Unit 1 : Introduction to Computer Network Chandan Gupta Bhagat Computer Network Definition A computer network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other using connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established over cable media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi. Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers. The computers can be geographically located anywhere. Applications of Networks • Resource Sharing • • Information Sharing • • • Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers) Software (application software) Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases) Search Capability (WWW) Communication • Email • Message broadcast Remote computing Distributed processing What is Computer Network • • A computer network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data from the other node/device through the network. Computer Network Criteria 1. Performance It can be measured in many ways and depends on the number of factors • No of users • Type of transmission medium • Response time • Transit time • Hardware • Software 1. Reliability This is measured by the following factors • Frequency of failure • The recovery time of a network after a failure. • Damage 1. Security Network security issues include protecting data from the following • Unauthorized access • Viruses Advantages of CN File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share files directly. Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines, modems and scanners. Communication: Those on the network can communicate with each other via email, messages etc. Advantages of CN File Sharing: Networks offer a quick and easy way to share files directly. Resource Sharing: All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines, modems and scanners. Communication: Those on the network can communicate with each other via email, messages etc. Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the network. Sharing of Information: Computer networks enable us to share data and information with the computers that are located geographically large distance apart. 1.2 Network Topology The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected. A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions. Network Topology refers to the logical arrangement or layout of a network and a description of how various nodes(sender/receiver) are connected and communicate with each other. Bus Topology Bus topology is a network, in which all the computer nodes and network system are connected to a single transmission channel. Linear Bus topology: when it has exactly two endpoints. Distributed Bus topology: when it has more than two endpoints. Features of Bus topology – It transfers the data in a single direction. – There is a single connection between the node/system and the channel. Bus Topology (Contd.) Advantages of Bus topology 1. It is easy to connect a device and handle 2. Take less time to set up 3. It is best-suited for small networks. 4. Easy to expand. Disadvantages of Bus topology 1. If the backbone cable fails, then the whole network will be down. 2. No bi-directional communication. 3. Not suitable for heavy traffic data transmission as it increases the chance of collision. Star & Tree Topology The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LANs. When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel. Larger networks use extended star topology also called tree topology. When used with network devices that filter frames or packets, like bridges, switches, and routers, this topology significantly reduces the traffic on the wires by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host. Ring Topology A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame. Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single cable Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions. Mesh Topology The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance. It is used in the WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by Banks and financial institutions Implementing the Mesh topology is expensive and difficult 1.3 Overview of Network Types Types of Computer Networks (by their size / area/ geographical area) A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A computer network can be categorized by their size. Local Area Network (LAN) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Wide area network (WAN) 1.3 Overview of Network Types LAN MAN CAN PAN WAN Local Area Network (LAN) Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network) Connecting two or more personal computers Less costly Data is transferred at an extremely faster rate Provides higher security Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. The size of the MAN is larger than LANs and smaller networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town. than WANs (wide area Campus Area Network (CAN) Campus Area Network (CAN) is a group of interconnected Networks (LAN) within a limited geographical area Local Area like school campus, university campus, military bases, or organizational campuses and corporate buildings etc. This Campus Area Network also called as Corporate Area Network. Sometimes this network is also referred as Residential Network or ResNet as it is only used by residents of specific campus only. Personal Area Network (PAN) Personal area network (PAN) is an interconnection between different devices like smartphone, tablet, computer and other digital devices. PAN is used for a personal purpose like data sharing among devices and it has a range of 10 meters. Some type of personal area networks is wired like USB while others are wireless like Bluetooth. Wireless personal area network is also known as WPAN. Wide Area Network (WAN) A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries. A WAN is quite bigger network than the MAN. A WAN is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links. The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world. A WAN is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education. Networking Types Client/Server P2P Client-Server Centralized Computing Network Computing Models (Client-Server Network) A client-server network is where every client is connected to the server . Server or mainframe computer has huge storage and processing capabilities. Peer to Peer [P2P] In peer to peer architecture all the computers in a computer network are connected with every computer in the network. Every computer in the network uses the same resources as other computers. There is no central computer that acts as a server rather all computers acts as a server for the data that is stored in them. Peer to Peer [P2P] Advantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture Less costly is no central server that has to take the backup. In case of a computer failure all other computers in the network are not affected and they will continue to work as same as before the failure. Installation of peer to peer architecture is quite easy as each computer manages itself. Disadvantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer and the security measures are to be taken by all the computers separately. Scalability is an issue in a Peer to Peer Architecture as connecting each computer to every computer is a headache on a very large network. Overview of Protocols and Standards Protocols: A protocol is a set of rules that governs(control) data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are : Syntax Semantics Timing Overview of Protocols and Standards Elements of PROTOCOLS: Syntax Structure or format of the data. Indicates how to read the bits - field border or boundary. Syntax should be same in sender and receiver for to communicate. Semantics Interprets the meaning of the bits Knows which fields define what action Interpretation of the syntax should be same Timing When data should be sent and what Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received Overview of Protocols and Standards Standards: Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications. Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing. Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation"). Overview of Protocols and Standards Standards: Two Categories of Standards De facto: Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology. De jure: Those standards by law or by regulation. These are the standards recognized officially by an Organization. Overview of Protocols and Standards Standards Organizations • Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies. Standards Creation Committees : • • • While many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data telecommunications in North America rely primarily on those published by the following: International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of various governments throughout the world. The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the fields of scientific, technological, and economic activity. International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T): This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular. Overview of Protocols and Standards Standards Creation Committees : American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its name, the American National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): It is the largest professional engineering society in the world. International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering. Electronic Industries Association (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, It is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and efforts in addition to standards development. In the field of information technology, the EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication. OSI Reference Model ISO- International Organizations for Standard OSI- Opens System Interconnections Stats developing in late 1970s Approved by 1984 The term “Open” in Open System Interconnections denotes “to communicate with any 2 systems” There are 7 layers in OSI Reference model It is also called OSI layered architecture / OSI Protocol architecture The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers. OSI Reference Model The lower 4 layers are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network an also knows as lower layers. The upper Three layers of the OSI model are orientated more toward services to the applications an also known upper layers. OSI Reference Model Layer 7, Application: The Application layer provides services to the through which the user requests network services. Your software is not on the Application layer. This layer software computer application isn’t about applications and doesn’t contain any applications. In other words, programs such as Microsoft Word or Corel are not at this layer, but browsers, FTP clients, and mail clients are. Layer 6, Presentation: This layer is concerned with data representation and code formatting. Layer 5, Session: The Session layer establishes, maintains, and manages the communication session between computers. Layer 4, Transport: The functions defined in this layer provide for the reliable transmission of data segments, as well as the disassembly and assembly of the data before and after transmission. OSI Reference Model • Layer 3, Network: This is the layer on which routing takes place, and, as a result, is perhaps the most important OSI layer. The Network layer defines the processes used to route data across the network and the structure and use of logical addressing. • Layer 2, Data Link: As its name suggests, this layer is concerned with the linkages and mechanisms used to move data about the network, including the topology, such as Ethernet or Token Ring, and deals with the ways in which data is reliably transmitted. • Layer 1, Physical: The Physical layer’s name says it all. This layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for the networking media that carry the data bits across a network. OSI Reference Model The interaction between layers in the OSI model OSI Reference Model Packaging the data: Each layer of the OSI model formats the data it receives to suit the functions to be performed on that layer. In general, the package of data that moves through the layers is called a Protocol Data Unit (PDU). However, as the data is reformatted and repackaged, it takes on unique names on certain layers. Table 1 lists the name each layer uses to refer to a message OSI Layer PDU Name Application Data Presentation Data Session Data Transport Segment Network Packet Data Link Frame Physical Bits OSI Reference Model Fig : Data Encapsulation OSI Reference Model Fig :PDU and Layered Addressing OSI Reference Model At a transmitting side, the data encapsulation method works like this: User information is converted to data for transmission on the network. Data is converted to segments and a reliable connection is set up between the transmitting and receiving hosts. Segments are converted to packets or data grams, and a logical address is placed in the header so each packet can be routed through the internetwork. Packets or datagram are converted to frames for transmission on the local network. Hardware (Ethernet) addresses are used to uniquely identify hosts on a local network segment. Frames are converted to bits, and a digital encoding and clocking scheme is used. TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI A reference model (OSI and TCP/IP) is a conceptual rule of how communications should take place. It addresses all the processes required for effective communication and divides these processes into logical groupings called layers. When a communication system is designed in this manner, it is known as layered architecture. TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI Need of layered architecture It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding component development, design and troubleshooting. It allows multi-vendor development through standardization of network components. It allows various types of network software and hardware to communicate. TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI OSI Model (Open System Inter Connection) Layer 7 Layer 6 Application · Provides a user interface Presentation · Presents data · Handles processing such as encryption/decryption Layer 5 Session · Keeps different applications data separate Layer 4 Transport · Provides reliable or unreliable delivery · Performs error correction before retransmit Layer 3 Network ·Provides logical addressing, which routes use for path determination Layer 2 Data Link Layer 1 Physical ·Combines packets into bytes provides access to media address performs error detection, not correction. · Specifies voltage wire speed and pin-out of cables. using MAC TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/IP) Model Application Process (FTP, SMTP) Transport Transport Internet Internet Network Access Network Access TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI TCP/IP Layer Layer 4: Application Layer This layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with Transport layer services use the network. Layer 3: Transport Layer The purpose of this device is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation. It defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting data. Layer 2: Internet Layer This layer packs data into data packets known as IP datagram, which contain source and destination address (IP address) information that is used to forward the datagram between hosts and across networks. Layer 1: Network Access Layer This layer defines details of how data is physically sent or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as co-axial cable, optical fiber or twisted pair, copper wire. TCP/IP Models and its comparison with OSI PROTOCOL Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) Virtual terminal (TELNET) Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) File transfer(FTP), and ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol/ electronic mail (SMTP) Domain Name System (DNS), HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) Networking Protocol: TCP/IP Networking Protocol: TCP/IP Fig: TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE (TCP/IP and OSI model) Connection and Connection-Oriented Network Services A connection-oriented service is one that establishes a dedicated connection between the communicating entities before data communication formed. It is modeled after the telephone system. To use a connection-oriented service, the user first establishes a connection, uses it and then releases it. In connection-oriented services, the data streams/packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender. Connection-oriented services may be done in either of the following ways − Circuit-switched connection: In circuit switching, a dedicated physical path or a circuit is established between the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred. Virtual circuit-switched connection: Here, the data stream is transferred over a packet switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here. However, other connections may also be using this path. Connection and Connection-Oriented Network Services Network Core It means the approach to moving data through a network of links and switches. There are two types: Circuit Switching Packet Switching Connection and Connection-Oriented Network Services In circuit switched network, the resources needed along a path (buffer, link transmission rate) to provide for communication between the end systems are reserved for the duration of the communication session between the end systems. It reserves a constant transmission rate in the network‘s links for the duration of the communication. Since bandwidth has been reserved for this sender-to- receiver. Connection, the sender can transfer the data to the receiver at the guaranteed constant rate. In packed switched network, the resources are not reserved for a sessions message use the resources on demand, and as a consequence may have to wait (i.e. queue) for access to a communication link. The packet is sent into the network without reserving and bandwidth if one of the links is busy because other packets need to be transmitted over the link at the same time, our packet will have to wait in a buffer at the sending side of the transmission link, and suffer a delay Connection and Connection-Oriented Network Services There are two approaches in packet switched network Datagram Network Any network that forwards the packets according to the destination address is called a datagram network. The routers in the internet forwards packets according to the destination address. Hence, internet is datagram network. Virtual Circuit Network Any network that forwards the packets according to virtual circuit identifier (fixed route) is called a virtual circuit network. Preplanned route established before packets sent. ISPs, Backbone Network Overview ISP: An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company such as AT&T, Verizon, Comcast, or BrightHouse that provides Internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users. ISPs use fiber-optics, satellite, copper wire, and other forms to provide Internet access to its customers. Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company which provides internet connection to end user, but there are basically three levels of ISP. Such that Tier-1 ISP, Tier-2 ISP, and Tier-3 ISP. Networking Protocol: TCP/IP ISPs, Backbone Network Overview Tier-1 ISP: These ISPs are at the top of the hierarchy and they have a global reach they do not pay for any internet traffic through there network instead lower-tier ISPs have to pay a cost for passing there traffic from one geolocation to another which is not under the reach of that ISPs. Generally, ISPs at the same level connect to each other and make allow free traffic passes for each other these ISPs are called peers. Due to this cost is saved. They build infrastructure, such as the Atlantic Internet sea cables, to provide traffic to all other Internet providers, not end users. Some examples of tier 1 Internet providers: Cogent Communications, Hibernia Networks, AT&T ISPs, Backbone Network Overview Tier-2 ISP: These ISPs is a service provider who connects between tier 1 and tier 3 ISPs. They have regional or country reach and behave just like Tier-1 ISP for Tier-3 ISP. Examples of tier 2 ISPs: Vodafone, Easynet, British Telekom ISPs, Backbone Network Overview Tier-3 ISP: These ISPs are closest to the end users and helps them to connect to the internet by charging some amount. These ISPs work on purchasing model. These ISPs have to pay some cost to Tier-2 ISPs based on traffic generated. Examples of Tier-3 ISPs: Comcast. Deutsche Telekom. Verizon Communications Backbone Network Overview Backbone is most important part of a system which provides the central support to the rest system, for example backbone of a human body that balance and hold all the body parts. Similarly in Computer Networks a Backbone Network is as a Network containing a high capacity connectivity infrastructure that backbone to the different part of the network. Actually a backbone network allows multiple LANs to get connected in a backbone network, not a single station is directly connected to the backbone but the stations are part of LAN, and backbone connect those LANs. Backbone Network Overview Backbone LANs: Because of increasing use of distributed applications and PCs, a new flexible strategy for LANs has been introduced. if a premises wide data communication system is to be supported then we need a networking system which can span over the required distance and which capable of interconnecting all the equipment in a single building or in a group of buildings. It is possible to develop a single LAN for this purpose but practically this scheme faces the following drawbacks: Poor Reliability: With a single LAN, the reliability will be poor since a service interruption even for a short duration can cause major problem to the user. Backbone Network Overview Capacity: There is a possibility that a single LAN may be saturated due to increase in number of devices beyond a certain number Cost: A single LAN can not give its optimum performance for the diverse requirements of communication and interconnection. So the alternative for using a single LAN is to use low cost, low capacity, LANs in each building or department and then interconnection all these LANs with high capacity LAN. such a network is called as Backbone LAN. The backbone itself is a LAN, it uses a LAN protocol such as ethernet, Hence each connection in the backbone is itself another LAN. The two very common used architectures are: Bus backbone, Star backbone. Backbone Network Overview Bus Backbone: In Bus backbone the topology used for the backbone is bus topology. In Below figure the Bus backbone structure is used as a distribution backbone for connecting different buildings in an organization. The structure is a bridge based (bridge is the connecting device) backbone with four LANs. Backbone Network Overview Working: In Figure, structure if a station in LAN 2 wants to send a frame to some other station in Same LAN then Bridge 2 will not allow the frame to pass to any other LAN, hence this frame will not reach the backbone. If a station from LAN 1 wants to send a frame to a station in LAN 4 then Bridge 1 passes this frame to the backbone. This frame is then received by Bridge 4 and delivered to the destination. Backbone Network Overview Star Backbone: The topology of this backbone is star topology. Figure shows the Star backbone configuration, the backbone is in this simply a switch which is used to connect various LANs. The switch does the job of backbone and connect the LANs as well. This type of backbone are basically used as distribution backbone inside a building. Backbone Network Overview There is one more category of backbone network is Interconnecting of Remote LANs: Interconnection of Remote control: In this type of backbone network the connection are done through the bridge called remote bridges which acts as connecting devices in connect LANs as point to point network link. Example of point to point networks are leased telephone lines or ADSL lines. Such a point to point network can be considered as equivalent LAN without stations. Thank you Contact: https://chandanbhagat.com.np/me