same crops are cultivated continuously and the nutrients they extract are not replaced. Overcropping also threatens soil fertility as the carrying capacity of the land is exceeded. Soil erosion occurs when the valuable top soil is lost through removal by wind or water. This can result when slopes are denuded of vegetation so that roots are not there to bind the soil together against the forces of gravity, wind and rain. Other than deforestation, there are certain patterns of land use which actually encourage soil erosion. Ploughing up and down slopes rather than around the slope (contour ·ploughing), causes natural channels and furrows on the slope which are easily used by rainwater to remove soil downslope. Contour ploughing on the other hand tends to make this difficult. The practice of planting crops in neat rows leaving bare land between the rows, facilitates the blowing away of the dry, exposed soil or its removal by rain. Similarly, overgrazing, particularly by goats, leaves soil bare and vulnerable to the elements. Slash and burn is a normal practice in the Caribbean for clearing lands in preparation for cultivation. This widespread practice shows the 'taken-for-granted' way in which the environment is regarded. Soil erosion threatens the very livelihood of the farmer by removing his most fundamental resource. When all the soil is removed the hills and slopes become riddled with ravines and gullies and bare, exposed rocks. The practice of slash and bum on hillsides also affects persons and property far away on the plains. The removed soil finds its way onto river beds, causing the beds to be raised with accumulated silt. In times of heavy rainfall rivers cannot carry as much water as they used to and widespread flooding occurs, usually downstream from the scenes of active soil erosion. These behaviours 118 result every year in tremendous losses of property, livestock and crops on the part of farmers in the plains. At the same time, farmers in the hills experience progressive land degradation and loss of soil fertility. The economic cost is crippling. Population growth then is at the root of environmental effects in rural areas such as loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, land degradation, and flooding. Yet this tremendous effort to produce more food and make a rural existence viable has not worked for rural farmers. Rural poverty continues to dominate their lives. Inevitably, the population pressures experienced in rural areas force many to drift to the urban areas to seek a happier way of life. Urbanization The growth in the numbers of persons living in towns is referred to as urbanization. This can occur through rurahurban migration and the high birth rates of urban residents. Rural-urban migration is a major characteristic of all developing countries. During the latter half of the 201h century, cities in developing countries outgrew the largest cities in the developed world mainly through rural urban migration. Potter (1995) reports that Caribbean countries have high levels of urbanization (about (65%) as more than half of its citizens live in towns and cities Cities experience very high densities of population and the large numbers of persons per area often threaten the carrying capacity of the land. Many migrants to the city find shelter in shanty towns, slums, squatting sites, and other areas of high population density. In sprawling urban areas, poor and sub-standard housing, unreliable supplies of clean water, or sewage and garbage disposal, become a fact of life. These conditions impact on the health and well being of the migrant. Their economic livelihood is under constant threat because of the casual nature of the work they manage to procure. Although they leave the depressed rural areas in search of a better livelihood as envisaged in the development that seems to be going on in cities, they only succeed in substituting a depressed urban existence. The move has not brought increased levels of health, income or productivity, yet many of them do not return to the rural areas. 119 This is easily understandable if we are aware of the strength of the impulse towards modernization that we have inherited and perpetuated. Even though life may be difficult in towns (or, even in metropolitan centres), it is to be preferred to life in a rural area. It is a common cultural value found over the Caribbean and seems to become manifest in a number of ways. Here we see it as the impetus towards an urban lifestyle and we also see it in the reluctance to leave the city, even when the particular lifestyle envisaged has not materialized. Activity 6:5 1. In countries across the Caribbean, the phenomenon of urbanization will differ. Extremely small states cannot be said to have large cities so that rural migration may even be non-existent. Engage in studying two Caribbean countries, one small and one large, to discern the causes for and the effects of urbanization, if any. 2. If a country is too small to display the palpable effects of urbanization, in what other ways can the urge towards modernization be seen? The folJowing excerpts from specific case studies give us an idea of the extent of the impact of urbanization on the Caribbean environment. Port of Spain is also the focus of an undisclosed number of commuters who travel across the county boundaries into the region to work. Figures suggest that as many as 15,000 travel in each day from Caroni, 5,000 from St. Andrew and 4,000 from Victoria. Such hi!;Jh levels of development and movement mean that the Capital Region faces more than its fair share of environmental problems, including serious traffic congestion on the east- west arteries, the destruction of nearby forests and problems of water conservation. (Potter,1998, p.99). The main developmental dilemma arises directly from the dynamics of explosive growth. This growth is continually overwhelming the limited provisions made for controlling and improving the quality of life. This is exemplified most grimly by \ the condition of the water supply which is, almost everywhere, inadequate for even the most elementary needs of domestic consumption and hygiene, and a constant threat to public health. So critical is this situation in fact,that it can be said that the search for water almost dominates the lives of thousands of shanty town residents.... Pumps are old and often fail; they are dependent upon the 120 power supply, which also sometimes fail. In Montego Bay,a hilly city, the mains and feeders snake up and down the steep terrain providing gushers at a few low spots and leaving all the hilly sections dry. (Eyre, 1998,p. 90). As in most countries of the Third World, urbanization in the Dominican Republic has serious environmental implications. The main urban centres were not prepared to receive the increasing flows of the rapid cityward migration of the last two decades. As a result,urban centres have been confronted with dramatic demands for water,energy and waste disposal,causing great economic burdens to governments and exerting tremendous pressures on fragile environments. In 30 years the urban population has increased sixfold; the present need for adequate housing has been estimated at above 500,000 units; the demand for residential energy has increased more than 25 times; 70 percent of the water supply to urban centres comes from the subsoil and contains high levels of salt and micro-organisms which are dangerous for human consumption; and in the capital city,of Santo Domingo, only 23 percent of the population is linked to the municipal sewage system and only 8 percent of this sewage is treated before discharge. (Nanita-Kennett,1998,p. 103). Tracing the roots of the behaviours It is left for us to consider how the behaviours associated with problems of population growth, agricultural land use patterns and urbanization, and their environmental implications, are related to an economistic conception of development. To do this we must go back to our colonial history and examine the ways in which Caribbean territories were involved in forms of economic exploitation. A consistent pattern found throughout the Caribbean is related to how the Europeans organized their system of production. They invested primarily in plantations on flat, fertile coastal plains where they built up infrastructure such as roads and linked them to ports, which developed into capital cities, to export raw materials to Europe. The system was tied into growing industrialization in Europe, dependent on raw materials from the colonies. The industrial economy of Europe had to export its manufactured products and the Caribbean therefore had to import these 121 goods. Ports and capital cities thus became the focus of development. Heavy investments were made in infrastructure, administrative machinery, commercial enterprises, education and housing, all of which were located in the main urban centre. In most Caribbean countries today we see clear evidence of this. Capital cities are primate cities - they are overlarge. They have such a concentration of economic opportunity, facilities, amenities, and services that they serve as a major attraction to "pull" migrants in search of a better life. Primacy is a legacy of the colonial experience and independent Caribbean governments continued the policy of heavy investment in urban centres. For example, the experiments in assembly-type, light industry, located in industrial estates. This echoes our theme of modernization and the value we have placed on it. The dark side to this colonial policy was underdevelopment of the interior of the colonies. It was of no economic interest to the Europeans and so rural areas in the Caribbean have always struggled with their problems - few roads, poor harvests, low prices of agricultural commodities, loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, deforestation, pests, lack of access to credit facilities and technical advice. The land available to small farmers tends to be hilly, marginal lands because the better farming lands were long ago swallowed up in the European production machine. In virtually every Caribbean country there is a sad history of massive urban investment leading to a "bright lights" syndrome and a modernized economy balanced by neglect of the countryside leading to widespread rural poverty. Read the following extract and attempt the exercises below. "The historical development of agriculture in the Caribbean region is a good example of the interaction of political economy and island environments which has not only created typical Caribbean rural landscapes, but has persisted to influence contemporary agricultural development and exacerbate environmental stress. Thus the mergence of structural dualismin the agricultural sector led to export-led large scale plantation agriculture pre-empting the best land, forcing small farmers to occupy and cultivate marginal hillside land for food crops. Entrenched rural poverty is widespread thought the region. Further, agricultural dualism has a geographical dimension. It has created a landscape signature for many mountainous Greater Antilles and the Windward Islands, whereby the larger farming enterprises (like sugar cane) tend to be located on the flatter ,alluvial, fertile coastal plains whilst small-scale mixed farming is relegated to areas which are often marginal to sustainable agriculture." (McGregor & Barker, 1995, p, 8) 122 Activity 6:6 1. To what extent do you perceive structural dualism in agriculture in your country today? 2. For your own country, describe examples of environmental stress that may be occurring in areas of rural poverty. 3. We have traced many of the cultural behaviours at the root of environmental issues to our history of colonial exploitation. Attempt to explain why these behaviours persist even into the 21 5' century. 4. Extend the argument to the tourist sector. Can you detect the heavy influence of foreign models of development in the Caribbean? Has tourism in your country intensified urbanization? The above section has shown us that the cultural behaviours associated with patterns of land use, in both rural and urban areas, can be traced to a deliberate policy of urban primacy and development at the expense of the rest of the country. This is directly related to a concept of economic progress and development that places importance on efficient and cost effective production and ignores the impact on people. For example, economic production during historical times and in the present day is in the hands of a few wealthy business and corporate citizens. They structure and locate operations according to a classical profit making model in which all ingredients of the production process are assessed as to their contribution to efficiency or cost effectiveness. No wonder that rural areas do not play a significant role in their world view. We may also examine the is ue in another way. If a country is committed to a certain concept of modernization and transformation of the economy, then a holistic understanding is necessary about the society and its behaviours that may help or hinder this move. Specifically, let us focus on population growth rates. It would seem that the urge for all women to have at least one child, the propensity to have large families, and the early on-set of childbearing are strong cultural values of our people. This could be a potentially explosive situation when poised against a falling death rate. Poverty, hunger, environmental stress, are only some of the major consequences of unbridled population growth. Yet attempts to educate the population about the potential problems inherent in their strong cultural values where reproduction is concerned have been sporadic and tepid at best. Not as many energies and resources are put into people as into capital and infrastructure investment and trade and financial institutions. This is largely because the results (or, profits) are rather long term and cannot easily be quantified. 123 The advice from demographers is not solely based on a birth control programme. Rather, it envisages ways to reduce the perceived need for large families. Birth control is regarded as approaching the issue from the supply side. Reducing a need is to be interpreted as reducing a demand. In the following excerpt this is clarified. ... policy analysts have advocated measures that that reduce the demand for births through affirmative social and economic policies. The general objective is to change the costs and benefits of child rearing so that more parents will recognize the value of smaller families while simultaneously increasing the investment in children. Examples of factors potentially under government's control include affecting (1) education levels, (2) the status of women, and (3) child mortality. (Bongaarts, 1995, p.199). The author goes on to state that - "Of all the social and economic factors that have been studied for their potential effect on reproductive behaviour, the level of education stands out as the most consistent" (p. 201). We should also note that the interests of big business and industry have not traditionally been concerned with education, women, nor children. Their conception of development has focussed on material resources, labour productivity, costs, markets and profits. Here we see the writing on the wall. For developJilent to proceed, even an economistic conception of development, planners and policy makers should recognize the central place of people in all their efforts. In the Caribbean today we see the environmental fall-out from attempting to sidestep issues of social and human development alongside economic development. A Human Development Analysis We can look at the traditional model of growth and progress and show how it has transgressed in terms of equity, productivity, empowerment and sustainability, to show how development, if it did occur was only relevant to a few and thus ephemeral. 124 Rural people were given less of a fighting chance to get on their feet and develop viable economies of their own. The industrial machine of the urban areas needed workers and so it was that interest which was responsible for maintaining rural poverty and deprivation. As we have seen, rural depopulation, environmental degradation, economic stagnation, and rural-urban drift, were the results. It is only now being understood that one area of a country cannot experience development at the expense of another, or for that matter, some countries at the expense of others. The backlash or consequences are felt by all. For instance, deforestation in ELDCs affects greenhouse warming of the Earth's atmosphere. Deforestation also threatens the ways of life of our aboriginal peoples, and, in indirect ways our survival through their knowledge of plants and herbal medicines. In 1987 a tall woody vine was found in Cameroon's forests, ancistrocladus korupensis, and is proving important in the treatment of HIV and AIDS (Geographical Magazine, 2000). The Caribbean has high levels of bio-diversity. However, by concentrating on narrow understandings of economic growth, and ignoring our forests and wild places, we may be sabotaging our very survival. Thus, equity has been elusive. Rural populations have been disadvantaged in many ways, not the least being access to higher levels of education and adequate health care. Not only rural people, but the poor and women on the whole, have not been seen as components of the development process. Yet the human development paradigm shows that for the goals of development to be realized, equity must be a cornerstone. If any groups are left out there will be 'gaps' in what is realized as 'development'. As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, once equity is seen as important, groups will enjoy expanded choice in what they can do and are willing to do, hence the groundwork will have been assured for productivity to occur. If one is well-educated in areas that one has chosen and employed in humane conditions, then it is more likely that one feels a tremendous sense of empowerment which translates into an awareness that one is ultimately responsible for the decisions one makes. That includes decisions about the environment. The scene is thus set for sustainable development. 125 Cultural Behaviours supporting Human Development • The experience of Grenada under the Peoples' Revolutionary Government of Maurice Bishop showed a strong attempt to debunk myths about modernization that were detrimental to people and to institute approaches to equity. ''The provision of basic needs was seen as the focus of development by the PRG. Central policy imperatives included the control of food prices, the use of idle land, agricultural diversification, the development of agro-industrial plants ..." (Potter, 1995, p.340). The commitment to equity though must engage with powerful forces bent on maintaining the status guo. • The late George Beckford voiced a concern for human development long before that position was articulated by the United Nations. "Let us restate here the basic dilemmas of the people of plantation society. First, the system denies the majority of people a real stake in their country. Second, a chronic dependency syndrome is characteristic of the whole population. And, third, people are not sufficiently motivated to make sacrifices and to expend effort. These are direct legacies of the plantation system. Only by destroying the system can they be overcome. Destroying the system involves revolutionary change in the institutional structure- that is, the economic, social, and political arrangements? It is possible to release the creative energies of people once they have a stake and have confidence in themselves" (1991, p. 12). • About sustainable development: "Development can never be on a true economic basis if it takes place at the expense of the future. Where however. there is a conflict between the two, survival must take priority, even though it puts longer-term sustainability at risk. In some cases incentives could be used to encourage environmentally friendly practices by the poor and a combination of 'polluter pays' and beneficiary pays' could ease environmental taxes on the poor where preventive or remedial action on their activities benefit others.... 126 The norm must always be, though, that development should be on a sustainable basis- even in the short term. • (Persaud, 1995, p. 87) The kitchen gardens kept for centuries by Caribbean peoples are local examples of ways we have devised to generate and supplement a livelihood that is environmentally friendly. Brierley (1991) describes traditional kitchen gardens sing (planting mixed cropping (intermingling of crops), inter-cropping different crops in alternate rows) and interculture (growing crops under trees). He refers to their veritable neglect as a source of study and their potential in cutting the food import bill. "If 'charity begins at home', then the basis for sound food crop policies may well begin in the garden which surrounds Caribbean homes" • (Brierley, 1991, p.26). Although Guyana is politically and culturally viewed as a Caribbean nation, our tourism product is very different from what the Island Community of the Caribbean usually offers in their sun, sand and sea vacation. The focus of development in Guyana is on the adventure type eco-tourism product. The primary tourism assets of Guyana are based on nature activity related attractions. Most of Guyana's assets are to be found in the hinterland areas of the country, mountain ranges, rolling savannas and lush forests where one can see breath-taking waterfalls, impressive rivers and lakes, view widely varied birds, and unique flora and fauna .... Since the 1992 Rio Conference, Guyana has taken a number of initiatives to promote the sustainable use of its natural resources in its quest to develop the country's economy and simultaneously improve the living standard of its population" (Williams, 1997, p.44). The wide variety of natural landscapes in the Caribbean provide many different contexts in which we can begin to develop indigenous ways of becoming economically viable without threatening sustainable human development. The illustrations above are only a few of the ways Caribbean people have thought of engaging the issue of human development. 127 Summary In this chapter we explored the concept of development enshrined in the human development paradigm based on the pillars of equity, productivity, empowerment, and sustainability. This notion of development was compared with the prevailing and dominant understanding of development as economic development, by examining some human behaviours associated with that model. The environmental effects of such human behaviours were assessed against the ideals of the human development model. Finally, we surveyed some examples of learned behaviours evident today in the Caribbean that can work positively towards the realization of human development. Key Concepts Structural dualism Birth rate Dependency Ratio Inclusion Gatekeepers Productivity Empowerment Flooding Modernization Urbanization Rural-urban migration Primacy Deforestation Overcropping Population density Death rate Sustainability Soil erosion Carrying capacity Overgrazing Fertility loss Marginal lands Contour ploughing Birth control Demographic Life expectancy Zero population growth Exclusion Fertility levels Equity Immigration atural increase Slash & bum Agriculture Structural dualism Environmental stress References Barker, D., & Me Gregor, F. (Eds.). (1995). Environment and development in the Caribbean. UWI, Mona: The Press. Beckford, G. (1991). Persistent poverty. Caricom Perspective, nos. 50 & 51, pp. 12-13. Bongaarts, J. (1995)':-'Population policy options in the developing world. In G. Pitzl (Ed.), Geography 95/96, pp. 198-203. Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Group Inc. Brierley, J.S. (1991). Kitchen gardens in the Caribbean, past and present: their role in small farm development. Caribbean Geography, J(l), pp.15-28. 128 Eyre, L.A. (1998). Shanty towns in Jamaica. In D. Barker, C. Newby & M. Morrissey (Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 81-92. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers. GeQpphical Magazine. (2000). Totally tropical travesty. Environment Section. July issue, pp. 44-49. Nagle, G. (1998). Development and underdevelopment. Surrey, U.K.:Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd. Nanita-Kennett, M. Industrial free zones in the Dominican Republic. In D. Barker, C. Newby & M. Morrissey (Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 101-106. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers. Persaud, B. (1995). Sustainable development and environmental action in the Caribbean. Caricom Perspective Souvenir Issue, June 1995, pp. 86-89. Potter, R. (1995). Urbanization and development in the Caribbean. Geography, 80(4), pp. 334-341. Potter, R. (1998). The Port of Spain Urban Corridor, Trinidad. In D. Barker, C. Newby & M. Morrissey (Eds.), A reader in Caribbean geography, pp. 93-100. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers. Ul Haq, M. (1995). Reflections on human development. N.Y.: Oxford University Press. Waugh, D. (1995). Geography- an integrated approach. Surrey, Uk:Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd. Williams, P. (1997). Ecotourism and environmental education in the Amazon Region: a case study of Guyana. In P. Williams & J. Rose (Eds.). Environment and sustainable human development in the Amazon, pp. 36-48. Guyana: Free Press & University of Guyana. Further Readings Sealey, N. (1992). Caribbean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Watts, D. (1995). Environmental degradation, the water resource and sustainable development in the Eastern Caribbean. Caribbean Geography. (1), pp. 2-15. Conway, D., & Lorah, P. (1995). Environmental protection policies in Caribbean small islands: some St. Lucian examples. Caribbean Geography. (1), pp. 16-27. Lorah. P. (1995). An unsustainable path: tourism's vulnerability to environmental decline in Antigua. Caribbean Geography. (1), pp. 28-39. Sharkey, D.A., & Henshall Momsen, J. (1995). Tourism in Dominica: problems and prospects. Caribbean Geography. (1), pp. 40-51. 129 Chapter7 Regional Integration and Development Overview So far, we have explored the concept of development through economic and human development lenses. We have sought to unravel the nature of human behaviours in relation to these two lenses and the impact each has, or should have, on the environment. In this chapter we extend the discourse on development to consider its potential within a framework of integration and to assess the contributions of individuals to the development process. The issue of regional integration is central to the evolution and future development of the Caribbean. We tried experiments in political unity that were unsuccessful. Perhaps, they were premature. In this chapter we will focus on the later attempts to engender integration through other means - through economic co-operation and co-operation in maintaining regional institutions. Objectives1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1 1. describe the attempin the Caribbean at political unity, the formation of the Federation; 2. identify the factors leading to the adoption of an economic integration policy; 3. appreciate the importance of the role played by the University of the West Indies in integration; 4. Exal]line the role and function of other regional institutions such as the Caribbean Development Bank, the Caribbean Examinations Council, the · West Indies Cricket Board of Control and the Caribbean News Agency; 5. Assess the significance of contributions made by identified individuals to the social, cultural, political or economic development of the region. These objectives refer to module 2, specific objectives 5 and 8 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus. 130 Introduction The attempt at political unity even before national independence shows that the Caribbean people were grappling with ways of ensuring their survival in a period of imminent decolonization, even if the idea did not come initially from them. The failure of the Federation, however, and the granting of independence, seems to have fuelled renewed vigour in trying to create a forum for regional integration, this time through economic integration. In addition to ideas on economic integration, we have been developing initiatives to ensure regional co-operation through institutions, which promote development. The contributions various regional to regionalism of outstanding individuals across the region are also recognized, namely as persons who can ably promote understandings of Caribbean identity both without and within the Caribbean. While many Caribbean leaders and the people themselves are convinced of the good sense of creating a united West Indies, maintaining the vision has been somewhat of a problem. Some reasons for such ambivalence stem from issues related to our society and culture..This chapter explores initiatives for integration, also discusses national and individual imperatives and the wider goals of a Caribbean identity. Federation After the end of the Second World War, the Report of the Moyne Commission 19381939, under the chairmanship of Lord Moyne, was made public. This report recommended the formation of a British West Indian Federation as a laudable policy goal for the British Government. However, there were doubts about the success of such a Federation owing to the strength of insularity that the Commission had encountered across the British West Indies. In October 1947 the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Arthur Creech-Jones, convened a meeting in Montego Bay, Jamaica to discuss the proposal for a West Indian Federation with representatives from British West Indian colonies. This meeting led to the formation 131 of the Standing Closer Association Committee which was designed to consider and report on the specific proposals for a British West Indian Federation. The Report of the Standing Closer Association Committee favoured the creation of a West Indian Federation. This was accomplished in 1956 with the enactment in the British Parliament of the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956. This was followed in 1957 with the making of the Constitution for the Federation which came into effect on 31st July 1957 in the form of the West Indies (Federation) Order in Council 1957, and in 1958, the first federal elections were held. The member territories of the Federation were: Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados Montserrat, Trinidad and Tobago Dominica St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla Grenada St. Lucia Trinidad was chosen as the site for the Federal capital and the new Governor General of the Federation, Lord Hailes, arrived to take up residence in Port of Spain on Friday 3rd January 1958. The Federal elections were scheduled for Tuesday 25th March 1958 and according to section 15 of the Constitution there were to be 45 Federal Members of Parliament of whom five were to be elected in Barbados, 17 in Jamaica, 10 in Trinidad and Tobago, 1 in Montserrat and 2 in each of the other territories. Following the Federal elections of 1958, Sir Grantley Adams was appointed Prime Minister of the Federation and the government of the West Indies was constituted as shown overleaf. 132 The Cabinet The Hon. Sir Gr.mtley Adams Prime Minister The Hon. Dr. C. Ll Corbiniere Deputy Prime Minister. and Minister of Trade and Industry The Hon. R. L. Bradshaw Minister of Finance The Hon. W. A. Rose Minister of Communications and Works The Hon. F. B. Ricketts Minister of Natural Resources and Agriculture The Hon. Mrs. P. B. S. Allfrey Minister of Labour and Social Affairs Affairs The Hon. N. H. Richards Minister without Portfolio The Hon. V. B. Vaughn Minister without Portfolio The Hon. Senator A. G. R. B}iield Minister without Portfolio The Hon. Senator J. W. Liburd Minister without Portfolio The Hon. Senator J. L. Charles Minister without Portfolio 1. Find out the nationalities of all the members listed above. 2. Interview your parents and grandparents and persons in your community about the advent of Federation. In 1961, the British government convened a conference at Lancaster House in London to discuss the grant of independence to the British West Indian Federation. The issue of independence for the Federation created a major political choice for Jamaica (the largest member of the Federation) as to whether they should remain as part of an independent Federation or whether they should proceed to their own independence separate from the Federation. The response of the Jamaican government was to hold a referendum on the subject on 19th September 1961. The result of the referendum was that the Jamaican electorate voted for Jamaica's withdrawal from the Federation. The way was now clear for Jamaica to proceed to its own independence which it attained on 6th August 1962. Below is the text of a confidential memorandum that was sent by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 133 lain Macleod, to his Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, just after the result of the Jamaican referendum on the Federation was known. " The Jamaican referendum has resulted in a defeat for Manley on the Federation issue. We expected and hoped for a narrow but clear affirmative. The result is a narrow but clear negative. This is a most grievous blow to the Federal ideal for which we and enlightened West Indian opinion have striven for so many years. It is certain that the Federation cannot continue in its present form and must be doubtful whether it can survive at all. The decision of Jamaica to quit the Federation must be taken as final. We may expect a demand that they should be allowed to go forward into Independence as a separate member of the Commonwealth. In view of the size, population {1.6 million) and economic viability of Jamaica this will be a demand which, with the precedents of Sierra Leone and Cyprus before us, we could not resist. Whether there will have to be a General Election in Jamaica or whether Manley will successfully maintain that an adverse vote on this single issue does not constitute a vote of no confidence in his government remains to be seen. The question whether a Federation of most or all of the east caribbean Islands can survive the defection of Jamaica depends more on the attitude of Trinidad and Tobago than on any other single factor. Dr. Eric Williams (Premier of Trinidad and Tobago) made it clear during the West Indian Conference that, if Jamaica left the Federation, Trinidad would follow suit since she would not be able or prepared to take on the financial burden of 'carrying' the Federation. (Jamaica and Trinidad contribute about 85% of federal revenues in roughly equal shares). If he maintains this line, we can expect a demand from Trinidad and Tobago that they too should be allowed to "go it alone" into independent membership of the Commonwealth.·This would be as difficult to resist as a similar demand from Jamaica. It is however, just possible that Trinidad might be prepared to lead an East caribbean Federation - on her terms. Eric Williams has always disliked the present loose form of Federation which has been a condition of Jamaica belonging. The defection of Jamaica will give him the opportunity to press for the tighter form of Federation which he has always advocated, with strong central powers over taxation, development planning, etc. In return for that he might be prepared to make a concession over his earlier stand against the early introduction of freedom of movement. We cannot of course express publicly our regret at the result of the referendum since that could embitter our relations with Bustamante if he returns to power in Jamaica. Our immediate line with the Press is that. it was recognized that the Lancaster House Agreement was dependent on the Jamaica referendum and the endorsement by the Legislatures in other Islands; that we have always regarded the form of Federation as a matter for West Indians themselves to settle; and that the referendum result is a new factor in the situation the effects of which we are studying. 134 The Americans will be extremely concerned over this development and the Foreign Office are sending an assessment to the Foreign Secretary in Washington. The Commonwealth Relations Office are also sending guidance to their High Commissioner in Ottawa. Ihave asked for immediate assessments from the Acting Governor-General and Governors and Administrators. Hailes has broken his holiday in Scotland and I have held discussions with him. The Jamaican leaders and the Federal Prime Minister, Sir Grantley Adams, wish to come to London at a very early date to confer with me. I will report again in a few days on the situation as I see it. I am sending copies of this minute to the Lord Chancellor, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Foreign Secretary, the Commonwealth Secretary, and the Minister of Defense." (CO 1031 I 3278, Macleod to Macmillan, Secret, P.M. [61] 73, 22nd September, 1961). Having read the memorandum, answer the questions below. Activity 7:2 1. Reflect on the reasoning behind the action taken by the West Indian leaders and people. To what extent do you believe that the same is true today? 2. In your opinion was the demise of the Federation inevitable? 3. It is believed that British government policy on the future of the Federation tended to place more emphasis on independence than it did on regional unity. Comment 4. Why was Trinidad and Tobago more concerned about freedom of movement than Jamaica? What was Sir Eric Williams' famous 'equation', about the pulling out of Jamaica from the Federation? 5. With this background information, how do you view the present decision to rely on economic co-operation as a basis for regional integration? The secret and confidential memorandum reproduced above was declassified in 1992 by the British government in accordance with their Official Secrets policy which keeps most documents secret until, in most cases, thirty years have elapsed. There are situations where documents may be kept classified for longer periods such as 50, 70 or 100 years. Indeed, the government has the right to retain the secrecy of a document forever if it so desires. It is instructive to dwell at length on this period of our history. It is fertile in throwing up the kinds of issues and decision making that attends a major change of direction in how we view ourselves. In Chapter 1 we discussed the cultural norms in the Caribbean that relate to how the society was defined. We found that in most cases it was defined as the geographical limit or the island borders. We also noted that the situation in Guyana and 135 Belize was similar, both being 'island like', in that they shared relatively few characteristics with neighbouring countries. Activity 7:3 Research the following:1. What was the eventual outcome concerning the future of the Federation for those countries known as the "Little Eighr? 2. British Guiana and British Honduras were not included in the vision of a Federation at the time. Find out when these two mainland countries became an accepted part of the understanding of Caribbean. The crisis precipitated by the break up of the Federation resulted, in the years afterwards, in individual countries in the Caribbean gaining political independence. While the notions of Caribbean unity and regional integration, still imbued the region, largely in rhetoric and in the vision of its scholars and outstanding leaders, each country set about emphasizing a national identity within a larger Caribbean self-identification. As each country developed separate political and other institutions, the old underlying call of a Caribbean theme to our existence became more insistent. Life in the Caribbean has always been characterized by tensions especially in relation to identity. In the next section we will see that the urgent push for national borders and political independence also competed with a need for some formal recognition of our interdependence. CARIFTA and CARICOM Emanating from this sense of relatedness was the feeling that we had to manifest some form of unity or cooperation to survive as newly independent countries. This feeling existed in countries whether they were fully independent, enjoyed associated statehood or remained closer to the United Kingdom. Shortly after the establishment of associated statehood for six of the remaining seven former members of the Federation, The Caribbean Free Trade Association, CARIFf A, was formed on 1st May, 1968. The excerpt below was published by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago in 1968 to commemorate the birth of CARIFTA. 136 The CARIFTA Agreement established a Free Trade Area among the Commonwealth caribbean countries. Antigua, Barbados, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago joined as founding members on 1st May, 1968. Dominica, Grenada, St.Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St.Lucia and St.Vincent joined CARIFTA on 1st July, 1968. Jamaica has been admitted as a member, and Montserrat has also been admitted, subject to receiving formal approval from the U.K. Government. Both have agreed to join by 1st August, 1968. A Free Trade Area is only one possible form of economic integration among countries. There are other forms. A Free Trade Area exists when two or more countries remove trade barriers (tariffs and quantitative restrictions) among themselves, but keep their own level of tariffs and quantitative restrictions against outside countries. A Customs Union goes beyond a Free Trade Area. Not only is there free trade among member countries, there is also a common external tariff and a common set of quantitative restrictions against outside countries. A Common Market goes beyond a Customs Union. In addition to internal free trade and a common set of external trade barriers, there is free movement of capital and labour within the Common Market. An Economic Union is the highest form of economic co-operation among !=C)unbies. In addition to a Common Market, there are common economic, finandal, taxation and social policies. Because of the high degree of co­ operation between countries involved, an Economic Union comes very close to a political union. These are the well-known forms of economic integration. However, West Indian University economists have argued for another type of integration which, it should be noted need not be in conflict with the well-known forms. They have argued for integration of production by sectors, or industries, among West Indian countries, so that resources can be combined among different countries to build up larger interlocking activities producing aluminum, textiles, fish products, meat complexes, and so on. In this way resources located in specific territories can be brought together through industrial planning on a West Indian scale to produce goods using West Indian instead of imported materials for the West Indian market and even for external markets. CARIFTA, then, as a Free Trade Area, is a somewhat loose form of integration. The important point to grasp, however, is that CARIFTA is only a beginning - a first step towards closer forms of caribbean integration. (CARIFTA and the caribbean Economic Community, Government of Trinidad and Tobago, July 1968, p. 7). 137 Having read the excerpt above, do the following exercise. Activity 7:4 1. What do you believe was behind this move to form a free trade area? Was survival? tt only in relation to economic 2. Identify at least two specific examples that can qualify as possibilities for integration of production. 3. You will notice that whilst Guyana has been included from the very beginning, Belize was not a part of the free trade area. Find out how Belize came to be considered as an integral part of the Caribbean by the rest of the community. In 1973, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Treaty was signed at Chaguaramas in Trinidad and Tobago. This cleared the way for a Caribbean Common Market to which all of the member-states of the former CARIFTA would belong. It represented a further attempt to bring about regional integration through the mechanism of economic integration. Activity 7:5 As a class project make a presentation to the class on CARICOM. The following topics may order the presentation: 1. Members (old and new), location of headquarters, identify past and present Secretary Generals, aims and objectives. 2. Different organizations wtthin CARICOM -role and function of each. 3. Track record of CARICOM- issues of regional importance in which tt has been involved. 4. Problems being experienced by CARICOM. Caribbean Development Bank The idea of a regional development bank was first suggested at an official level in July 1966 at the Canada-West Indies Prime Ministers' meeting in Ottawa. The Canadian Government was sympathetic to the idea in 1966. This idea had also come from the Tripartite Mission on the Leewards, Windwards and Barbados in relation to a development bank for the capital needs of the proposed integration of the "Little Eight" in the aftermath of the demise of the Federation. In late 1966, the Governments of the Commonwealth Caribbean, Canada, the United States of America and the United Kingdom agreed to contract the United Nations 138 Development Programme (UNDP) to undertake a feasibility study on the concept of a regional development bank. UNDP in its report in July 1967 recommended the establishment of a regional bank. In August 1967 a meeting of Commonwealth Caribbean officials in Guyana endorsed the recommendations of the UNDP. Regional Heads of Government at a meeting in August 1967 also endorsed the concept. The basis for a Charter for the Regional Development Bank was worked out at a meeting held in Jamaica in October 1967 of officials from the Caribbean, Canada, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. The formal Agreement establishing the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) was signed in Kingston, Jamaica on 18th October, 1969 at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries from eighteen countries and territories. That Agreement was set to come into force on 26th January, 1970 and the Secretary General of the United Nations acted as the Depository for the Agreement, while the Government of Barbados was appointed to be the Trustee for receiving payments of the first installment of subscriptions for share capital in the Bank. The first meeting of the Board of Governors of the Caribbean Development Bank was held in Nassau, Bahamas on 31st January, 1970 and Professor Sir Arthur Lewis was elected as the first President of the Bank. Activity 7:6 1. Investigate whether the Caribbean Development Bank has been involved in funding projects in your country. What kinds of projects receive approval for funding? What is COB's perspective on development? University of the West Indies The University of the West Indies (UWI) was created as a regional institution in 1948. The University College at Mona, Jamaica was the first campus of the University. A campus was established at St. Augustine, Trinidad in 1960, and at Cave Hill, Barbados in 1962. Over the years the University has grown considerably. 139 There are now eleven University Centres situated in non-campus countries throughout the region as well as a Centre forHotel and Tourism Management in the Bahamas: In a meeting of Commonwealth Caribbean Heads of Government held in Barbados on 7th June, 1969, the future of the University was discussed since the Agreement between the contributing governments to continue funding the University was due to expire in 1972. Heads of Government had to decide on one of two options contained in a paper prepared by Vice-Chancellor O.R. Marshall. The options are given below. A. The continuation of the U.W.I. as a regional University after the expiration of the current agreement in 1972, either on its present basis, or on a modified basis; or B. The dissolution of the U.W.I. from 1972 or a date thereafter to be fixed and the establishment of a mechanism for giving effect to this decision. (Future of the University of the West Indies: Memorandum to All Heads of Government of Territories contributing to the University of the West Indies and Guyana, 16th May, 1969). Heads of Government decided to continue with the University of the West Indies beyond 1972. The need for tertiary education in the region was and still is considered crucial to the development of the region itself. The UWI plays a critical role in the educational advancement for the people of the region. The demands for its services are growing weii beyond the campus territories of Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. Its academic programmes have served the vital tertiary-level needs of the Caribbean region in law, social sciences, engineering, medicine, the humanities, agriculture, natural sciences and education. Recently distance education methodologies are also being used to improve access to programmes. Other institutions have also been established in various parts of the region for tertiary­ level education. Among these are the University of Guyana, the University of the Virgin Islands, the University of Belize and the University of Technology (Jamaica). Community colleges are also being established, for example, the Sir Arthur Lewis 140 Community College in St Lucia, the Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College in St. Kitts and Nevis and, the Antigua State College in Antigua and Barbuda. In addition, there are institutions with affiliations outside the region, for example, the St. George's University in Grenada that has its connection to the U.S.A. This University started as an offshore training institute in the medical sciences to American students. However, it has now expanded and offer a wider range of courses in the social sciences and the humanities to students throughout the region. Activity 7:7 1. What do you see as the purpose and function of the University of the West Indies in relation to the development of the region? 2. Give four reasons why Caribbean governments should contribute to the University of the West Indies? 3. Do you see developments such as American off-shore universities as threats to regional identity and the region's premier tertiary institution, UWI? The Caribbean Examinations Council The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) was established in 1972 to develop a system of regional examinations at the Ordinary and Advanced Levels to replace the Cambridge and London General Certificate of Education (G.C.E.) examinations for the candidates of the region. In 1981, the first such examinations were held in five subjects This system has allowed the development of a regionally-based system of examinations which have greater relevance to the needs and aspirations of the school population of the region and can provide them with relevant methods of testing and evaluation. In 1998 the Council held seven examinations at the advanced level. The Introduction to the Caribbean Studies Syllabus records that: The caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE) are designed to provide certification of the academic, vocational and technical achievement of students in the caribbean who having ·completed a minimum of five years of secondary education wish to further their studies. The examinations address the skills and knowledge acquired by students under a flexible and articulated 141 system where subjects are organised in one-unit or two-unit courses with each unit containing three modules. Subjects examined under CAPE may be studied concurrently or singly, or may be combined with subjects examined by other examination boards or institutions. A CAPE diploma will be awarded for the successful completion of a programme of at least six units, including Caribbean Studies. Activity 7:8 1. Argue the case for and against the introduction of regional, as opposed to foreign, testing of Caribbean students as a contribution to the development of the region. 2. What innovations have been made by CXC in syllabus development and assessment? To what extent have these innovations been accepted by the public as in the best interests of the child? 3. When CXC was first established there were many criticisms and today there are similar reservations about the introduction of CAPE. How will you argue the case for CAPE in terms of regional development and personal development of the individual? The West Indies Cricket Board Although sport is dealt with in the next chapter at length, -here it is necessary, here, to make mention of the West Indies Cricket Board as a regional institution that has long been established and represents another form of regional cooperation. The Board is responsible for the administration and organisation of cricket in the region. It comprises representatives from Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, the Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Windward Islands. The headquarters of the West Indies Cricket Board is located in Antigua and Barbuda. It had previously been located in Barbados. 142 Activity 7:9 1. Interview cricket fans that you know to get a sense of the contribution made by the West Indies Cricket Board to the development of cricket in the region? 2. How will you describe the contribution of the game of cricket to regional development? 3. While cricket seems to dominate the region in the vast numbers who are addicted and devoted to it, there are areas in the Caribbean where it is regarded as of little interest. What areas are those? Do they have sports that they are equally devoted to? Why is there this difference in allegiance to cricket? The Caribbean News Agency The Caribbean News Agency (CANA) is based in Barbados and provides coverage of news relevant to the region based on news reports from its correspondents throughout the region. Before the existence of CANA, there was a reliance on the news services of Reuters, the Associated Press, the BBC, the Voice of America and other foreign sources for news coverage. The emergence of CANA has seen the introduction of regional news that emanates from a source that has regional coverage as its primary mandate without having to compete with the international sources for coverage that might otherwise be minimal in relation to the Caribbean. Activity 7:9 1. Interview cricket fans that you know to get a sense of the contribution made by the West Indies Cricket Board to the development of cricket in the region? 2. How will you describe the contribution of the game of cricket to regional development? 3. While cricket seems to dominate the region in the vast numbers who are addicted and devoted to it, there are areas in the Caribbean where it is regarded as of little interest. What areas are those? Do they have sports that they are equally devoted to? Why is there this difference in allegiance to cricket? Assessing the Contribution Made by Individuals in the Caribbean Region to Development Many outstanl:ling individuals have contributed to the development of the Caribbean, both at a local and a regional level. Some have made their contributions in many fields - in politics, education, economics, literature, journalism and drama. Within some territories, especially Jamaica and Barbados, the governments have taken the lead in declaring a 143 pantheon of national heroes. These governments laid down certain criteria for selecting their heroes. Except for Sir Garfield Sobers and Sarah Ann Gill, all the heroes in Barbados were drawn from the field of politics. There is a temptation for one to assess the development of a country solely from the contribution of Prime Ministers and Presidents. We must also remember many others not in the field of politics who have given their life to their communities and, so, should be given the recognition due to them. We offer the following criteria that should be employed by students to assess the contribution of any individual to their country, region or community: details of personal life history; details about academic training/profession; sum of the achievements in their field or career at the local, regional and international level; uniqueness of the individual's contribution; recognition of that individual across all racial and ethnic lines in their country; recognition of the individual's contribution at a regional or international level. Historical background and setting should be given to highlight the way the particular contribution helps us to face the legacies of our past which may inhibit our development. Some regional figures to consider (please note that the list is not exhaustive): Aime Cesaire William Demas Derek Walcott Edward Brathwaite Grantley Adama Eric Williams Errol Barrow George Lamming V. S. Naipaul Sir Vivian Richards Samuel Selvon Sir Gary Sobers Sir Arthur Lewis Sir Alexander Bustamente Norman Manley Ellie Manette Kitchener (Aldwyn Roberts) Michael Manley Louise Bennett Bob Marley C.L.R. James Sir Frank Worrell Walter Rodney Jose Marti The Mighty Sparrow (Slinger Francisco) 144 Activity 7:10 Suggestions for Research and Class Discussion • Brian Lara should be officially declared a national hero in Trinidad and Tobago before the end of his career. Discuss. • Suggest FOUR ways in which outstanding individuals of the region should be recognized. • Bob Marley is more than a Jamaican singer providing musical entertainment. Discuss Summary This chapter has attempted to highlight the evolution of regional integration from the Federation to the post-independence era. During that time, the focus has shifted from political union to economic integration. At a time when other countries of the world are forming themselves into economic blocs (NAFf A, and the European Union), the Caribbean needs to ensure that its economic integration has a sound basis for future development for the benefit of the regional populations. There are forces of division and insularity in the Caribbean that can militate against the concept of regional integration. There are differences of opinion about the allocation of resources and the location of political power (for example, in the twin island states Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, and St. Kitts and Nevis). At a time when the rest of the world is realising the importance of economic integration for purposes of development, it may be necessary for Caribbean populations to become more aware of the challenges of the world's financial markets to their own development. Can the formation of new micro-states in the region help or hinder development? Further Activities 1. Organize a class debate to discuss the reasons why the Federation failed. 2. Identify the member-countries of the Caribbean Development Bank today and discuss in the classroom the role of the Bank in regional development. 3. What are the educational programmes offered at the University Campus/Centre in your country and how relevant are they to the needs of your society? 4. Interview at least two persons about the perceived benefits of belonging to CARICOM? Comment on their perspectives. 5. What are the major problems facing the regional integration movement ? If you are a future leader of a Caribbean country, what solutions would you advance to address the problems facing regional integration? 145 Key Concepts Federation Decolonization Economic integration Political unity Regionalism Regional institutions Referendum Caribbean identity Insularity Independence Referendum Free Trade Area Development CARIFfA CARlCOM University Tariffs Customs Union Common Market Economic union Common external tariff CDB cxc Non-campus countries CAPE WICBC CANA References Memorandum to All Heads of Government of Territories contributing to the University of the West Indies and Guyana (16th May, 1969). Future of the University of the West Indies Government of Trinidad and Tobago (July 1968). CARIFfA and the Caribbean Economic Community. (CO 1031/3278, Macleod to Macmillan, Secret, P.M. [61] 73, 22nd September, 1961. LaGuerre, J. (Ed.). (1997). Issues in the government and politics of the West Indies. UWI, St. Augustine: School of Continuing Studies. West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian Commission. Mona: The Press. Further Readings About the Region. Caricom perspective. Caricom Perspective. (1993). Association of Caribbean States. July- December, pp. 8-9. 146 ChapterS The Arts and Popular Culture Introduction In this section you will be looking at the role of the arts and popular culture in the development of the Caribbean. The creativity of the Caribbean people is one of our most precious resources. The arts and popular culture have been one important means by which, even in the days of colonialism and slavery, people were able to express their identity, and preserve parts of the heritage of those countries from which the different people of the Caribbean were uprooted. Today, the arts and popular culture enable us to look critically at our behaviour and the values that we demonstrate through that behaviour. We are also enabled to consider what aspects of the arts and popular culture we might want to maintain as we are exposed to other cultures. Finally, the arts and popular culture represent a potentially powerful source of income generation. OBJECTIVES1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1. identify a range of art forms and expressions of popular culture that can be considered uniquely 'Caribbean'; 2. evaluate claims that Caribbean art forms, the mass media and sports lead to development; 3. analyze the factors that impact on the contribution of the mass media to development in the region; 4. appreciate the multi-dimensional nature of development.. 1 These objectives refer to those of Module 2, specific objectives 6,7. and 9 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus 147 Arts and popular culture The arts include such expressions of human creativity as drama, literature, painting, sculpture architecture, dance and music. Popular culture is difficult to define, and various expressions of popular culture continue to develop as a society develops. However, it may include a range of expressions of creativity, and of artefacts, that are continuously accessible to, produced by, and enjoyed by, the majority of the people of a society. It also includes certain symbols and rituals that emerge, and that represent our deepest values, feelings and beliefs as a people. Our festivals, for example, Carnival, Crop Over, Phagwah, Hosay, Jonkonnu, La Marguerite and La Rose are part of popular culture. Many of the expressions of creativity to which they give rise - the music and dances which they make popular, like the calypsoes and chutney songs of Trinidad and Tobago which are known and sung or listened to by people across classes and other forms of social division, are part of popular culture. At various times, fashion, hairstyles, and clothes, which are adopted by the majority of people can be considered part of popular culture. Forms of participation by significant numbers of people in widely valued sporting events, whether as actors or as audiences, constitute popular culture; so too are those icons, symbols and images projected by the mass media, which are viewed, read, and listened to by the majority of the people. With the introduction of new technologies in the Caribbean, shared events such as participation in chat rooms on the Internet, and the types of content that millions of people view and interact with online are becoming components of our of popular culture. The examples mentioned above reflect only a tiny part of the range of the experience of the arts and popular culture in the Caribbean. 148 Activity 8:1 1. At one time 'popular culture' was used as a term to distinguish certain expressions of the creativity of a people from 'high' culture - those art forms that were feH to demand special education or training and refinement of taste to produce and enjoy.. Does such a rigid distinction exist in your country? Why, or why not? 2. What, in your experience, are the factors that cause something to become part of the 'popular' culture of a society? 3. Suggest possible differences in the impact on your society of expressions of its popular cuHure and its high cuHure. Caribbean Art and Popular Culture in Development Portraying the Caribbean experience Arts and popular culture contribute to the development of the Caribbean because of the uniqueness of their forms: they reflect our history, our everyday experience of our physical and social environments, and our internal landscapes - the thoughts and emotionsThis is so even when the Caribbean people who create them live thousands of miles away from the Caribbean region. We recognise as 'Caribbean' those artists who are born and who live in the Caribbean, as well as those who may now live in the countries of North America, Europe, Africa and Asia, but who see their family or cultural connections to the Caribbean as a critical part of their lives and their work. Edna Manley, who was born in Yorkshire, but who had Jamaican blood, and lived in Jamaica for most of her life, can be considered to be just as Caribbean as Earl Loveace, who was born and lives in Trinidad and Tobago. The experience of being Caribbean­ born, or of living in the Caribbean, is a crucial part of their work. Derek Walcott, when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature, was recognised as a Caribbean writer because, even though he now lives in the United States. He was born in St Lucia and lived there, and in other parts of the Caribbean, for a significant part of his life; also, the majority of his work focuses on what it is like to live in the Caribbean, and to have the blood of the different peoples of the Caribbean running through his veins. 149 This is also true of Trinidadian-born writer, Vidia Naipaul, who now lives in England, steelband pioneer Ellie Mannette, who lives in North America, but whose work focuses on the Trinidadian steelband. And Bob Marley was always a Caribbean singer, whether he lived in Jamaica where he was born, or in the United Kingdom - the words and the reggae rhythms of his music both spoke about the Caribbean citizen's struggle to exist, and also about the joy and exuberance of our people. Portraying the Physical and Emotional Landscape Read the poem by Derek Walcott that follows, and reflect on how it conveys the physical experience of living on Caribbean islands, and loving the experience. Islands (for Margaret) (1962) Derek Walcott [St Lucia I USA] Merely to name them is the prose Of diarists, to makt> you a name For readers who like travellers praise Their beds and beaches as the same; But islands can only exist If we have loved in them; I seek, As climate seeks its style, to write Verse crisp as sand, clear as sunlight, Cold as the curled wave, ordinary As a tumbler of island water; Yet, like a diarist, thereafter I savour their salt haunted rooms (Your body stirring the creased sea Of crumpled sheets) whose mirrors lose Our huddled, sleeping images, Like words, which love had hoped to use Erased with the surf's pages. So, like a diarist in the sand, I mark the peace with which you graced Particular islands, descending A narrow stair to light the lamps Against the night surf's noises, shielding A leaping mantle with one hand, Or simply scaling fish for supper, Onions, jack-fish, bread, red snapper; And on each kiss the harsh sea-taste, And how by moonlight, you were maJe To study most the surf's unyielding Patience, though it seems a waste. 150 In the poem Walcott's experience of the islands intertwines the physical beauty of the islands themselves, with the beauty of his relationship with the woman who has been part of that experience. His relationship with the woman in the poem incorporates the experience of being in a place surrounded by the sea: with each kiss comes "the harsh sea taste"; the bed where they lie is itself a "creased sea of crumpled sheets", and the memory of their relationship includes everyday island experiences like scaling fish for supper. Walcott in his writing celebrates the beauty of the islands "crisp as sand, clear as sunlight, cold as the curled wave". Our arts and expression of popular culture often include such a celebration of our physical and emotional landscape. Many of our painters, for instance, make the physical environment a major theme of their work. New York based Bendel Hymes, a painter from the Cayman Islands, has made the marine character of the Caribbean environment central to paintings such as Roneador Cay (1995) which refers to the cays off the coast of Central America where Cayman fishermen used to journey. Activity 8:2 1. Collect examples of the work of an artist, a writer, popular musician or fashion designer of whom you know. Identify characteristic features of the physical landscape and interpersonal relationships of the people of the Caribbean which that work reflects- in its subject matter, perhaps, or in such features of its design and structure as the use of colour or rhythms in the work. 2. At one time, many Caribbean artists and writers chose as themes for their work, not the Caribbean landscape but those of Europe and North America. Discuss how you think this might have affected how we saw ourselves in relation to the rest of the world. Representing Caribbean history and experience Another way in which the arts and popular culture contribute to our development is by representing important aspects of our history and of the significant experiences that are unique to us as Caribbean people; by doing this, they give us important tools to help us to reflect on, and interpret, those features of our Caribbean heritage. The sculpture, Negro Aroused by the Jamaican sculptor, Edna Manley, was done in 1935, at a time when workers in Jamaica were rising up against oppression, and demanding 151 social justice, as they were doing in most of the other Caribbean islands. Notice the power of the hand, and how the head is thrown back, looking upwards. When the work was first shown in Jamaica, before being exhibited in Britain, thousands of people came to see it. To them, it gave a voice to their struggle. They were, indeed, aroused, and they were prepared to let the world know it, even though they might not yet have had the political or economic power to assert themselves. Today, this work continues to be an icon in Jamaica - a work that is admired and respected as being a powerful symbol of . Jamaica and her people. But it is equally powerful as a symbol for other countries of the Caribbean who have also been aroused, at some stage in their history, to a sense of outrage at injustice or oppression, and to demand justice. Our struggles against the domination and oppression exerted by various forces, both within the Caribqean and outside of it, have been critical to our development as a people with a unique identity. Barbadian writer George Lamming, in his book, The Pleasures of Exile (1960), writes about how we struggle to reclaim our voice, even though we express ourselves in the vocabulary of European colonisers. Other writers, like Louise Bennett of Jamaica, not only write about that struggle, but also actively continue that struggle in their determination to useCaribbean Creoles to speak about Caribbean experiences, arguing, as Bennett does in Bans a Killin, "wha meek yuh gwine go feel inferior when it come to dialec?''( 1982). In his calypso, Outcast, Trinidadian calypsonian, the Mighty Sparrow, is only one of many calypsonians who have documented the struggle of the steelband and steelbandsmen for acceptance by elite groups in the society: If yuh sister talk to a steelband man Yuh family want to break she han, Put she out, Lick out every teet in she mout, Pass, yuh Outcast! 152 Barbadian calypsonian Gabby, singing Send A Answer Fuh We in 1993, also details the struggles of the people of Barbados to survive the challenges of their daily experience of crime and corruption of those who have authority over them: Crime on de increase, we livin like beast, How can it cease when police shoot police In de station we consolation is investigation. For most of the artists of the folk culture, the theme of our right to survive is crucial to their work. In earlier times they were predominantly the voices of the peasants; today, they are often also the voices from the ghetto, crying out to be heard in the middle of what Bob Marley called the Rat Race. They speak of the challenges of that struggle, its heartaches, victories and defeats. The experience of exile and 'other'ness One of the central experiences with which Caribbean people must deal is exile. We were exiled, at the outset, from our countries of origin, when we came to the Caribbean to live. We are often compelled to travel abroad in order to survive economically - or even emotionally. And sometimes we feel exiled in our own countries, from our country people, who exclude us in one way or the other from the mainstream of life. You will see our feelings of being 'other', uprooted and divided within ourselves and from ourselves, represented in many of the works of our artists, together with our experience of the tug of .home. Activity 8.3 Class Discussion 1. Show how other positive and negative experiences of the people of your culture have been represented in its popular music and dance. Give examples of spec ic works that reflect specific experiences. 2. Explain if and why you think it may be important to our development for our art and popular culture to continue to document the Caribbean experience. Describe how the works of different artists present different perspectives on a given experience (for example, the pain of exile, the challenge of exile, the opportunities for growth in exile). I 153 r Critiquing the Caribbean While it is important to celebrate who we are and how we have come to be as we are, it is also important, if we are going to move forward and make a better quality of life for ourselves, that we learn to step back and identify our failings and idiosyncrasies. As you read the excerpt below from The Suffrage of Elvira, a novel by Vidia Naipaul, look at how Naipaul reveals, and presents as ridiculous, the pretensions and delusions of the people who interact in_ the scene described. ''Teacher Francis visits the Bakshes" From The Suffrage of Elvira (1958) Vidia Naipaul (Trinidad and Tobago!UK) They got home late, and found Baksh,Mrs Baksh and Zilla in the storeroom. Teacher Francis was there too. Foam was surprised. Teacher Francis had come to the Baksh house only once before,to say that if Rafiq didn't buck up at school, he was going to turn out just like Foam. 'Ah',Baksh said heavily to Foam and Herbert. "Campaign manager and little mister man. Where you was out so late? I did tell you to put away the dog,or I did tell you to build a mansion for it?" Herbert smiled. "We was out campaigning." He winked at Foam. "That prove what I was saying about the elections, ma'am",Teacher Francis said to Mrs Baksh. "A little boy like Herbert ain't have no right to go out campaigning." Mrs Baksh was on her best behaviour for the teacher. "Is what I does forever, always keep on telling the father,Teach. Beg pardon,Teach." She turned to the boys. "All your food take out and waiting for all you in the kitchen. If must be cold as dog nose now." Herbert went noisily up the stairs. Foam sucked his teeth and followed. "Idon't mean anything against you,Mr Baksh," Teacher Francis went on, "But the fact is, the ordinary people of Elvira don't appreciate that voting is a duty and a privilege". That was part of the speech he had prepared for the Bakshes. "Duty and privilege, ma'am." "Is what I does forever always keep on telling the father, Teach. Hear what the teacher say,Baksh? I been telling him,Teach,a hundred times, if I tell him one time, that this election begin sweet, sweet for everybody, but the same sweetness going to turn sour,sour in the end. Zilla, you ain't hear me use those self-same words to your father?" "Yes,Ma!" "Yes,ma'am. Election bringing out all sorts of prejudice to the surface. To the surface,ma'am." Mrs Baksh crossed her powerful arms and nodded solemnly. "You never say a truer word,Teach. In all my born days nobody ever come to my house- my own house, mark you- and talk to me like how the goldsmith come and talk to me this afternoon." Teacher Francis delivered the rest of his statement. "Ihave been turning over this and similar ideas in my mind from time to time. From time to time. Yesterday evening I stated them in general terms- in general terms- to Miss Chittaranjan. Mrs Baksh, Miss Chittaranjan took down every work I said. In shorthand." 154 Mrs Baksh opened her eyes wide, swung her head slowly,very slowly, from side to side,and gave a cluck of horror. "Look at that, eh Teach. In shorthand." "You could trust somebody as stuck up as Nelly Chittaranjan to do a low thing like that," Zilla said. In this excerpt, Naipaul uses satire- the humorous representation of the absurdity of the flaws and idiosyncrasies of societies and human beings - as a way to provide a critique of the pretensions of the people of this community. Notice, for example, how Teacher Francis' habit of repeating what he says in order to make it seem weighty and impressive makes him appear a little bit pompous and artificial. "Voting is a duty and privilege. Duty and privilege ma'am." And "Yesterday evening I stated them in general terms- in general terms- to Miss Chittaranjan." Notice, too, how while Mrs Baksh and Zilla, two Muslims, join with Teacher Francis to condemn the bias and prejudice of others- in this case the Hindu Chittaranjans- their own prejudices come to the surface when, as soon as Teacher Francis tells how Nelly Chittaranjan took his words down in shorthand, Zilla's response focuses on her assumption that Nelly is only revealing how "stuck up" she is. She cannot see Teacher Francis' concerns about. being recorded- only that Nelly is flaunting her ability, which she interprets as "a low thing like that". At the same time, the conversation Naipaul presents leaves us wondering whether in a community with petty rivalries such as these, Zilla might not be right, and whether Nelly may not in fact really be making a point of using the shorthand, not only to intimidate Teacher Francis, but also to show off her training in this area. One of Naipaul's greatest gifts as a Caribbean writer is his ability to show us the pettiness and pretensions which sometimes characterise our relationships. People of our society often use such mockery to deflate the pretensions, delusions and hypocrisy of other people. As early as the eighteenth century, one writer described how the slaves showed "a talent for ridicule and derision, which is exercised not only against each other, but also, not unfrequently, at the expense of their owner or employer' (Edwards, 1794: p. 85). Such ridicule and derision, to sanction behaviour that is 155 disapproved of, often expresses itself, within the popular culture, as ·, which translates itself to our popular songs and folk literature as well. It also finds expression in our festivals, as in Ole Mas, at Carnival, when masqueraders may portray public figures who are perceived as having acted corruptly, inappropriately or stupidly, as caricatures of themselves - with appropriate commentary on their actions. Not all critique is purely satirical, though. In the excerpt below, writer Jamaica Kincaid of Antigua and Barbuda describes in her novel Lucy the sort of irrelevance and falsehoods a colonial education could impose upon a child in the Caribbean. Lucy (1991) Jamaica Kincaid [Antigua!USA] Iremembered an old poem Ihad been made to memorise when Iwas ten years old and a pupil at Queen Victoria's Girl School. Ihad been made to memorise it, verse after verse, and then had recited the whole poem to an auditorium full of parents, teachers and my fellow pupils. After Iwas done, everybody stood up and applauded with an enthusiasm that surprised me, and later they told me how nicely I had pronounced every word, how I had placed just the right amount of emphasis in places where it was needed, and how proud the poet, now dead, would have been to have heard his words ringing out of my mouth. 1 was then at the height of my two facedness; that is, outside false, inside true. And so Imade pleasant little noises that showed both modesty and appreciation, but inside, I was making a vow to erase from my mind, line by line, verse by verse,every word of that poem. Activity 8:4 Identify flaws in your society and its people that you feeldetract from the quality of life in your country. For any one of these, show how h is treated in ONE expression of popular cuhure or art form: 1. What aspects are highlighted for comment? 2. What are the means used to critique those aspects? 3. To what extent have the majority of people acknowledged the cmicisms made as justified? 4. What could be done to ensure that even more people acknowledge the critique, which the works(s) represent? 156 Using the resources In the year 2000, the Jamaica media, together with the Tourist Board, collaborated to mount International Reggae Day in an attempt to market reggae as a commodity to the international community. They made use of available technologies - reggae was broadcast on radio stations in Jamaica and in North America; an online international reggae music festival was also launched on the World Wide Web. This initiative, and Sunsplash before it, provide examples of how the people of the Caribbean can use our Arts and Popular Culture to promote our economic development. To do so, in this instance, it was necessary to use modem technologies. This, however, demonstrates issues that may arise when we attempt to use these products of our society in such ways: what, for instance, are some of the dangers we face when we begin to adapt our arts and popular culture to make them attractive to persons outside of the Caribbean? How might packaging them appropriately to suit these new technologies change their character? Will we lose important features that make them our own? What sorts of policies might Caribbean governments need to put in place to ensure that while the arts and popular culture are properly developed, we also protect what they reflect of our cultural heritage? How can we ensure that our artists and cultural entrepreneurs develop the skills that will provide them with employment and help them to survive and prosper economically? These are important questions which must be addressed in considering how the arts and popular culture might play a role in aspects of our economic development. Activity 8:5 Discussion 1. How well does the curriculum in your school or country prepare students for using their artistic talents to promote their personaldevelopmental goals? 2. Identify specific policies that can be put in place to protect the ar:ts and popular culture in the Caribbean from: (i) Piracy (ii) Cultural Imperialism. 3. Propose some suggestions as to how specifiC projects can be initiated in the Caribbean to use elements of our culture to promote unity within and between Caribbean countries. 157 Further Activities 1. Say what you would include on EITHER a web sije OR a television documentary featuring the Arts and/or Popular Culture of your country which is meant to encourage people from countries ou1side the Caribbean to come to your country, and also to create a demand for the work of creative people in these areas. What would you include to make the documentary or web sije appealing to people of different ages and incomes? 2. Identify the major themes that were explored in this section which shows the potential for arts and popular cuhure to contribu1e to development in the Caribbean. Key Concepts Cultural entrepreneurs Creativity High culture Internal landscape Identity Heritage Social justice Folk culture Arts Popular culture Picong Artefacts Symbols Rituals References Bennett, L. (1982) Bans A Killin. In M."Morris (Ed.) Selected Poems: Louise Bennett. ngston: Sangster's Book Store Ltd. Edwards, B. (1794) The history, civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West Indies. (p.85) In P.Roberts (1997) From oral to literate culture: Colonial experience in the English West Indies: Mona: The Press, University of the West Indies. Gabby (1993) Send an answer fuh we. In C.Best (1999) Barbadian popular music and the politics of Caribbean culture. Rochester, Vermont: Schenkmann Books Inc. Kincaid, J. (1991) Lucy. London: Virago. Naipaul, V. (1958) The Suffrage of Elvira. London: Andre Deutsch. Lamming, G. (1960) The pleasures of exile. London: Michael Joseph. Walcott, D. (1962) Islands. From: In a Green Night In: S. Brown, M. Morris and G. Rohlehr (Eds.) (1989) Voice Print: An anthology of oral and related poetry in the Caribbean. Trinidad: Longman: Caribbean. Further Reading Poupeye, V. (1998) Caribbean Art: Thames and Hudson. 158 The Mass Media in Caribbean Development As societies grow more complex, the mass media become one primary way by which people are kept informed about different facets of social and community life. This is as true of the global society as it is of national societies. It is also true, however, that mass media messages, if accepted uncritically, can help to establish perspectives on reality that may better serve other people's interests. Here in the Caribbean, understanding of how the mass media perform their functions is essential to our development. In this section, you will look at the role and functions of the mass media in this process, and at the factors that help to determine how they carry out their roles and functions. The Mass Media The mass media are those channels that can be used to communicate messages to a large number of people simultaneously. They include, for example, films, radio and television, newspapers and other print media like magazines, and today they also include on-line journals of all kinds. Caribbean countries are continuously exposed, through these media, to a variety of images and messages from the international community; we are also continuously sending images and messages about our region out to the international community. Roles and functions of the Mass Media The major role of the mass media is to enhance communication among members of a society and of the global village. Subsumed within that role are three major functions that are crucial to the development process: to ii!fQfll1, to entertain, and to make us visible to others. In addition, some members of their audiences (readers, listeners and viewers) may use mass media to obtain reinforcement for their personal values and beliefs, and to find models of behaviour. Activity 8:6 1. Identify the major media organisations which serve your country and the region. 2. Identify alternative media which might still be important in your community in performing the functions identified . 159 Informing the people A major function of mass media is to let individuals know what is going on in their immediate environment and in the wider community. Think, for instance, of how people of your country find out about issues like the incidence of crime and the availability of business and social opportunities, or the imminence of natural disasters. Where, in earlier times, interpersonal communication was an adequate source of information, especially in situations where people's lives and trade were centred around their villages, today it . would be almost impossible to survive without the mass media to inform us about trends, patterns and critical events affecting important sectors of our daily life. Tied in with the function of informing the people is the issue, in democracies, of providing persons with contexts in which to make choices in planning projects for their development. As such, leaders in these countries have a responsibility to see that adequate information reaches people in a timely enough fashion to make rational choice a possibility. Cleveland (1988) sums up this role, and the responsibilities of leaders in the process when he says: Leadership of the informed, requiring wider participation and more collective thought and action, has to be exercised by persuasion ... In such an environment, planning cannot be done by a few leaders, advised in secret by experts. Planning has to be a dynamic improvisation by the many on a general sense of direction, which is announced by leaders only after genuine consultation with those who will have to improvise on it. This means more openness, less secrecy ... In the information society, may be that is an updated definition of democracy. The need for information, therefore, starts with the need to make informed choice as to who our leaders will be - in the electoral process, for instance. However, once those leaders assume leadership, a two-way flow of information must guide their decision­ making. In the context of our developing knowledge of each other, here in the Caribbean, separated as we are from each other physically, the mass media perform a vital role. As 160 the Report of the West Indian Commission (1992) points out, some parts of the region remain remote from the Caribbean community: The Commission conducted hearings in Belize and the Bahamas in June 1991, and did indeed find perceptions of remoteness from CARICOM and of CARICOM from them. If this matter is not seriously addressed, it could become a source of great concern in the Community. (p. 401) The mass media can play a significant role in lessening countries' feelings of remoteness by providing an adequate supply of news from and to those areas. They can also help to combat the insularity which we sometimes demonstrate in our attitudes and policies, and to enhance our understanding of ourselves as truly Caribbean people. The media's function of providing information also assumes importance in developing countries to ensure that programmes of public education are effectively implemented. Think, for example, how in your community, information about how to maintain a healthy lifestyle and how to preserve the environment are circulated to the mass of people, both within and outside your school doors. Chances are, your community receives a great proportion of such information through radio, television and newspaper articles. In areas where illiteracy is a problem, media like radio and television are of particular importance. Note that in most of the examples provided, the understanding of what an effective information flow must be like suggests that not only must leaders be able to communicate with the people; the people should also be able to tell their leaders their thoughts and feelings about major policies and practices. The mass media facilitate both processes. The mass media are also used in many developing countries to support the school curriculum. In your own country you may know of educational programmes which are broadcast to schoolchildren, or to adult learners who may not have easy access to the campuses of educational institutions. 161 Activity 8:7 Conduct a survey of people in your community to find out what their preferred sources of information are, for example: (i) (iO (iii) important events in the society; sports; their favourite entertainers._ How important is the role that the mass media play in their obtaining such information? Which branch of the media do they prefer for which purposes? Do you notice any differences in the preferences of different groups? Entertainment Many people in our society today also rely on the mass media for a significant part of their entertainment. If you were to ask your classmates, you might well find that the majority of them entertain themselves largely by watching television or by going to the cinema (although, with the introduction of cable TV, you may find that perhaps fewer people are going to the cinema), or by listening to their favourite radio call-in or music programmes. People also read magazines and journals for entertainment; for example, the mass media have given us easy access not only to our own artists and icons of popular culture, but also to artists from all over the world. In such journals we may find interesting articles about their lives, their fashion and food choices, and about a range of issue, which we may not necessarily need as information, but simply for the sake of interest. In addition, magazines and journals may contain stories, humour and games of all kinds for our diversion. Positioning the Caribbean in the international society The ability to make our goodS and services attractive to countries and organizations both within and outside the region, and to motivate them to trade with us, is also vital to our development. Again, the mass media serve an important function, because they make us visible to these partners in the first place, and also because of how they frame the information about us may help to determine whether these potential trading partners are receptive to what we have to offer. By a "frame" we mean the selection of the information and the attributes that we highlight in talking about or portraying a person, event or product. Let us say, for example, that we choose to present a picture of our 162 tourist destinations via the mass media. If we can place our tourist industry on the agenda of other countries, we have managed to make people aware of us as a tourist destination. However, in addition to the information we provide about ourselves, the attributes we emphasize will further determine who becomes interested in us, and for what reason. Will we focus, for instance, on our country's ability to provide an exciting nightlife, or on our eco-tourism? And what impact will our messages make if they are competing with different messages about us from foreign mass media? Consider that the information highlighted by these media might be framed to focus on attributes that seem to suggest that we are politically unstable, unfriendly or crime-ridden. We need, however, to be careful not to assume that the mass media perform these functions on people who receive their messages passively. Research suggests (and you probably know this from your own experience) that people use mass media selectively. In other words, I select which newspapers or television programmes I want to receive; I may also choose to listen only to those programmes that are in tune with my own beliefs and values. Thus, people often use mass media to reinforce already existing beliefs and values. Activity 8:8 1. Discuss how you would respond to a leader in your society or community who suggested that the mass media should provide only the kinds of information that would portray your country in a favourable light to potential trading partners. 2. Analyse how the print media frame the news about an important event in your country. What aspects of the story do they seem to highlight? How might this affect the public's response to the event? Factors that affect Media performance However, although the mass media have the potential to be significant partners in the developmental process, certain factors must be recognised, which may put constraints on how effectively they perform those functions. Available Technologies The availability of more effective communication technologies - the intellectual and physical tools needed to effect communication - is a critical factor. Four core 163 technologies that have helped to transform the communication process in recent times are summarized below: • Satellite Technology- The availability of communication satellites has made it possible for the Caribbean News Agency (CANA) and the Caribbean Broadcasting Union (CBU) to originate radio and television programmes and data transmissions via INTELSAT (the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization). According to Dunn (1995) the service has considerably improved the speed and decreased the cost of Caribbean news and public affairs programming distribution regionally. • Computing Technology- Used in satellite programming, in communication systems and in regular personal computers, this technology has impacted on both the speed and the efficiency of communications, and on the options for formatting that will make mass media messages more attractive and user­ friendly. • Optics and Laser Technologies - Because of this technology, telecommunication carriers can carry quantities of encoded data, images, and voice messages. • Digitalization Technology - Digitalization technology also uses light to generate, store and reproduce information. Music transmission, for example, is more precise and of a higher quality since the use of this technology. Observation of Media rights and privileges In a democracy, we believe that certain rights and privileges of the mass media must be observed if they are to be able to perform their functions effectively. Respect for rights such as the right to security of person and freedom of access to information and to the facilities necessary to perform their tasks is vital. Furthermore, there needs to be equitable treatment of the various media organisation by public figures to ensure that all voices have an equal chance to be heard. Journalists also need to be able to move freely through countries and areas where they need to work. Thus, national frontiers must be opened to the Caribbean press becomes necessary. In contexts where such rights and . 164 privileges are not observed, obstacles are placed in the way of the mass media's performance of their functions. Professional training of Mass Media personnel In the Caribbean, the Caribbean Institute of Mass Communications, CARIMAC, is the major regional institution for training media professionals. Programmes offered by CARIMAC and other reputable institutions are vital if our media representatives are to be able to perform their duties effectively and responsibly. The dominance of foreign Media The English-speaking Caribbean is particularly susceptible to the influence of foreign media. Dunn (1995) points out that the English-speaking Caribbean is particularly exposed to penetration by international mass media, because of the fact that it shares a common language with the United States and the United Kingdom, the world's two largest producers of media control. Its closeness to the United States facilitates the importation of cheap, attractively packaged programmes, and many of our media specialists are trained in these countries, or are imported from them. For example, according to Dunn, as late as the mid-1980s the Caribbean was one of those regions that revealed the highest levels of imported television context, ranging from 76% in Jamaica to 95 % in Montserrat. This has important implications for the Caribbean: our view of the world is perhaps being shaped largely by representations of events in the international society - and in our own that come from the perspectives of people from other cultures and societies. Since the mass media make decisions about what is newsworthy, and about how these things are to be framed, are we satisfied that how they represent the world is fair to us, and reflect our own priority concerns? 165 . Activity 8:9 1. Compare the coverage by foreign media (like CNN, for instance) of internationally significant events in which the Caribbean has participated with the coverage by our regional and nationally based mass media. What differences do you notice in the amount of information about the Caribbean which is provided and the way that information is framed? How might this affect our development? 2. Do a survey of the people in your class to find out how much local television programming they habitually watch as compared to foreign programs. What are some examples which you can identify of the ways in which these television programs seem to impact upon their choices of food, dress. 3. What factors seem to influence their choice of programs? What, if anything, would you do to influence them to make different choices? (Provide a rationale for the suggestions you make.) Further Activities 1. Discuss the comment that • the developing countries of the Caribbean cannot afford an uncensored press.• 2. Arrange a tour of a local newspaper, radio or television house (or invite a speaker in from one of these institutions), to find out about the changes in technology that have been introduced there within the last decade, and how this has influenced their ability to perform their functions. Key Concepts Frame Satellite technology In·sularity Icon Print media On-line Images Computing technology Optics Democracy Laser technology Foreign media Communication Rights and privileges Digitalization technology Alternative media References Cleveland, H. (1989). Information as a resource: the emerging information age. InT. Deyal, Towards a philosophy of national development using communication, information and mass media. NPC Draft Medium Term Economic Planning Framework 1989-1995. Vol II: Communication and Information. Port of Spain: Ministry of Education. Dunn, H. S. (1995). Policy issues in communications technology use: Challenges and options. In H. S. Dunn (Ed). Gobalization.communicationa and Caribbean identity. Kingston: Ian Randle. West Indian Commission (1992). Commission. Mona: The Press. A time for action: report of the West Indian 166 Sports and Development in the Caribbean If development in the modem sense is about enlarging the choices of people, then the development of the self-image of a people, their health and recreation become ends in themselves. If people are healthier mentally and physically then they become more productive. Sport is integral to this kind of people development. In the Caribbean we have been able to produce world-class athletes such as Merlene Ottey, Ato Boldon, Obadele Thompson, Donald Quamie, Curtly Ambrose and Brian Lara. What we need to do is to put programmes and structures in place to sustain a high level of performance and to encourage more citizens to benefit from sports. The case of cricket More than any other sport in the Caribbean cricket has served to boost the morale of West Indians all over the world. Our victories in the field of cricket and in particular our domination of the game between the late 1970s and early 1990s served to boost the morale and identity of the Caribbean people. The significance of those victories was the fact that we beat the former British overlords at their own game and on their own turf. The symbolism was not lost on West Indians. The skill, the dedication and unity that we displayed in the field of play demonstra what we needed in order to survive as a civilization in the Caribbean. Cricket as a game has also had a strong socializing influence on Caribbean people. The 'gentleman' ethos of the game, the respect for the umpire's decision, humility in victory, grace in defeat and commitment to team are all qualities passed on to generations of youth who have played the game. And the game has been played at all levels of the society. Cricket has also been a force promoting social mobility. Young men who have excelled at the game have been able to move from community clubs to national, then regional and international levels. The game has forced intermingling between urban/rural as well as different classes and ethnicities. Cricket has also been the main integrating force in the Caribbean. 167 Activity 8:10 Read the recommendation advanced by the West India Committee below. • Do you think it feasible that we have a West Indian football team? • Which recommendations do you think have been put into practice so far? • Which recommendation do you think is most urgent? Recommendations of the West Indian Commission 1939 1. That the West Indies Cricket Board of Control be encouraged to prepare a comprehensive report on the state of cricket in the community: suggesting means for strengthening the game in the region and giving the West Indies the best possible chance to be competitive internationally. Problems of finance, the improvement and extension of facilities, the need to keep a larger number of our leading players performing and coaching within the region, and increasing the popularity and playing of the game at school level should all be addressed. 2. That the televising of West Indian cricket matches at the international level, on tour or at home, hold a high priority in regional broadcasting. A report should be sought from the CBU on the possibility of televising the annual intra-regional cricket competitions, the Red Stripe and Geddes Grant competitions. 3. That fresh initiative be taken by national bodies acting in concert to mount a West Indian challenge in sports other than cricket. 4. That there be a regional sports desk at the CARICOM Secretariat concerned with encouraging, organising, publicising and seeking finance for regional sport. The very successful OECS regional sports desk is an appropriate model. 5. That a CARICOM sports personality of the year scheme be established through the sports desk. The criteria for selection can be creatively developed based not simply upon success in international events, but also on performance and contribution to sport at the regional and local levels. 6. That regional media be encouraged to provide more coverage of regional sporting events, even when they are not taking place in their locality. Regional sport writers and commentators should also be recognised by a regional award. 7. That greater attention be given to preserving and building up regional sports archives to foster a greater awareness of the traditions and importance of sports in the West Indies. 8. That, through the proposed CARICOM sports desk, an attempt be made to provide cheaper travel for sportsmen and spectators as well as lower-cost accommodation structures. 9. That regional sports organisations seek to utilise teleconferencing facilities to hold more frequent and timely meetings as a way of breaking down an insularity which has meant that meetings are held only during tournaments and the regular contact needed to advance regional arrangements is therefore rarely achieved. 10. That in the spirit of promoting entrepreneurship and enterprise,efforts be made to establish in the region a cricket academy to train persons in all aspects of the game of cricket. In this regard, the services of available past 168 and present West Indian cricket stars may be retained; it is also possible that similar ventures may be undertaken in areas of sport where there is internationally acknowledged West Indian expertise. 11. That linkages between tourism and sport be pursued and strengthened with a view to deriving the maximum benefit from the West Indian reputation for sporting excellence,linked to other aspects of the regional tourism product. 12. That a corps of well trained physical education instructors be established to undertake school programmes of physical education and sport - as a counter to some of the anti-social lifestyles threatening the youth of the region. Acdvity 8:11 Read the passage below and then answer the questions which follow. We must develop confidence in ourselves,in our ability to beat the rest of the world,in our right to be an example to others. We must make a commitment to excellence. We must be prepared to learn from the best and then make that best our own and put it into practice. We must make a total commitment to doing the job we had to do very well indeed. And,in making that commitment, build a reward structure that made the commitment worthwhile in a practical as well as a psychological sense. We must believe in frank and open communication at all times between those involved in the endeavour - and especially believe in this requirement at times of particular challenge or crisis. We must know that serious discipline for a profoundly important purpose,not just for selfish purposes but for others who depend on our success being achieved. It was from those principles, we were told, that the greatness of the West Indies cricket team was built. This excerpt expresses the forces that made for the greatness of the cricket team in the Caribbean. 1. Identify the core values identified in this excerpt 2. Are these values missing in other areas of nationallife? Give examples. Other Sports While cricket has a special place in the West Indian consciousness, we have other areas of sports that we need to capitalise on. We should be able to perform better at swimming and water sports given the fact that we are islands. Performance in athletics far outstrips the level of support and infrastructure. We need programmes and infrastructure from the school and community level up to the national level. 169 Sports clubs Sports clubs have made a very special contribution at the community level in our countries. They have provided a source of community cohesion and solidarity and have mobilised resources to afford recreation to ordinary citizens. These clubs have been a source of community leaders and organisers who have graduated to higher levels.of national service. Activity 8:11 • Take any sports club in your area and examine carefully its leadership, programmes and the contributions it makes to the community. Making a living from sports Except for cricket, there are few disciplines in sports that afford Caribbean people to make a living on a fulltime basis. The gradual acquisition of Olympic status for most games, theoretically, opens wider the door of opportunity for participation. sponsorship by manufacturers of sportswear awaits the talented few. Lucrative In short, the glamour of achieving fame and fortune at an early age through sports is a chance of a lifetime for West Indians, some of whom may have emerged from humble circumstances. Career opportunities are enhanced on the basis of employment as coaches, physical education instructors, sport psychologists, sports medicine and physical therapists. As the medical sciences develop, new areas of specialisation will emerge and careers in sports will also grow in specialisation. There is also another dimension to the careers in sports. The manufacture and sale of sport equipment and goods have become a lucrative business. Constructing and maintaining sport facilities is another career opportunity. Sports can be employed by Caribbean youth as a stepping-stone to gaining a solid education in a field that may not be available at the University of the West Indies and other institutions in the region. Caribbean athletes, especially those in Jamaica and the Bahamas, who are in close proximity to the United States, usually tap into the scholarships offered there. Coaching 170 is bound up in sound scientific principles and facilities are excellent for tapping the true potential of sportsmen. Greater efforts by Caribbean governments are needed in this area if the true potential of our youth is to be realised. Activity 8:12 1. When in 1983 a number of West Indian cricketers visited South Africa, Sir Vivian Richardson condemned them for accepting "blood money"? Should sportsmen be free to make a living regardless of sport? 2. Should a sportsman's loyalty be focussed on representing his country for national pride or his club overseas for a lucrative salary? Further Activities 1. Summarize the main ideas in the contribution of sport to regionaldevelopment. 2. To what extent in your country is a high premium put on sports in human development? Is it emphasized in the education process? Summary This chapter sought to identify a range of art forms and expressions of popular culture which can be considered to be uniquely "Caribbean". They were shown to be important to the spirit of the Caribbean people in promoting a sense of identity and placing them on the world scene, as well as, or economic benefit in their own right. The chapter also focused on the mass media and the role it plays in the Caribbean in the economy, politics, entertainment, transmission of knowledge and thus, ts promotion of a Caribbean identit Finally, the focus shifted to sports which can play a much greater role than it does now in enhancing the image of Caribbean people, physically and mentally, as well as, financially. (fn short, arts, popular culture, the mass media and sports have much potential X, to expand the notion of development that has hitherto dominated our productive effort 171 Key Concepts Self image Cricket Identity Core values Recreation Community cohesion Entrepreneurship Sports archives Cricket academy Social mobility References Beckles, H. (1977) A spirit of dominance: cricket and nationalism in the West Indies. Kingston: Ian Randle Publications. West Indian Commission. (1992). A time for action: report of the West Indian Commission. Mona: The Press Further Reference James, C.L.R. (1963). Beyond a boundary. London: Hutchinson & Company Limited. 172 Chapter9 Social Justice and Development Overview The chapter explores further topics relevant to development issues. The economical concept of development that deals with means to an end was discussed in chapter 5. The human development model emphasises that people are both the means and ends of development. Any development, in this mode of thinking, cannot be considered to be true development unless someone experienced some good from it, and not at the expense of others. Human development is thus predicated on equity and therefore inclusiveness. The human development model focuses on people indicators as a means of assessing whether or not a country is experiencing true development. There are various ways of measuring the non-material indicators of human development (Table 2, chapter 5). In this chapter we focus on issues of social justice as crucially important means of guaging the sophistication with which our people regard development issues. Objectives 1 By the end of this chapter you will be able to: 1. explain the meaning of the concept social justice; 2. describe the evolution of social justice in the Caribbean; 3. appreciate the importance of human rights and freedoms; 4. assess the development process in the Caribbean with reference to its treatment of all groups in the society; 5. examine human rights violations in relation to practices arising from racism, sexism, ageism and ableism; 6. analyze the need for debate on issues such as the functioning of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the Caribbean Court of Appeal, and the death penalty. 1 These objectives refer to those of Module 2,specific objective 11 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus. 173 Introduction Social justice is a complex concept. It is based on a premise that all people are entitled to the same basic rights and freedoms as everybody else. Social justice is, therefore, deeply connected with issues of equality and equity. Equality refers to efforts to treat everyone in a similar way. Equity attempts to ascertain whether that treatment is fair or just. An example may clarify the matter. Let us focus on education. In the Caribbean there has long been a social demand for equality of educational opportunity. This would entail all groups in the society being able to access schools without there being major obstacles directed at any group. However, there has been inequality in accessing secondary schooling. Some groups in the society cannot access secondary schooling. The obstacles encountered have to do with limited provision and so not enough school places for all. Thus, a system is used to choose pupils based on primary school performance. This system is riddled with inequalities because the race or competition for school places did not start off with everyone carrying equal handicaps. Some Caribbean countries today are close to providing Universal Secondary Education (USE). This means that all children can access secondary education. However, the potential for breaches of social justice does not end there. We now see where equity comes in. Are schools equipped and prepared to cater to the wide array of needs and differences of its clientele? If any groups find that the demands of the education system are stacked unfairly against them, then they are not being treated in an equitable manner. Equity here refers to how fair the system is to persons as they pass through it. In this Chapter we focus on how understandings about rights and freedoms (and thus, equality and equity) have evolved in the Caribbean region. As societies committed to guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of its citizens, issues relating to breaches of social justice are matters for the courts of law. Understanding these issues of rights and freedom require a basic knowledge of the Constitution of the country. Sometimes the laws of the land need to be changed to reflect contemporary understandings of our context as a developing nation. When changes are to be made, they should be debated seriously. If not there is the danger of a solution being put in place that is unequal or inequitable for 174 some group in the society. This Chapter will introduce you to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the Caribbean Court of Appeal, and issues relating to the death penalty. Not all issues of social justice reach the courts of the land. Sometimes the law is silent on areas where some groups feel obstructed or marginalized. Thus, everyday in the interaction of social life, evidence of injustice may be playing itself out without us being aware of them. In other words, they may be so familiar that they go unnoticed. We will, therefore, also consider discriminatory practices against different ethnic groups such as aboriginal peoples; engendered behaviours that do not help males or females realize their full potential; and, deprivations suffered by the disabled or the aged. Evolution of social justice in the Caribbean This issue of social justice has evolved in the Commonwealth Caribbean from a conception of the colonial state to the independent state. The traditional notions of civil society did not apply to the Caribbean region in early colonial times. The Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494, that purported to divide the world between Spain and Portugal laid the foundation for colonial exploration and expansion in the Caribbean region by other imperial powers. The Treaty of Ryswick, 1697, established the principle of No peace beyond the line which reinforced the idea that whatever applied in Europe between European powers did not apply to the Caribbean. The area beyond the line to which the Treaty referred was west of the prime meridian and south of the Tropic of Cancer. This principle established the Caribbean as a zone of war in which even the basic assumptions of a civil society did not apply. In this context, the notions of slavery and forced labour were not regarded as being wrong or even the many expeditions of colonisation that sought to only appropriate and plunder. Equality was not a principle that applied in the colonial state. This manifested itself in the introduction of exploitative labour systems and led to the recognition of slaves as both people and property. In this context, the fundamental principles of the colonial state were exploitation, inequality and injustice. 175 Following the emancipation of the slaves in 1834 and the failure of the apprenticeship system in 1838, the concept of people as property was removed. However, the indentureship systems that were introduced following the failure of the apprenticeship system also mandated the limitation on freedom of movement as indentured workers needed to have passes to leave their estates. After the end of the indentureship system in 1917, there were further improvements in the area of social justice as universal adult franchise was first introduced in Jamaica in 1944 and in Trinidad and Tobago in 1946 and later in other territories. This gave all persons twenty-one years old and over the right to vote regardless of ownership or rental of property or levels of income. The climax to the, movement towards real social justice came with the introduction of Bills of Rights in the constitutions of the newly independent countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean starting with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in 1962. These were chapters in their constitutions that recognized, declared and protected the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual in all of these societies. Fundamental human rights and freedoms The inclusion of a Bill of Rights in the Constitutions of the independent countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean affords the citizen the power to redress any infringement of his/her constitutional rights through the use of the court system. All of the independent territories of the Commonwealth Caribbean have Bills of Rights, which are enshrined and protected in their constitutions. These Bills of Rights are usually chapters in their constitutions that recognise and protect human rights and freedoms. All of these independent territories (with the exception of Trinidad and Tobago) have followed the format of the European Convention for the Piotection of Human Rights'and Fundamental Freedoms-for inclusion in their constitutions. The Council of Europe drew up this Convention in 1950. frrinidad and Tobago copied the formula of the Canadian Bill of Rights 1960 for inclusion in its constitution in 1962 and retained this model when it became a Republic in 1976. 176 Regardless of the formula used, the direct effect of the inclusion of a Bill of Rights in Caribbean constitutions, is the diminishing of the effect of the Westminster doctrine of the Supremacy of Parliament. This can be clearly seen, for example, in the Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda: Except as is otherwise expressly provided in this Constitution, no law may abrogate, abridge or infringe or authorise the abrogation, abridgement or infringement of any of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual hereinbefore recognised and declared. Not only does the Bill of Rights limit the Supremacy of Parliament; it also places constraints on executive action in the following way as can be seen in section 18(1) of the Antigua and Barbuda Constitution Order 1981: If any person alleges that any of the provisions of section 3 to 17 (inclusive) of this Constitution has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to him (or, in the case of a person who is detained, if any other person alleges such a contravention in relation to the detained person),then, without prejudice to any other action with respect to the same matter that is lawfully available, that person (or that other person) may apply to the High Court for redress. All of the Caribbean constitutions have essentially similar provisions to that quoted from the Antigua and Barbuda Constitution. The doctrine of the supremacy of the constitution applies to all of the written constitutions of Commonwealth Caribbean countries. For example, in Section 2 of the Trinidad and Tobago Constitution: This Constitution is the supreme law of Trinidad and Tobago,and any other law that is inconsistent with this Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency. 177 Activity 9:1 1. What is your understanding of social justice? 2. Give three reasons why the Bill of Rights in your country's constitution is important to social justice. 3. Can you think of any groups in your society whose rights are not as readily defended as others? The entrenchment of the constitutions The constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean are all protected from easy amendment by the entrenchment of their provisions. The Parliaments of the region cannot amend all of the sections of their constitutions by a simple majority because this is one of the various checks and balances that have been placed in the constitution to protect it from political abuse or amendment. Basically, there are three main types of entrenchment in the constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean: (i) special majorities in the Parliament; (ii) approval of Bills for amendment by referenda; (iii) time delay procedures between readings of a Bill for amendment. As far as (i) above is concerned, all of the constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean have this procedure which specifies that certain sections of the constitution require special majorities in the Parliament. As far as (ii) above is concerned, some of the constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean require that certain Bills that seek to amend the constitution be subjected to the approval of a referendum after they have been passed in the Parliament. As far as (iii) above is concerned, some of the constitutions of the Commonwealth Caribbean specify that there should be a period of ninety days between the first and second readings of a Bill that seeks to amend the constitution before the Head of State gives his or her assent to the Bill. The effect of a delay is that Parliament cannot consider any Bill to amend the constitution hurriedly and more time is given for a deeper consideration of the proposed amendment by the wider society. 178 Activity 9:2 1. What is a referendum? How can it be used to help make decisions about significant areas of public policy, like the introduction of a new constitution? 2. Can you think of a scenario in the Caribbean where even a referendum's outcome can be potentially threatening to minority groups in the society? 3. Sometimes governments in power seek to evade some of these efforts at entrenchment. Can you think of any incident or process that was initiated by a government, perhaps in your country, which sought to avoid or legally sidestep some of the checks and balances that are constitutionally approved?· Establishment of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom was established by the Judicial Committee Acts of 1833 and 1844 and its purpose at that time was to hear appeals from British colonial courts. here are nineteen countries that use the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as their final court of appeal. These are Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Brunei, Dominica, Gambia, Grenada, Jamaica, Kiribati, Malaysia, Mauritius, New Zealand, St. Kitts-Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, Trinidad and Tobago, and Tuvalu. It should be noted that eleven of the nineteen countries that use the Privy Council as their final court of appeal are to be found in the Commonwealth Caribbean. It can be argued that there is a strong judicial bond between the Commonwealth Caribbean and Great Britain. This is reinforced by the fact that when Trinidad ad Tobago became a republic in 1976, the government chose to retain the Privy Council in its new constitution as the final court of appeal, while Grenada chose to reinstate the Privy Council as its final court of appeal in 1991. Only Guyana abolished appeals to the Privy Council when it became a republic in 1970. Composition of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council comprises mainly British Lords of Appeal who are appointed members of the House of Lords. These Lords of Appeal are appointed for life as members of the House of Lords under the provisions of the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. However, they serve in their judicial capacities until the age of seventy-five, while those Lords of Appeal who have been appointed after 1993 only serve 179 until a retirement age of seventy under the provisions of the Judicial Pensions and Retirement Act 1993. In spite of this, they may sit in appeals before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Judicial Committee also consists of judicial officers who are members of Her Majesty's Privy Council in Commonwealth countries from which appeals still go to the Judicial Committee. The Lord Chancellor is a Cabinet Minister, the head of the Judiciary, and the Presiding Officer in the House of Lords. He is appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister and by convention he is a Cabinet Minister. By virtue of his office, he is both the head of the Judiciary as well as the Presiding Officer in the House of Lords. In relation to the work of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, it is the Lord Chancellor who is responsible for choosing the panel of judges that will sit and hear cases that come before the Judicial Committee. In delivering its judgments, tl).e Judicial Committee of the Privy Council may reverse earlier judgments. This has been so since 1966 when provision was made for dissenting. opinions to be given in judgments delivered by the Judicial Committee. In the case of those countries of the Commonwealth that became Republics and retained the facility of appeals to the Judicial Committee, the process is regulated by the constitution or local legislation. In such instances, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council will advise the Head of State of the Republic of its opinion. Enforcement of the decision is regulated in accordance with the Constitution or the relevant law. Activity 9:3 1. How important is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to the development of social justice in the region? 2. If there are only 19 countries that use the Privy Council as the final court of appeal, find out what mechanisms other countries in the Caribbean have in place for this function? 3. It must give you cause for reflection when you realize that Caribbean countries are so overwhelmingly represented among the 19 countries which have retained the authority. of the Privy Council. Suggest why this might be so? What implications are there on the issue of final appeals in relation to the regional integration movement? 180 The Caribbean Court of Appeal The issue of a Caribbean Court of Appeal has dominated the discussion over the retention or abolition of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Essentially, the Caribbean Court of Appeal is intended to be a replacement for the Privy Council as the final court of appeal for the countries of the· Commonwealth Caribbean. This debate has raised the question of cooperation among members of CARICOM in trying to agree on a common format for a regional institution. The critical issues are the budget, the method of selecting judges, the location of the headquarters, the status of a circuit court or maintaining a fixed location, and the confidence of the Caribbean pubJic. The argument that the Privy Council is not an indigenous institution and that it is not sensitive to regional culture and lifestyles is offset by the argument that regional governments have to make fresh budgetary allocations for the court and the general public must have confidence in the commitment of their governments to this venture. Activity 9:4 • Where do your sentiments lie? Do you feel that Caribbean countries, perhaps your own country, should abandon the British option we have held on to for so long? • Do you feelthat somehow issues of social justice might be perverted if we were to insist on having a Caribbean Court of Appeal? The constitutionality of the death penalty One of the major social justice issues that has been addressed in the Commonwealth Caribbean is the constitutionality of the death penalty. This has come about largely because the independence constitutions of the former colonies of Great Britain in the Caribbean has provided for the continuation of many laws enacted during the colonial era as existing laws. These existing laws operate notwithstanding the fact that they may constitute exceptions to the fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to the individual in the independence constitutions. In other words, the transition from the colonial state to the independent state has guaranteed to the individual fundamental human rights and 181 freedoms that were not previously enjoyed. However, there are many laws that exist in spite of the presence of a Bill of Rights in the constitution. Activity 9:5 Conduct a research to locate some significant laws in your country that came into force before independence that might contain provisions that you feel might be in violation of your fundamental rights and freedoms. These laws are valid. What is their impact on the issue of social justice in your country? Social Justice Issue - Cruel and Unusual Punishment As a good examplec, onstitutionality of the death penalty has been challenged as a form of punishment that is cruel and unusual and therefore ought to be a violation of the human rights of the individuJ This matter was argued in Trinidad and Tobago in the case of De Freitas v Benny [1975]3 WLR 388 in which the Judicial Committee held, in dismissing the appeal of Michael de Freitas (also known as Michael Abdul Malik), as follows: that the executive act of carrying out a death sentence pronounced by a court of law was authorised by laws that were in force at the commencement of the Constitution and the appellant was, therefore, debarred by section 3 of the Constitution from asserting that it abrogated, abridged or infringed any of his rights or freedoms recognized and declared in section 1 or particularised in Section 2. [1975] 3 WLR 388 at 389 Social justice issue - delay of execution The issue of delay as a ground for declaring the death penalty unlawful was addressed in another Trinidad and Tobago case, namely Abbott v Attorney General of Trinidad and Tobago [1979] 1 WLR 1342. In this case, the Privy Council concluded that the transition of Trinidad and Tobago from monarchical to republican status (August 1st, 1976) together with the holding of a general election (September 13th, 1976) were acceptable factors that contributed to the seven and a hal(-month delay in disposing of Abbott's petition for reprieve before the Mercy Committee. The Privy Council offered the following viewpoint in this case: 182 Their Lordships would in any event hesitate long before substituting their own opinion for that of judges in Trinidad and Tobago, as to what constitutes a reasonable time for dealing with petitions for reprieve in that country. Judges who sit in the courts in Trinidad and Tobago know the practice in these matters and the local circumstances much better than their Lordships can hope to do. [1979] 1 WLR 1342 at 1348 and 1349. Activity 9:6 The above quotation was a most interesting deferral of opinion on the issue of delay by the Privy Council. • Could it be possible that local conditions could eventually contribute to delays of execution measured in years? • Suggest instances where the Privy Council would want to substitute their own opinion for those of judges in the Commonwealth Caribbean on the subject of local conditions where delay of execution is involved. By the 1980s, it became clear that the Privy Council was beginning to start the process of rendering the death penalty unconstitutional where delay measured in terms of years was a factor. The first sign of such a change manifested itself in their judgment in the Jamaican case of Riley and Others v Attorney General of Jamaica and Another [1982] 3 AER 469. In this case, the Privy Council was divided three to two on the issue of what effect delay ought to have on the carrying out of the sentence of death. The majority (Lords Hailsham, Diplock and Bridge) held the view that delay could not override the effect of the meaning of section 17 of the Jamaican Constitution which reads as follows: (1) No person shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading punishment or other treabnent. (2) Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question authorises the infliction of any description of punishment which was lawful in Jamaica immediately before the appointed day. The majority was satisfied that there was no basis to challenge a delay of execution before 6th August, 1962 (the date of Jamaica's independence) and therefore there could be no such right-created after 6th August, 1962. The sentence of death was the lawful punishment for murder under the provisions of section 3(1) of the Offences against the 183 Person Act 1864. In the circumstances, they argued that there was no basis for bringing this application to have the death penalty set aside. On the other hand, the two dissenting judges (Lords Scarman and Brightman) took a different view in their interpretation of section 17 of the Jamaican Constitution. They argued that prior to 6th August, 1962 there was no basis for challenging any delay in carrying out the punishment of death; however, after that date the Constitution granted a new judicial remedy that did not exist before under the Bill of Rights. In agreeing with the appellants, the minority referred to the Abbott case (above) in which the Privy Council left open for consideration the effect of a delay measured in years (as opposed to months) before the sentence of death was to be carried out. The minority argued that the implication of the Privy Council's stand in the Abbott case was one which left no doubt about the fact that a delay measured in years would render the punishment unlawful. A way had now been found to render the punishment unlawful by applying constitutional criteria, not to the sentence of the court, but rather, to the executive act of carrying out the punishment itself. By 1993, that comer had been turned and the views of the minority in the Riley case were converted into a majority opinion on the issue of delay measured in years in relation to the death penalty in the Pratt and Morgan case. The Pratt and Morgan Decision On 2nd November, 1993, the Privy Council delivered a landmark decision concerning the death penalty in the Commonwealth Caribbean in the Jamaican case of Pratt and Another v Attorney General and Another [1993] 43 WIR 340. The significance of the case was reflected in the unusual composition of the panel of judges which consisted of seven Lords of Appeal (normally the Privy Council panel would consist of three, four or five judges). What was also significant was that none of the Law Lords who sat in the de Freitas, Abbott or Riley cases sat in this case. The seven­ member panel consisted of Lord Griffiths, Lord Lane, Lord Ackner, Lord Goff of Chieveley, Lord Lowry, Lord Slynn of Hadley and Lord Woolf. 184 It should also be noted that the common thread through the de Freitas, Abbott and Riley cases was the presence of Lord Diplock on the Board in all of them. A new generation of Law Lords was now going to pronounce upon the death penalty in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Their decision was far-reaching insofar as they found a way to get around the powers of the Head of State in order to prevent the carrying out of the sentence of death on the ground of delay measured in years. In arriving at their decision, the Privy Council overruled the majority decision in the Riley case and adopted the views of the minority. In allowing the appeals of Earl Pratt and Ivan Morgan, the Privy Council laid down guidelines to be followed by the State as follows: If capital punishment is to be retained it must be carried out with all possible expedition. Capital appeals must be expedited and legal aid allocated at an early stage. Although no attempt is made to set a rigid timetable, the entire domestic appeal process should be completed within approximately two years. If in any case execution is to take place more than five years after sentence there will be strong grounds for believing that the delay is such as to constitute inhuman or degrading punishment or other treatment [1993] 43 WIR 340 at 341. Activity 9:7 Organize a class debate on the above quotation. • Can the appeals against conviction in a death penalty case be completed in two years? • Can all of the subsequent consmutional motions against the punishment and all the petitions for reprieve be completed in the three remaining years? We now turn to issues of social justice that are deeply implicated in our lives and our interactions with others. Development is a concept that has beguiled us since the era on independence. Since then we have expanded our understanding of what the concept entails. We have moved from notions, which see development solely from a standpoint of economic progress. Today we are beginning to see that emphasis solely on economic development can threaten our environment and even our cultural values and traditions. 185 What still remain elusive are understandings about social justice that do not play themselves out in the courts of the land, or they find themselves there very rarely. Even if they do, judgements of the court do not seem relevant to us, and how we relate to others. Remember in Chapter 1 discussed the concept of socialization. As we grow up in society we learn the rules for living. It is not difficult to see that our perceptions of others - the old, the disabled, the slow learner, minority ethnic and aboriginal communities, gender groups - are forged in the mainstream values and ideologies we inherited{Iust as changes in laws became necessary as our territories changed from being colonial to independent states, so too our laws for living need to reinvented as we become committed to the tenets of human development. Gender Issues Since the declaration of the United Nations Decade for Women in 1975, there has been a greater awareness of gender issues in the Caribbean. Equal pay for equal work between men and women, laws regarding domestic violence and sexual harassment, protection of the law, child care, and domestic labour are some of the main issues that continue to arise under the heading of gender. These are areas in social life where sexism or discriminatory practices against a particular gender group (usually women) occurs. According to the West Indian Commission in its 1992 Report entitled ''Time For Action": The time has therefore come for the correction of the asymmetry of gender relations so detrimental not only to women but also the wider society, since this asymmetry ignores that women are the prime focus in the reconstruction of the moral, social,cultural,economic and political fabric of the Region. The centrality of the position of women lies in the range of roles performed by and expected of women. (West Indian Commission,(1992),p.335). The role of women in Caribbean. society has been greatly underestimated in the past. However, the reality that more women than men are pursuing tertiary education in the region is going to create a situation whereby the competition for higher paying jobs in the region will become more intense. The other side of this is the likelihood of the marginalization of men in Caribbean society. Consider whether this has the potential to 186 intensify social problems like domestic violence. Why are Caribbean men apparently less interested in pursuing tertiary-level education? These are critical questions facing our societies and they go far beyond the cover of gender issues. Explore and reflect on these issues in the activity below. Activity 9:8 • Consider the following statement- "If a country takes seriously issues of social justice, then surely there is not only a problem of women being undervalued but one also about men, and the plight they seem to be facing". Discuss. It is a fact that more women are accessing higher education and being successful at it. However, what to the best of your knowledge is the situation with the majority of women? Are there traditional attitudes in the society towards women, which seem to be unjust? Would you say that we have a situation where more women then ever are achieving academic success, while issues of social justice still beleaguer the lives of women in general? What is the case with men? Men seem to be not as highly achieving as their female counterparts yet, the highest paying jobs are held by men and the leaders and employers are still overwhelmingly men. To what extent then are men marginalized in the society? Being sensitive to issues of social justice, help us to see that the continuing good fortunes for women should not have to happen at the expense of men. Otherwise there will be deepening of conflicts and tensions between the genders. It may be instructive for us to think of not a whole category such as men or women but look at intersections of class and race. You may wish to reflect on the view that it is predominantly men and women of lower socio-economic background who are marginalized in society. Social justice also has to do with the condition of poverty. If the resources and wealth in a country continue to be unequally distributed so much so that there are marked disparities in the way of life of different social groups, then that is an issue of social justice. 187 Any condition that marginalizes groups of people throws up issues of social justice. This may include the way slow learners are treated in an education system or the disabled in society or the aged or aboriginal peoples. Activity 9:9 Reflect on and give examples to show how the following groups may experience certain forms of marginalization in their day to day lives: a. old people (ageism) b. the disabled (ablelsm) c. the 'at risk' learner d. aboriginal inhabitants (racism) All groups have rights as stated at the beginning of the chapter. Rights are not to be thought of as only being given or withheld by governments. In many cases rights have to do with the perceptions of members of society about whether the groups listed in Activity 9:9 are indeed worthy of better treatment. In our education systems concerns of the slow learner, the disadvantaged child, and even the demotivated and uninterested, must be addressed. There is the view that one comes to school to learn and if one does not learn then one must stand the consequences. This view ignores the fact that there are people in schools who do not perform equally well but who through family wealth and connections, can go on to live a comfortable life. This is an issue of social justice because schools purport to help people learn. If someone is failing, schools should ask themselves why are people not learning? Every year thousands leave school with minimal or no qualifications. This translates into a reduced set of life chances for that group. This then contributes marginalization and is an issue of social justice. By the same token in some cases old people tend to be treated as if they are invisible. There are few institutions and organizations focused on the needs and wants of the aged. Recreation, leisure and entertainment for the aged are virtually unheard of in some societies. This sends signals that they are not really important to society's well being so not much funds or attention are devoted to them. As a result of this evaluation of their worth on the part of society, older people tend to stay at home. For many, they have internalized the norms that society has set on their group and has few expectations. 188 What social expectations have done is to force them into early forms of retiring from public life as a preparation for their eventual, final departure. Clearly, this is not acceptable. While people are alive they should be encouraged in many different ways to contribute and participate as much as possible in the life of the society. This then is as valid an issue of social justice as any that we have already studied in this chapter. The perception of aboriginal peoples as peripheral to the Caribbean identity is also cause for concern. The aboriginal peoples represent a varied group of distinct cultural heritage dating back to the pre-Columbian era. They are the oldest inhabitants of the region. We find similarities between North America and the Caribbean in the treatment of aboriginal peoples in North America where the descendants of the American Indians and the Inuit are being recognized in some way after years of neglect and marginalization. Labels and names reveal our unconscious biases. The recently adopted designation, First Peoples, can be a symbolic act aimed at the beginnings of reversing social injustices experienced in the past. Summary This chapter has attempted to highlight the evolution of social justice issues in the Caribbean. In doing so, the functioning of the Constitution and the courts has been highlighted as central. There is the possibility of judicial reform, which may see the replacement of the Privy Council by the Caribbean Court of Appeal as the final court of appeal for the countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean. In understanding social justice issues, certain key areas were highlighted, concerning inequitable treatment meted out to groups defined by gender, learning problems, disabilities, age, and ethnicity. The umbrella of social justice is a broad one so that the issue of punishment in society and the conditions of execution meted out to convicted persons also qualifies as an area of concern. All these issues invoke conditions of equality and equity and all are, therefore, related to human development. 189 Further Activities 1. Give three reasons why social justice is important to development in the Caribbean region. 2. Why are gender issues important to development in the Caribbean? 3. Argue a case for and against the retention of the death penalty for the offence of murder. 4. Identify one example of a breach of social justice in a Caribbean counti)'. Examine its effects on the quality of life in the country. ,, Key Concepts Social Justice Civil society Inequality Human Rights Exploration Injustice Freedoms Sexism Equity Constitutions Racism Equality Bill of Rights Ageism Entrenchment Gender Issues Ableism Amendment Death Penalty Poverty Socialization Referendum Political abuse Checks and balances Universal adult franchise References West Indian Commission. (1992). Time for action: report of the West Indian Commission. Mona: The Press. Ghany, H. (1994). The myth of the Westminster model. Caribbean Affairs, 1(3), pp. 6282. Leo-Rhynie, E., Bailey, E., & Barrow, C. (Eds.). Gender- a multidisciplinary reader on the Caribbean. Kingston: Ian Randle. Palacio, J. 0. (1995). Aboriginal peoples -their struggle with cultural identity. Bulletin of Eastern Caribbean Affairs. 20(4), pp. 25-40. Further Readings Ghany, H. (1996). The death penalty and the Privy Council. Caribbean Journal of Criminology and Social Psychology, 1(1), pp. 108-120. 190 Chapter 10 Conducting an Independent Study Overview The independent study allows you to select a theme, that you find interesting from within tt>e Caribbean Studies programme, and to study it in greater depth. The research skills to which you will be introduced in carrying out your study can be used in your everyday life. For example, if you want to open a small business after leaving school, and want to survey the potential market, or if you need to conduct research during the next stage of your academic career, you will benefit from having learned how to conduct an Independent Study. In carrying out the Independent Study, you will need to prepare a research proposal saying what you propose to do, and then to carry out the investigation. Finally, you will need to write a report on the study and its outcomes. This chapter introduces you to major concepts and skills involved in conducting research. I Objectives1 By the end of the chapter, you will be able to: 1 1. explain major terms central to conducting a study; 2. develop a proposal for conducting research; 3. write a well- organised and formatted report on the study you conducted; 4. assess ethical considerations in making decisions pertinent to all phases of the study. These objectives refer to all the specific objectives of Module 3 of the Caribbean Studies syllabus 191 Introduction Research is an activity that entails formal, systematic processes for carrying out a scientific method of analysis. It may be defined, in the words of Best and Kahn (1986) as "the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or themes, resulting in prediction and, possibly, ultimate control of events". (p. 18). Characteristics of research 1 Is directed towards the solution of a problem. 2 Emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or themes that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. 3 Is based upon observable evidence or empirical evidence, selects valid data gathering procedures, and uses mechanical, electronic or psychometric devices to refine observation, description and analysis of data. 4 Involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources, or using existing data for a new purpose. Merely reorganizing or restating what is already known, and has already been written - as in your school research paper or extended essay -is not considered research in this sense, since it adds nothing to what is known. 5 Is rigorous and systematic. 6 Tries to be logical and to apply every possible test to validate procedures employed, data collected and conclusions reached. 7 Is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term is defined, limiting factors are acknowledged, procedures are described in detail and references are carefully documented. t Purposes of research i) Basic Research- the findings of this type of research informs the development of broad generalizations or principles. ii) Applied Research - The goal of this type of research, however, is to improve products or processes. Theory is tested in actual situations. iii) Action Research - Action research is focused on immediate application. It places emphasis on current problems in a local setting. Its findings are evaluated 192 CAPE Caribbean Studies CONDUCTING AN INDEPENDENT STUDY Module3 in terms of local applicability and not necessarily universal validity. Its purpose is to try to improve social or organizational practices and, the behaviour of persons involved in those practices. It applies scientific thinking and methods to real life problems. Types of research All research entails observation, description and analysis of what happens under certain circumstances. All studies fall under one, or a combination, of the following types given below. i) Historical Research -Describes what was. Entails investigating, recording, analysing and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that help us to understand both the past and the present, and possible implications for the future. ii) Descriptive Research- This type of research describes, records, analyses and interprets conditions that presently exist. It entails some type of comparison or contrast, and attempts to discover relationships between existing variables. iii) Experimental Research -This type of research focuses on variable relationships and describes what happens when the variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental method. These different types of research use two main methods of describing the observations of material§ or characteristics. a) Quantitative Studies - These are studies that use a numerical method of describing observations of materials or characteristics. b) Qualitative Studies- These are studies in which the description of observations is not ordinarily expressed in quantitative terms. Numerical measure may be used, but other means of description are emphasized. For example, in ethnographic studies or case studies, when the researcher gathers data by participant 193 observation, interviews and the examination of documents and artefacts, little measurement may be involved. Choosing a research strategy Five major research strategies, which are most often used in the social sciences, may be helpful to you as you do your Independent Study. The strategies are: l i) experiments; ii) surveys; iii) archival analysis; iv) histories; v) case studies. The researcher chooses a strategy for conducting research on a given topic based on three major considerations: a) what kind of research questions are you posing? b) how much control will you have over events? c) are you focusing on contemporary or historical events? The research question The major research questions are also the five 'Ws' and the 'H" of journalism- w o, what, when, where, why and how. For instance: 'Who' and 'Where' questions may favour survey strategies, or analyses of archival research. Here the goal is to describe the incidence or prevalence of a phenomenon, or to predict certain outcomes. Surveys, for examples, are used in election polls. 'How' and 'Why' questions are meant to explain, favour case studies, histories or experiments, because such questions demand that you trace how things are done over time, rather than find out frequency or incidence. For example, if you wanted to know how your community established a new programme for helping old people, this would 194 demand a case study. If, on the other hand, you wanted to find out why an identified group behaves in specified ways under certain conditions, you might choose to design and conduct a series of experiments. If you wanted to find out how much damage had been done during a period of political disturbance in your community, you might conduct a survey; and if you wanted to know why the riots occurred, you might have to analyse documents and conduct interviews in conducting a case study. Levels of research control Access to Events Over Time and Space Historical research is appropriate in circumstances where the researcher has no control over, or access to, events. If, for instance, you wanted to deal with an event that occurred in the distant past, ere people concerned are now dead, then you would conduct historical research. ·Here you will be relying on primary sources that can provide eyewitness accounts of events; secondary sources, or accounts not actually witnessed by the reporter; and, cultural and physical artefact _ Case study research deals with contemporary events, when the relevant behaviours cannot be manipulated. In such a study, you may rely on documents, as you do in historical research, but you may also add interviews or observation as possible methods of collecting data. Let us suppose you wanted to do an in-depth examination of how a group of roadside vendors on your street coped with their relocation to a new market that was recently opened in another part of your community. A case study might provide you with excellent information about this, even if you could not do anything to change the behaviour of the vendors. Experiments are best when the study demands, and conditions permit, that the researcher can manipulate behaviour directly and systematically. This can take place in a laboratory, or in a field setting where investigators treat groups of people in different ways, providing them with different kinds of experience or resources. 195 Developing the Research Proposal Background to the problem The signs and observations you have made lead you to suspect that there is a researchable problem. Your own sense of the circumstances relating to the problem must be reported in as objective and unbiased a manner as possible (this is not to say that you disdain your close knowledge and experience of the situation. Instead, it suggests that you aim for clarity in stating what you have experienced). Statements in this section must lead logically to the conclusion that the problem you will identify in your problem statement . does indeed exist. Problem statement This is a clear statement of the purpose of the study ("This problem [or] the purpose of ·this study, is to discover and explain...") This should be followed by about two to three research questions that follow from your understanding of the problem. Delimitations of the study At this point you make clear the boundaries you have set in researching the problem you are studying. For example, you want to look at reasons why your community has failed to support a plan by the National Environmental Agency to keep the waterways unpolluted. Do you want to look at all possible reasons? Can you or do you simply want to examine those reasons that may be rooted in their understanding or lack of understanding of how this affects their economic circumstances? Definition of terms 196 For the purposes of your study, you must define the major factors that are relevant to your study. The definitions will not necessarily be dictionary definitions. Instead, they should be derived from your reading on the subject you are researching. Literature review The literature review is a clear, succinct and logically developed summary of the major readings that have influenced your thinking in planning your study. You should be able­ to summarise the important points raised by each author to whom you refer, or whom you quote. Authors cited should be named, together with the year of the publication to which you are referring, and a page reference where you quote. Quotations should not be long. The review should also include a justification for the focus of your study with reference to the literature. Research methodology The methodology should include the following: • a description of the sample- the selection from the group of people, institutions, etc. - among whom the study will be conducted; • a description of the instruments that you propose to use (for example questionnaires, interviews); • a detailed account of the procedures you propose to follow in carrying out your research. Data analysis You must state the means you propose to adopt to analyse the data and to scrutinize it to see what patterns emerge. An analysis of data will provide explanations, and enable you to draw inferences about the findings of your study. Analysis of data may be quantitative or qualitative. The approach used depends on the type of study conducted and the methods of data collection. If, for instance, statistical sampling was the basis for the selection of respondents to a survey, then quantitative analysis will probably be necessary. If, on the other hand, you were doing a case study, 197 and you used unstructured interviews and observations, then the analysis will be qualitative. Writing the problem statement Research proposals usually carry an introductory section in which the overall research problem is specifically stated. Therefore, once the problem has been selected, and its significance determined, we must then seek to formulate or state the problem in a way that would (a) clarify exactly what is to be determined or solved; and (b) restrict the scope of the study to a specific problem. The problem statement can be written either in declarative or problem form. It focuses on the stated goal and gives direction to the research process. It is limited enough to allow the researcher to make a definite conclusion possible. The problem must be stated clearly and concisely. Usually, you may need to reword the problem statement several times as you try to make it precise. Only when the problem is clearly defined, you will be able to choose an appropriate methodology. An important consideration in defining the problem is achieving balance between generality and specificity. A narrow problem could be trivial and meaningless. Another essential step is the definition of key terms. All the variables in the study - that is, the conditions or characteristics that you as a researcher are going to manipulate, control or observe - should be identified. Things to remember in writing your problem statement • Some authors suggest that the problem be presented as a question rather than a statement. This form is especially useful when there are likely to be sub­ problems. However, the definitions are still necessary. • For quantitative studies, the problem statement should describe the relationship between the two variables. • Avoid philosophical issues and value and judgmental problems. • Think in terms of the target population and related variables in order to be more 198 specific. Sample problem statements and questions 1. What is the response of farmers on El Diablo estate to the introduction of new harvesting technologies? 2. Participation in competitive sports in high school is detrimental to academic achievement. 3. Does segregation have a damaging effect upon the self-image of minority group children? Activity 10:1 • Develop 3 problem statements and/or research questions for studies you would be interested in conducting. • Cr ically evaluate the problem statements proposed by one of your colleagues to see if they meet the cr eria for well-structured problem statements, and let that person do the same for those you developed. Preparing a Literature Review The purpose of doing a Literature Review is to relate the research that has already been done in your subject area to the problem you want to investigate. For one thing, you will need to select literature that illustrates the methods which have been most successful in procuring the kind of information you want to get; you will also refer to the literature as a way of justifying your choice of an area to research - to show, for example, how previous work done points to the need for this research; to show how the information obtained from previous studies was contradictory or inadequate for understanding the topic. Your research hypothesis may also be shaped by previous studies done in the area, which you will also cite in your Review - for example, studies already carried out may suggest specific results, and your hypothesis may be consistent with those results. The review may also help to establish major concepts within the field, which will help to guide areas of your research. 199 • Locating the Literature. a. Review secondary sources - those sources that summarise or discuss research conducted by others. These include textbooks, encyclopaedias, and reviews of existing research in books or-journals. They can help to give you an overview of your topic, and can guide you to important primary sources. b. Identify key terms - those terms that represent the problem you are investigating, and which can be used to trace related literature within primary sources. c. Read material in primary sources - those original articles and reports where researchers communicate directly to the reader how they did their studies and what the results were. They include books and journals (both print and on-line) in he field. Read the abstracts first. to be clear exactly what an article is about and determine whether it is relevant to your needs. Sources should be current and directly relevant. d. Summarize the key information on index cards - key information will include bibliographic information and outline summaries of key areas of content. Activity 10:2 EITHER • For an investigation of the development of policies to ensure social justice for either the Indigenous Peoples of your country Q! the Disabled: a.) explain your strategy for locating the L erature, and prepare a bibliography, which will identify sources of information you, found. OR • Say how you would go about locating the Literature relevant to one of the problem statements or research questions you developed earlier, and prepare a bibliography that will identify sources of information you found. • Writing the review. a. Organize the material by grouping together studies that investigate similar topics or sub-topics within your overall review. b. Make an outline of the order in which you will deal with them, and then read your outline carefully, asking yourself if there is a clear logical movement from one point to the next, and whether it will be clear to your readers how different parts of the discussion follow from, or illustrate what went before. 200 c. As you discuss each topic, or sub topic, show explicitly how the information is related to the present research, and what light it sheds on the research issues. One way to develop a discussion of the studies you cite is to give a brief summary of the study reviewed, followed by an analysis of the study which discusses its approach and its major outcomes. Add a statement about how it relates to your research problem. • Excerpt from a Literature Review The following paragraph illustrates the discussion of one topic within a literature review for a study of literacy programs for adults: Research suggests that attaining adequate levels of literacy is a problem, which needs to be addressed in countries throughout the Caribbean. For example, a survey of functional literacy in youths outside the school system (Jennings, 1998) found that 89% of youths who have left school in Guyana are achieving a I level of literacy below that which is needed to function effectively in the Guyanese society. A World Bank report (1993) found that, based on the evidence of tests administered to 16-25 year olds applying to enrol in the SERVOL skills training program in Trinidad and Tobago "About 5% cannot read at all; 25% can read only one sentence, and only 8% can read a simple book."(p.66) The data from the Trinidad and Tobago report applied to a very limited group of subjects. Nevertheless, it seems to provide a clear indication that literacy is a problem in that country as well. As you read the excerpt, note that both references to literature (the World Bank study and the Jennings report) are related to a specific topic- the problem of functional literacy of school leavers in the Caribbean. Note also that the discussion of each piece of Literature includes information on how the information was obtained (survey/tests); the group from which the data was obtained; and the findings. Note, finally, the critique of the way in which the information from Trinidad and Tobago was gathered. What do you think is the potential significance of the fact that only those youths applying for enrolment in SERVOL 201 programs were tested? Sampling Procedures In designing your study, an important consideration is the sampling_procedure you plan to use. This is vital, because the manner in which your subjects are selected can later help you and readers of your study to identify factors that might have affected the responses of your subjects. The sample refers to the group of subjects (or participants as they are sometimes called) from whom data are collected. You need to describe the sampling procedures used in detail. There are a number of different procedures, each of which is appropriate within a given context. • Types of sampling procedures. 1. Simple random sample - where subjects are selected by lottery or by use of random numbers. 2. Stratified sample - where the population is stratified according to lists of units divided into groups or strata according to an appropriate variable. In this case, strata should differ as widely as possible from each other, and units within strata should be as homogeneous as possible. 3. Quota sampling- this approach, which is often used in market research surveys, entails stratified sampling, in which the selection within strata is non-random, once the general breakdown of the sample is determined. 4. urposive sampling- used in qualitative research, where subjects are selected especially for their particular understandings of, and involvement in the context where the study is being carried out. In determining your sample size, you must ask yourself questions about what size will truly reflect the composition of your target audience, including sub-groups. You will also need to ask yourself what size will pick·up possible differences in attitudes etc. You must also think of practical issues like limitations of time and money. You should be aware too, of the strengths and limitations of different sampling procedures. For instance, simple random sampling is usually representative of the 202 population, and results can be easily analysed and interpreted; on the other hand, to do it effectively, you will need to be able to number each element jn your population. Purposive sampling, on the other hand, adds credibility to the research, as it ensures that the data collected are provided by the people and from venues most likely that are able to provide that data. Purposive sampling can also be less costly and time consuming as a process; on the other hand, it is also less representative of an identified population, and the results are dependent on the unique characteristics of the sample. Activity 10:3 a. For a study of the television programming preferences of students in your school, what methodology would you select for conducting your research? b. Say what type of sampling procedure you would choose, and why. Collecting your data Certain methods of data collection given below are especially favoured for the types of research this syllabus emphasises in carrying out an Independent study. 1. Questionnaires You will need to design questionnaires for surveys and formal interviews. For the questionnaire to provide you with the high quality information you need to observe some important principles in formulating them: wording the questions, forming the questions, and ordering the questions. !I Wording the questions Four basic principles should be observed in wording survey questions. 1. Relevance- should relate directly to given investigation. 2. Simple - should be phrased in a straightforward manner, and should be as free from technical jargon that your respondents might not understand. For example, you should avoid structures like double negatives, which may confuse the respondent. 203 3. Neutral - that is, they should not be worded in such a way as to suggest that any particular response is "correct". 4. • Direct obtaining information on a single topic. Forming the questions Questions may be structured - that is, they should be phrased in such a way as to anticipate the types of responses and to present respondents with fixed alternatives; or they may be unstructured or open-ended - that is, the way they are phrased should encourage a free response. (This is a useful option when you are not very clear about the types of responses a particular question is likely to elicit). • Ordering the questions Some helpful points to consider when you are putting your questions in order are first, that the sequence should be logical, so as to allow the respondent or the interviewer to progress from one point to another with ease. Second, in order not to make your respondent uncomfortable, you should start with the easier questions and to progress from there to the more difficult ones. Third, try to put the questions that are least likely to encounter resistance from your respondents first (this will also help to ensure that they are willing to proceed). You should also include in your questionnaire some means of identifying types of respondents (for example, all in one age group or income bracket), and an introduction that explains briefly what the questionnaire is about, why the research is being undertaken, who is responsible, and what it hopes to achieve. Activity 10:4 Look at the questions below. Some of them may be considered well-formed questions for a questionnaire, while others demonstrate some of the faults suggested above. Identify the questions that you believe should be modified, say why you think they need changing, and make the necessary changes. • Are you opposed to not requiring students to study Caribbean History? • Does the way that newspapers frame their stories help to determine reader response? • • Should the state be responsible for training and funding sportsmen and women for international events? Should the state continue to fund unethical playwrights who use obscenities in their plays? 204 A Likert scale is one example of a questionnaire you might use to get information. The Likert scale is often used to measure the attitudes of your respondents on certain issues. A number of statements are made about a given subject; these should reflect opinions held by a number of people on the topic, and should include an approximately equal number of favourable and unfavourable .statements. Respondents are allowed a number of options for response: For example: "agree/disagree/undecided"; "strongly disagree/disagree/ /undecided/agree/strongly agree". Example of an item for a Likert scale. It is very important to our country's development to buy locally produced foodstuffs: Strongly agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly disagree 2. Observation Observation is a way of finding out how people interact, and the kinds of behaviour patterns and relationships they develop in identified contexts. Naturalistic Observation takes place in a setting where you, as·the researcher, do not intervene in anyway to manipulate what is going on. Let us suppose, for instance, that you wanted to find out what strategies the market vendors on your street who have been relocated to the market have developed to cope with the change. Naturalistic observation would be one way of finding out. • Method Observation begins the moment you make contact in the field- the context of your study. It is carried out in different stages, and becomes increasingly more sharply focused as the study progresses. 'f a. Unfocused observation This is what you do when you first go into the field. Although it is helpful to go with some understanding (for example, from the literature) of some things you might look for, try not to start with pre-conceptions about what will happen. Survey the general landscape to get a picture of the main features of the physical environment. (For example: 205 Is the new market well structured? Are the stalls comfortable, and is there lots of space? How are things arranged?) Then begin to look at the individuals in the setting. How many are there? How many men/women? About how old are the different individuals? Is there anything unusual or striking about any of them? How do they interact? Do some people form little cliques? Are there certain kinds of events that seem to repeat themselves? b. Becoming increasingly focused As you stay within the context, -market area - you gradually become aware of interesting patterns, people, and events, which seem to be especially significant to the people you are observing. You may now want to focus, for example, on one or two of the market vendors who seem to be leaders in the group, or to be having special problems coping. You might now want to start interacting with them, and speaking with them informally, to find out why they are behaving in a particular way. Or you might want to look at certain recurring interactions in more depth to understand what triggers them,.and whether there is a certain pattern to how they develop. c. Taking notes All these observations must be recorded. Do not trust your memory - it may fail you about important details. In any case, your observations will form part of the data you later analyse. Remember that if you use observation as your only means of collecting data, your interpretation of what you see may not be an accurate reflection of what is happening. In the example of our market vendors, let us suppose that you see one of them quarrelling constantly with another whenever that person enters his stall - you may interpret this to mean that the relocation to the new market is creating strife among the vendors. If you spoke to 'them, however, you might then discover that these two people are quarrelling for totally different reasons. It is therefore, important to gather as much data as possible in order to interpret what you observe. One way of collecting data is by an interview. 3. Interviews Sometimes case studies are based almost entirely on interviews. Interviews can be highly structured or very open- ended; that is, they allow the person interviewed to 206 respond freely to a question phrased in a very general way. Whichever method you use, the success of your interview depends largely on your skill as an interviewer. • Method a. Create rapport with your respondent Try to make the person you are interviewing feel at ease. To do this, you might want to start with simple questions that are non- threatening and that the respondent feels comfortable answering. Start, in fact, as you would start if you were getting to know someone, or starting a conversation. You will need to give the person an idea about what your research is about, and why you are doing it, so as to dispel possible suspicions and gain their confidence. Again, be confident that your tone or body language, or the ways you respond to what they say suggest that you are making judgements about the rightness or wrongness of what they are telling you. Accept what is being.said to you. b. Order of progression Keep the discussion flowing logically from one point to another. Having started with questions for general information, you may find it helpful to move on to descriptive type questions. For instance, ask about people, events, and behaviours relevant to the situation. ("So what did you do to prepare for this move?") Next, as you follow up a topic, you will probably need to ask probing questions that allow you to be lear about what they mean when they refer to certain things. Ask them to talk a bit more about the point they are making if necessary, or ask for examples and illustrations of what they mean. Also, ask them to relate specific experiences they had relevant to what they are talking about. ("You say that the people who built the new market don't care about what is happening to you now that you've moved. Have there been times when you tried to talk to them about the problems you've experienced with the move?") 207 Activity 10:5 a. Conduct, and record on tape, an interview with two of your classmates on how they feel about local television programming in your country. b. Have your interviewees tell you about how they felt when you were interviewing them: - whether you were able to make them feel at ease, whether they understood the questions you were asking. c. • Analyse the transcript of your interview and see if your questions were well thought out and if you were able to include probing questions and questions to elicit experiences. The formal interview If you are doing a formal interview, and you are trying to get the same kinds of information from every one, you will need to structure the questions very carefully. The section on composing questions for a questionnaire will provide you with some guidance here. When you actually conduct the interview, however, it is still very important to establish rapport with your respondent first. • Strengths and limitations of the Interview Especially for less structured interviews, this method has the advantage of allowing individuals to contribute their own views of the topic being studied. They can explain what is important to them, and immediately correct any possible misinterpretations of a situation that you may have developed. On the other hand, a major limitation is that this method is susceptible to a self­ presentation bias. That is to say, respondents may want to please you, or to appear to you in a favourable light. It is possible, therefore, that some of their responses may not reflect their real thoughts and behaviours. Analyzing your data Data analysis for quantitative studies employs a deductive, statistical approach and usually takes place after the data has been collected; data analysis for qualitative studies is inductive and ongoing. 208 1. Analysing Qualitative Data In most qualitative studies, you will need to start analysing your data as soon as you start collecting it - that is, from your first interview, observation or contact with a relevant document. The goal of your analysis is to discover patterns, ideas and explanations about people's understandings about what is going on in the context in which they are immersed, and about their own roles and actions there. A thorough analysis takes place in three stages: organizing the data, summarising it and then interpreting it. • Organising the data You need to read through your data from your interviews, observations, and documents and create codes for the topics and patterns that emerge. These codes are then used as categories around which to organize your data. For instance, in your study of the market vendors, possible codes may be related to their interactions with each other and with persons in charge of the relocation project; they may also be related to strategies the vendors used to cope with the relocation, and with their own feelings and concerns about it. Having identified these, you would begin to organise your data into groups dealing with each of these. Index cards and folders provide one way of organising. • Summarising the data Having arrived at categories of data dealing with specific codes, you then need to summarise them by developing sentences which sum up the pattern you are seeing: "Vendors dealt with physical inconveniences in the new market by bringing in their own materials to make up for what was missing" [This summary may emerge from evidence you have of one vendor bringing buckets of water from home to make up for the lack of a consistent water supply; another may have used his own wood and tools to set up shelves to display products; others may have made still other personal provisions.] • Interpreting the data 209 Once you have done the coding and summarizing, your next step is to interpret the data. Here is where you try to arrive at a meaning for what you have found. What do you think it means, for example if you di covered that vendors frequently tried to contact persons in authority, spoke about their perceptions that they never got a response that was helpful; and then started bringing their own materials from home? What mindset do they seem to you to have developed about this relocation? Each major interpretation of this kind will need to be supported by examples of the evidence that led you to account for what was happening as you did - quotations from people, references to your observations. Activity 10:6 EITHER a. Do an innial coding of the interviews you conducted with your classmates on television programming, and see if you can identify any preliminarv patterns you see emerging. OR b. From a newspaper in your country, collect articles, which relate to ongoing coverage of any major event. Code the articles to identify ways in which they show how they evaluate the event as being significant or not significant. Code them as well to see what attributes - favourable or unfavourable they ascribe to aspects of the event. Try to do a preliminary interpretation of what considerations may have contributed to their presentation of the event based on what you have learned about mass media in Caribbean countries and on what you know about back round factors related to this articular event. 2 Analysing Quantitative Data The analysis of quantitative data is usually done using statistics. This section will deal only with basic concepts. As with all research, the actual techniques you will have to adopt will follow logically from your research questions, but your research will have involved making measurements, sometimes of a number of variables, and usually across the sample. So for each variable, you will have scores for each member of the sample. This is called a distribution, and you will need ways of summarising it. The two main concepts used to do this are central tendency and variation. Actually, you probably use similar concepts in your daily life. For instance, supposed a pen pal asked you about the climate of your country; in your description you might include a statement that the temperature averages about 30 degrees Celsius, but that it can go 210 down to as low as 23 degrees, or as high as 38 degrees. In this case, thirty degrees suggests central tendency, but the changes you described focus on variation. • Central Tendency There are three common measures of central tendency: the mean, the mode and the median. The most commonly used, and the one described here, is the mean. The more common term for the mean is the average, and to obtain it, you will need to add up your scores and divide by the number of scores. The mean is a very effective statistic where scores within a distribution do not vary too much, but it is not as effective where there is great variance. Therefore, it is important to know how much spread or variability there is in a set of scores, in order for you to be able to interpret the mean correctly. • Variation There are also different ways to measure the variance. One simple concept is the range - the highest score in a sample minus the lowest score. However, the most common measure of variability is the standard deviation. This goes with the mean, because the deviations involved are deviations of individual measurements from the mean of the distribution. These deviations are calculated and standardised to give the standard distribution. This allows you to summarize in one number the variability in a set of data. The more the scores are spread out, the larger is the standard deviation. Interpreting the standard deviation together with the mean can tell you something about how much spread there is in the scores in a distribution, and important properties of the distribution relate to how far away from the mean we move, in terms of standard deviations. From the standard deviation, you will be able to obtain the variance. This is the square of the standard deviation. Like the standard deviation, the variance gives us a numerical estimate of the amount of spread in our data. However, you will usually use the standard deviation in descriptive statistics, and the variance in statistical inference. A quantitative research strategy is based on accounting for variance finding out how much people or things differ, and then accounting for those 211 differences by using relationships with other variables. Both the. standard deviation and the variance give us numerical estimates of the variability in the distribution. • Frequency Distributions In addition to the mean, standard distribution and variance, you can also use simple frequency distributions as a way to summarise statistical data. The individual scores in a distribution are tabulated, .according to how many respondents gave each response, or fell into each category. Absolute numbers or percentages can be used. Depending on the overall score range, you will sometimes find it useful to group scores in ranges, so that you can see the distribution of the frequencies more easily. You can then show the results as frequency distribution tables, or as graphs. Examples are histograms, pie charts or horizontal bar charts. A bar graph, which can be arranged either horizontally or vertically, represents data by bars of equal width, drawn to scale length. Horizontal bar graphs are usually Qsed to compare components at a particular time; vertical bars are used when making comparisons at different times. A histogram is a type of bar graph in which lines or bars represent each score or set of . scores, rather than lines connecting the frequencies of each score. A pie chart shows the division of a unit into the component parts. They are frequently used to explain simple percentage distribution. Frequency distributions of responses can tell, at a glance, something about the shape of the distribution, which can help you to determine later stages in your analysis. • Relationships Between Variables Quantitative research is based on relationships between variables, and many different ways have been developed to study these relationships. These include cross tabulations. The basic cross tabulation or contingency table is easy to construct and read, and is applicable to a wide range of situations. The contingency table can be 212 used basically as a descriptive tool. A simple table will contain data about two variables. In its simplest form, each variable has two categories, and the 2 x 2 table has four cells. Percentages are a common way to use the data, but actual numbers can be used as well: Listen to Call in Programmes. Listeners 11-15 yrs. Listeners 16-19 yrs. Yes 17% 43% No 83% 57% Total 100% 100% Sample Contingency Table. Writing the report 1. Writing the abstract The abstract is the last thing you will write when you have completed your study: however, it will be placed at the start of your report. The text of the abstract will summarise the following for the reader of your study: • problem; • specific target group • design and procedures • findings • conclusions you drew and the implications of the study 2. The format of the report Remember that you are now reporting on what happened when you did the study. Thus the report will be written in the past tense (unlike the proposal, which discusses what you intend to do.) A report of a study will include the following: I. Title Page: -This will include the title of the study, your name and school. II. Abstract. 213 ill. Introduction: -This will provide a background to the problem, and will include your statement of the problem and a statement of the rationale for the study. You should indicate why there is a need for such research, and what are some expected outcomes. It is also necessary to indicate why the problem is important in the context of how it will contribute to existing theory or practice. IV. The Review of the Literature. V. Method: - This will describe in detail how you carried out the study. It will include a subsection on the sample, and will describe the participants in the study and provide relevant information about them. This may include major demographic characteristics (age, gender and socio-economic status) You will describe the instruments you used; you will also include a subsection on procedures, and here you will describe in detail the steps you took in conducting the study. Enough information should be included to allow someone else to replicate the study. VI. Results: - Here you will present your data and the statistical analyses. At this point you do not discuss the implications of the findings. You should include tables and figures as necessary to supplement your text. VII. Discussion and Conclusions: - At this point you discuss the findings. Were the hypotheses supported or should they be rejected? Is the theory you started with different as a result of your research? Why did the results tum out as they did? How do the results relate to previous research findings discussed in the literature review? What are the implications of the finding of your study? What practical applications can you identify? A brief discussion of the limitations of your study and possibilities for future research would also be appropriate here. Finally, you may want to make recommendations for possible practical applications of your research. VIII. References: - For your report, the references will go on a separate page. Refetences consist of the names of the authors, texts, publishing houses and places of publication of all. documents, including journal articles, books, manuscripts and on-li_ne material that are mentioned in your report. References are arranged in alphabetical order, by the last names of the first., named authors of the texts. If no author is listed, the first word of the '.;' . 214 organisation that sponsored the study begins the entry. Each reference starts at the left margin of the page. Examples of the different types of references you might use are given below: 1. Book with one author: Vaizey, J. (1967) Education in the modem world. New York: McGraw­ Hill. 2. Book with many authors: Baizun, J. & Graff, H.F. (1977) The modem researcher. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 3. Chapter in an edited book: Campbell, D.T. and Stanley, J.C. (1963) Experimental and quasi­ experimental designs for research on teaching. In N. L. Gage (Ed.) H andbook of Research on teaching. Chicago: Rand-McNally. 4. Journal article: Tiene, D., and Buck, s. (1987) Student teachers and classroom authority. Journal of Educational Research, 80,261-265. 5. Electronic Sources: Pritzker, T.J. (no date) An early fragment from central Nepal. [Online]. Available: http://www. ingress.com/ pritzker/pritzker.html. [1995, June 8]. IX. Appendices: - Appendices will include material that is necessary for a full appreciation of the study, but that is too long to go into the body of the text, or that would interrupt the flow of the report. Examples of Appendix material would be copies of your questionnaires, excerpts from relevant documents, and field note reports and interview transcripts for qualitative studies. Each appendix begins on a new page, with the label "Appendix" and its identifying letter (for example Appendix A, Appendix B). 215 ... 1 •.··' Ethics in research When you begin to do research, you place yourself in a position where you ask people to reveal information that they may not normally tell to a stranger or a casual acquaintance. Therefore, you need to deal with these people in a principled way. You cannot take advantage of their trust. You should consider the following points as you do your research and reflect these in your report. Informed consent: - That is, the people you speak to, observe, send questionnaires to, should know what you are doing and that you are involved in a research project. You should not put undue pressure on people (like little children), or who might be afraid to say that they do not wish to participate in your research. Invasion of privacy: - Let us suppose you wanted to talk to one of the participants in a setting you were observing, and you wanted to tape the conversation. You should seek the permission of the person being interviewed to do so without letting that person know, or to record people in unguarded moments without their knowledge and permission is what we mean by invasion of privacy. Confidentiality: - You cannot go telling other people what you learned about a person you spoke to, or about a situation you observed if those persons are in a position to recognise the people or venues described. When you write your report, you should make every attempt to disguise your subjects' identity- change the names, or use "x" or some other method to ensure that they are protected. Let people know how you intend to maintain confidentiality. Knowledge of the outcome: - Participants in a research project have the right to know what you will be doing with the information you collect, as well as the reason for the research. You may explain this orally or in writing. 216' References: Best, J. and Kahn, J. (1986). Research in education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Further Readings Silverman, D. (2000) Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. London: Sage Publications. 217