2.
Chapter 4: Leaning and Perception
Learning – a process through which individuals change
their behavior based on positive or negative experiences
in a situation.
-
takes place only when changes in capabilities
occur.
change in one’s capabilities due to a natural
growth process (e.g., gaining muscle strength) is
not learning.
driven by experience with a particular situation
Operant Conditioning – an explanation for consequencebased learning.
-
assumes learning results from simple conditioning.
higher mental functioning is irrelevant.
people do not need to think to learn.
Social Learning Theory – an explanation for
consequence-based learning.
-
rejects the idea that higher mental processes are
nonexistent or irrelevant in humans
acknowledges the higher mental functioning of
human beings.
recognizes the role such functioning can play in
learning.
humans can observe others in a situation and learn
from what they see
Basic Elements of Learning
Learning = Situation + Behavioral Response +
Consequences
The situation – sometimes referred to as “the stimulus
situation”
The behavioral response
The consequences
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Reinforcement
Social Learning Theory – learning occurs through mental
processing
-
Organizational Behavior Modification – a formal
procedure to improve task performance through positive
reinforcement of desirable behaviors and extinction of
reinforcements that support undesirable behaviors.
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increases likelihood that behavior will be repeated.
reduces likelihood behavior will be repeated.
it is imperative when punishment is doled out that it
be made contingent upon associates engaging in
negative behavior.
a useful tool for understanding the effects of a
potential action.
Learning from Failure – failure not resulting in learning =
mistake
increases likelihood behavior will be repeated.
Punishment – behavior followed by negative
consequence.
performance management
Simulations – a representation of a real system that allows
people to try various actions and receive feedback.
Negative: Behavior followed by withdrawal of previously
encountered negative consequence.
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Symbolization and Forethought
Observation
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy – an individual’s belief that he or she will be
able to perform a specific task in a given situation.
Positive: Behavior followed by positive consequence.
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Intermittent – reward does not occur after each
behavior
used to maintain learned behavior
•
fixed interval – a reinforcement becomes
available only after a fixed period of time has
passed since the previous reinforcement. (the
least effective)
•
variable interval – a reinforcement becomes
available after a variable period of time has
passed since the previous reinforcement.
− produce a consistently high rate of the
desired behavior because the
associate does not know when
reinforcement might be given next.
•
fixed ratio – a reinforcement is introduced after
the desired behavior has occurred a fixed
number of times. (for the third desired greeting
there is a reward)
•
variable ratio - a reinforcement is introduced
after the desired behavior has occurred a
variable number of times. (random)
failure resulting in learning = intelligent failure
actions:
thoughtfully planned
reasonable chance of success
modest in scale
quickly executed and evaluated
limited to familiar domains
Perception – a process of sensing various aspects of a
person, task, or event and forming impressions based on
selected inputs.
Perception of People
1.
reduces likelihood behavior will be repeated.
supposedly used to eliminate dysfunctional
behavior
can also result in unintended consequence
Problems in Person Perception

Implicit Person Theories

Halo Effect

Projecting

Stereotyping
2.
Schedules of Reinforcement - determine how often
reinforcement is given for desired behavior
3.
Nature of Perceiver

Familiarity with the Other Person

Feelings Toward the Other Person

General Emotion State
Nature of the Situation

General Nature of the Other Person

Apparent Intentions of the Other Person

Consequences of the Interaction
Extinction – behavior followed by absence of previously
encountered positive consequence.
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1.
Continuous – reward occurs after each behavior
tends to produce reasonably high rates of the
rewarded behavior
Attribution – a process of determining what caused
behavior
Internal Factors
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2.
Personality
Attitudes
Abilities
External Factors
•
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Organizational resources
Luck
Uncontrollable influences
Fundamental Attribution Error – a person will attribute the
behavior of others to internal rather than external causes.
Self-serving Bias – a person that attributes other’s failure
to internal causes and success to external, will attribute
their failure to external and success to internal causes.
Chapter 5: Personality, Intelligence, Attitudes, & Emotions
Personality – a stable characteristics representing internal
properties reflected in behavioral tendencies across a
variety of situations.
•
•
•
Enduring
Influence Behavior
Across Various Situations
Social Dominance Orientation – the degree to which one
prefers social relationships to be equal or to reflect status
differences
Intelligence – general mental ability used in complex
information processing.
Type of Intelligence
Number aptitude – the ability to handle mathematics
Verbal comprehension – the ability to understand
written and spoken words
Perceptual speed – the ability to process visual data
quickly
Spatial visualization – the ability to imagine a different
physical configuration – for example, to imagine how
a room would look with the furniture rearranged
Deductive reasoning – the ability to draw a
conclusion or make a choice that logically follows
from existing assumptions and data
Inductive reasoning – the ability to identify, after
observing specific cases or instances, the general
rules that govern a process or that explain an
outcome – for example, to identify the general
factors that play a role in a successful product launch
after observing one product launch at a single
company
Memory – the ability to store and recall previous
experiences
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Determinants of Personality
1.
Heredity
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Genes

Combination

50% personality
Environment
•
Experiences
•
Events
•
Socioeconomic circumstances
•
Other
2.
•
Attitude – persistent tendency to feel and behave in a
favorable or unfavorable way toward a specific person,
object, or idea.
•
•
Big Five Personality Traits
1.
Extraversion – the degree to which an individual is
outgoing and derives energy from being around
people.
Conscientiousness – the degree to which an
individual focus on goals and works toward them in a
disciplined way.
Agreeableness – the degree to which an individual is
easygoing and tolerant.
Emotional Stability – the degree to which an
individual easily copes with stressful situations or
heavy demands.
Openness to Experience – the degree to which an
individual seeks new experiences and thinks
creatively about the future.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Approval Motivation – the degree to which an
individual is concerned about presenting self in a
socially desirable way in evaluative situations
•
Stable
Directed at:

Object

Person

idea
Relates to behavior toward cognitive, affective
and behavioral
Essential Elements of Attitudes
1.
2.
3.
Cognitive – what we think and what we know
Affective – how we feel and like or dislike
Behavioral – how we act and intended actions
Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Cognitive Concepts – a person’s perception and
thoughts affect how they process information.
1.
2.
3.
Locus of Control – the degree to which an
individual attributes control of events to self
(internal) or to environment (external)
Authoritarianism – the degree to which an
individual believes in conventional values,
obedience to authority, and legitimacy of power
differences in society
Self-Monitoring – the degree to which an individual
attempt to present the image he or she thinks
others want to see in a given situation
Motivational Concepts – stable differences that energize
and maintain a person’s behavior.
1.
Achievement Motivation – the degree to which an
individual desire to perform in terms of a standard
of excellence or to succeed in competitive
situations
Important Workplace Attitudes
1.
2.
Job Satisfaction
•
High Satisfaction – positive work attitude
•
Low Satisfaction – negative work attitude
Organizational Commitment
•
Strong Commitment – positive organizational
attitude
•
Weak Commitment – negative organizational
attitude
Causes of Satisfaction and Commitment
Role ambiguity
Supervision/leadership
Pay and benefits
Nature of the job
Organizational climate
Stress
Perceptions of fair treatment
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Chapter 6: Work Motivation
Motivation – forces within a person, resulting in effort
toward goal achievement.
Theories of Motivation
1.
Types of Commitment
1.
Affective commitment – strong positive attitudes
toward organization
Normative commitment – feelings of obligation
Continuance commitment – lack of better
opportunities
2.
3.
Persuasive Communication
1.
Communicator – the person who holds a particular
attitude and wants to convince others to share that
attitude
Message – the content designed to induce the
change in others’ attitudes
Situation – the surroundings in which the message is
presented
Target – the person whose attitude the
communicator wants to change
2.
3.
4.
Cognitive Dissonance - an uneasy feeling produced
when a person behaves in a manner inconsistent with an
existing attitude
Emotions – complex subjective reactions that have both
a physical and mental component.
Organizational Impact:
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Direct Effect on Behavior
Emotional Labor
Emotional Intelligence
Direct Effects of Emotion
1.
Positive Emotions Influence:
•
Social activity
•
Altruism and helping behavior
•
Effective conflict resolution
•
Job satisfaction
•
Motivation
•
Organizational citizenship behavior
Negative Emotions Influence:
•
Aggression against co-workers
•
Aggression toward the organization
•
Workplace deviance
•
Job dissatisfaction
•
Decision making
•
Negotiation outcomes
2.
Emotional Contagion – occurs when emotions
experienced by one or a few members of a work group
spread to other members.
Emotional Labor – a process whereby associates must
display emotions that are contrary to what they are
feeling.
Outcome depends on:
•
•
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how supervisors enforce display rules
self-identities of associates
networks of supportive people
Emotional Intelligence
•
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Appraise emotions – self and others
Regulate emotions – self and others
Use emotions to motivate, plan and achieve
2.
Content Theories
•
Hierarchy of Needs – Maslow
people are motivated by desire to satisfy
specific needs. people must satisfy needs
at lower levels before being motivated by
higher level needs.
1. Physiological Needs – basic survival needs
2. Safety – individuals’ needs to be safe and
secure in their environment
3. Social/ Belongingness – interaction with
and acceptance by other people.
4. Self-esteem – feelings of self-respect and
self-worth
5. Self-actualization - represents her desire to
fulfill her potential, maximizing the use of
her skills and abilities.
•
ERG – Alderfer
existence, relatedness and growth
→ Satisfaction and Progression
← Frustration and Regression
•
Three Factor Theory - McClelland
Achievement, Affiliation, and Power

Need for Achievement – perform well
against a standard of excellence

Need for Affiliation – be liked and on
good terms with people

Need for Power – desire to influence
people and events
•
Two-Factor Theory – Herzberg
job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
independent states that different factors
affect
1. Motivators – influence satisfaction

Achievement

Recognition

Responsibility

Opportunity for
advancement/promotion

Challenging work

Potential for personal growth
2. Hygienes – influence dissatisfaction
exists to minimize dissatisfaction
absence = dissatisfaction

Pay

Technical supervision

Working conditions

Company policies and procedures

Interpersonal relationships

Status

Security
Process Theories
•
Expectancy Theory – Vroom
managers and associates consider three
factors in deciding whether to exert effort.

Expectancy – probability that effort leads to
performance (↑effort ↑performance)

Instrumentality – perceived connection
between performance and an outcome

Valence – value placed on the outcome
•
Equity – Adams
motivation is based on the assessment of
one’s ratio of outcomes for inputs
compared to others.
My Outcomes/Inputs vs Other’s Outcome/
Inputs
Resolving Perceived Inequity
•
Increasing or decreasing inputs.
•
Changing their outcomes.
•
Distorting perceptions of their or others
inputs and outcomes.
•
Changing the referent other.
•
Leaving the organization.
People React Differently to Inequity

Sensitives – resolve whether favorable or
unfavorable

Benevolents – tolerate unfavorable and
resolve favorable

Entitleds – resolve unfavorable and
tolerate favorable
Two Types of Justice
1.
Distributive Justice – the degree to which people
think outcomes are fair.
2. Procedural Justice – the degree to which people
think procedures used to determine outcomes
are fair
Some Rules:

Based on accurate information

Procedures free from bias

Procedures applied consistently

Voice in the decision process

Ethical code

Treated with respect

Given reasons for decisions
•
Goal-Setting – challenging and specific goals
increase performance through attention, effort,
and persistence.
more goals → better performance
Effectively Set Goals

Goal Difficulty

Feedback

Participation in Setting Goals

Goal specificity

Goal Commitment
Redesign Jobs
•
Job Enlargement – adding tasks that are similar in
complexity
-
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lateral or horizontal (same level)
Job Enrichment – increasing responsibility
-
vertical or higher (promotion but not all)
Motivating Associates
•
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Find Meaningful Individual Rewards
Tie Rewards to Performance
Redesign Jobs

Job enlargement

Job enrichment
Provide Feedback
Clarify Expectations and Goals