ESOL Terms Phonology Study of sound system of the language Phoneme Smallest sound made /s/ fricative the three nasal sounds /m/ /n/ and ing sound the two liquid sounds /l/ and /r/ the two glide sounds /w/ and /j/ (as in yes) blend two letters blended but you can still hear both letter sounds consonant cluster group of consonants that appear together in a word without any vowels between them. When reading clusters, each letter within the cluster is pronounced individually. Digraph two letters blended to make one new sound. Can be consonants or vowels. Dipthong two vowels start out with one sound and glide into the second vowel sound such as oi in boil. monophthong one phoneme or sound Number of consonant phonemes in English 24 Allophone A surface level representation of an underlying phoneme that is used in a specific linguistic environment... in other words, the phoneme is there, but it is hard to distinguish. Examples: speak and peak, pin and spin. Reduction in speech and connected speech shortening pronunciation of words assimilation refers to a phoneme being spoken differently when it is near another phoneme. Example: "cookies and cream" sometimes the "and" will just be pronounced "n" Elision Omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant, or syllable. Example: a lot turns into lots, until turns into til, family turns into famlee. Linking sounds So I becomes soWI, do all becomes doWall Palatization When tongue is on palate and goes to front of mouth for y then the sound becomes palatalized. Example: got you becomes gotche Epenthesis adding one or more sounds to a word- usually in the interior of the word (hamster, warmth) ELLs will do it with vowel sounds (family becomes fam e lee) Flapping Sound articulated by a single quick touch of the tongue against the teeth or alveolar ridge (example: water, party, butter, little) Devoicing/voicing to pronounce a normally voiced sound as voiceless (bathe/bath, breath/breathe, wife/wives) Metathesis Common speech errors/transposition of sounds or letters in a word or of whole words or syllables (example: pasketti for spaghetti, revelant for relevant) Fossilization Where a student has trouble furthering his fluency in a secondary language that he just stops learning. It cannot be overcome. Why does fossilization happen? Learning a second language in a classroom as opposed to in a country where the language is spoken means the learning environment is inadequate. Only high academic version of the language is being learned instead of colloquial (informal) language. Pidginization A language made up of elements of two or more other languages. Also called contact language. Lingua Franca A language that is used among people who speak various different languages. For example airline pilots speak English. EFL English as a Foreign Language ESL English as a Second Language EO English Only or English as a first language Homonyms Word forms that have two or more meanings Homographs Two or more words with same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings. (example: stalk, read, etc.) Homophones two or more words that have the same pronunciation but different meaning and spelling. Example: would and wood. Heteronyms Two or more words that have the same spelling but have a different pronunciation and meaning. Example: polish/Polish, record/record. Minimal pairs words that have one sound that is different. For example: fair/pear (but fair/fare are not minimal pairs) Phoneme Substitution When a phoneme is not natural to one's phonology system or it has not developed yet, we always use something in place of it. For example, young children will substitute b for v (valentine) or w for r. Self-correction When students realize they have started or said something wrong and they back up. Phrasal verb an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another element, typically an adverb or preposition. Examples: see to, look down on, etc. Collocation Two words that we habitually place together so they have a greater frequency. For example "strong coffee" Inversion Two expressions switch their canonical order of appearance. Auxiliary verb changes places with the subject. Example: Are you coming? Morphology Study of structure of words and word formation Morpheme Unit of meaning. "a" and "i" are the smallest... Free Morpheme example: care in "careful" bound morpheme example: -ful in "careful"; Have to have root to have meaning Derivational morpheme Units of meaning that can be attached to a word or root word that often change the syntactic classification of the word. (subconsciously, unhappy, teach, teacher) Inflectional Morpheme Does not change the syntactic meaning of a word, but rather the tense or the degree. (great, greater, want, wanted); same part of speech Allomorph variations of a morpheme. Plural endings in English sometimes sound as /s/ /z/ /iz/ Brown 1973 stages of morpheme development 1-5. Precommunication stage scribbling Semiphonetic stage just letters and numbers Phonetic stage use of sounds to make communication possible Conventional stage normal spelling Metalinguistic Awareness The ability to think about language and talk about it. It is a cognitive process that allows a person to monitor and control their use of language. Syntax How words and phrases are put together to make sentences Intransitive Verbs Cannot take objects. I am Judy I am scared am= intransitive verb Transitive Verb Must have an object. I scared the bird scared= transitive verb Subject/predicate noun or pronoun / transitive verb or intransitive verb Active voice/passive voice I saw John / John was seen by me Infinitives a verbal preceded by "to" and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. "To take the praxis ESL test is a requirement to ESL endorsement." Verb tenses simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive Parallel structure lists after a colon should all be grammatically correct and of equal importance. Word Usage how a word is used correctly or incorrectly Word Form using the correct form of a word Word choice when a word is totally not a good choice Count noun a noun that can be expressed in plural form by adding -s on the end Non-count noun a noun you cannot simply add -s to make it plural Demonstrative and relative pronouns these, those, this, that Possessive Pronouns his, hers, theirs, mine, my, our, ours, your, yours Definite articles/determiners the as in "the boy" Indefinite articles/determiners a/an as in "an apple" Simple Sentence Has just one clause Complex Sentence Has one main (independent) clause and one or more subordinate clauses. When I grow up, I’ll use complete sentences. Compound Sentence Has two or more main clauses Semantics Component of language that conveys the meaning system. Presupposition speech that is not spoken, but is understood by the speaker In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics , a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. Examples of presuppositions include: Jane no longer writes fiction. Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction. Have you stopped eating meat? The systematic theosophy of Plotinus and his successors does not belong to the present article, except so far as it is the presupposition of their mysticism; but, inasmuch as the mysticism of the medieval Church is directly derived from Neoplatonism through the speculations of the pseudo-Dionysius, Neoplatonic mysticism fills an important section in any historical review of the subject. Implication concerns implications the listener can make from utterances without being told. Denotation Literal. Example: John lives on East Ave. which is two blocks past the park. Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the 'dictionary definition. ' For example, the name 'Hollywood' connotes such things as glitz, glamour, tinsel, celebrity, and dreams of stardom. Connotation Implied. Example: John lives on the park side of town Pragmatics the hidden rules of communication (using language, changing language, and following rules) Using Language (pragmatics) greeting, informing, demanding, promising, requesting Changing Language (pragmatics) Talking differently to a baby than you would an adult, giving background information to an unfamiliar listener, speaking differently on playground than you would in a classroom. Following Rules (pragmatics) Taking turns in conversation, introducing topic, staying on topic, rephrasing when misunderstood, using verbal and nonverbal signals, how close to stand when speaking, how to use facial expressions and eye contact Discourse The ability of speakers to combine sounds into words, words into sentences and larger units cohesively to achieve oral or written communication. Sociolinguistics conventions of language use determined by the context in which communication takes place. Discourse Analysis a subject which studies a text or conversation. Doesn't just study sentences, but rather the entire text or conversation. Register How speech changes (formality) depending on who you're talking to. Innatist or nativist theory children are born with the capability to learn languages with minimal help from parents (Chomsky) Universal Grammar Noam Chomsky believes we were born with a set of rules for language in which ALL languages can build. There are two reasons for this 1. Children pick up their mother language quickly with no formal training and 2. Children don't just copy the language they hear- the deduce rules from it. Behaviorist theory of language learning Children enter the world as a blank slate and then they are influenced by their environment. Stimuli-response (Watkins and Skinner) Generative Grammar When children learn rules of grammar so they can form their own, new sentences Creative Construction Theory Second-language learners follow similar strategies and make same kinds of errors as native speakers do in the process of language mastery. Similar to natural order theory and Chomsky's innatist theory. The idea is that as learners are exposed to input, whether it be via reading or listening, they begin to form mental representations of the language. Cognitive Theory or Language Learning Holds that a child learns a language in the same way as he learns other biological functions like potty training, eating, drinking from a cup, etc. Kinesics a systematic study of the relationship between nonlinguistic body motions (shrugs, blushes, eye movement, etc.) Interactionist Theory of language learning Children's language development happens as they interact with their environment Stephen Krashen Developed monitor model to explain the conditions for second-language acquisition. It contains 5 hypotheses. Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis Acquisition is unconscious, learning is conscious Monitor Hypothesis Learners who are exposed to formal language instruction develop an internal mechanism able to asses language and make corrections. Natural Order Hypothesis English learners acquire English structures in a predictable sequence with small variations depending on their first language. i +1 Comprehensible Input Hypothesis For real acquisition to take place, the input must be a little bit above the current linguistic level of the learner. Affective Filter Hypothesis Students perform better when they are relaxed and motivated. Cummins' Threshold Hypothesis -Belief that language learners should arrive at a given academic and literacy level in L1 in order to transfer elements from L1 to L2. -The age appropriate threshold is generally reached after four to five years of effective L1 instruction. BICS Cummins. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills CALPS Cummins. Cognitive Academic Language Chomky's Critical Period Hypothesis There is an ideal time for language acquisition. The brain is a plastic cup until puberty. Code-switching Mixing up two different languages with either words, idioms, or phrases when unknown in language being learned. Positive Cross Linguistic Transfer Occurs when structures in L1 help the acquisition of structures in L2 Negative Cross Linguistic Transfer Occurs when a student incorrectly applies structures from one language to another. Language Interference Errors caused by the interference of L1 over the structures of the new language. For example in Spanish there is not a /z/ sound so zoo may sound like sue. Interlanguage The term draws attention to the fact that the learner's language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. In this case, teachers should back off of direct instruction and allow students to work in pairs or groups. Overgeneralization Occurs when a learner tries to apply a rule across the board without regard to irregular exception for example: bended instead of bent. Simplification Occurs when the L2 Learner uses resources that require limited vocabulary to aid comprehension and allows the learner to listen, read, and speak in the L2 at a very elementary language. Examples are using synonyms for words, testing accommodations, removing superfluous words, alternative assessments, linguistically accepted tests, and it can also reduce rigor. Circumlocution When we talk around a subject or word or topic without getting to the point or to avoid answering a question we don't want to answer. When a L2 learner knows what something is but can't remember what it is called. When speakers are speaking so fast that they don't want to take the time to refer to something by name so they take shortcuts. Contrastive Analysis Analyzing common errors among languages. Error Analysis Analyzing errors made in learning a language Recasting Teacher corrects but in a positive way Connected Speech Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other. To make speech flow smoothly the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and end of those words. Silent Period Period of time that a language learner goes through without producing oral language. It is natural and occurs in first and second language learning. It is longer in first language acquisition than in second language because L2 learners already have some language on which to build. Usually is less than 6 months for L2. Elicitation The act of obtaining language data from a native speaker or informant. Linguists do this. Direct Method -Teacher centered vs. child centered -Direct association of words and phrases with objects and ideas -Grammar rules are not taught -Rules of language are internalized through the use of language -Prohibits use of native language Total Physical Response Commands that require a physical response (James Asher) The Natural Approach -Native language is used -Realia (everyday objects for teaching) -Communicating is the emphasis -Corrections of errors through modeling -Vocabulary development is key component -Krashen Monitor Model Theory Silent Way (Gattegno) -Requires that the teacher remains silent and the learner does the talking. -Learners can use their native language Community Language Learning or Teaching (CLT) -A communicative based method takes into account the physical, cognitive, and emotional needs of the students. -Teachers serve as facilitators. - It is a relaxed, non threatening environment. - Students can use their native language. Notional-functional Approach (Wilkins) Provides learners with the concepts they would use in their daily lives (good for adult learners) Communication-based ESL -Emphasizes instruction in English using the language in meaningful contexts such as writing letters. -There is little stress on correctness in the early stages and more emphasis on comprehensible input to foster communication and lower anxiety when risk-taking. Grammar Translation Method Merely translating word for word- often conjugating verbs in foreign language class. Not used a lot today. Content-based ESL -Designed to meet the linguistic and cognitive needs of ELs through the integration of language and content. -Teacher would use content to teach the language, but learning the language is the focus. Suggestopedia relies on engaging students in learning process. Uses soft lights, comfortable seating, and baroque music and dramatic readings. Native language is used. Audiolingual Method -Uses imitation and repetition, and reinforcement to teach a second language. -Includes memorization and drill patterns. -Errors are corrected immediately. -1950-1960's and native language was prohibited. Language Experience Approach An approach to literacy based on the assumption that students' prior to experiences need to be used as a bridge to new ideas and concepts vs. basal readers. Whole Language Approach -Language should not be separated into discrete components or skills. -Authentic texts, top down approach Top Down Strategy -Emphasis is on the global meaning of a text. -Cues such as the layout of the text are studied. -Students then make guesses about what is going to happen and anticipate the contents of the text. Bottom Up Strategy The reader goes from words and phrases to general understanding. Strategy-based Instruction -Learner-focused language teaching that explicitly combines styles and strategy training activities with everyday classroom language instruction. -Research shows that there is a wide variety of strategies that a learner can use to meet their language learning and using needs. CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach) -Learning is an active and dynamic process -Learning can be grouped into knowledge, declarive, procedural, and metacognitive. -Declarative and procedural knowledge are learned in different ways and retrieved from memory in different ways -Teachers should learn to recognize declarative and procedural knowledge in content materials, identify strategies used by students, and influence strategy use. -Students can take control over their own learning and develop independent learning skills. Jim Cummins BICS and CALP 4 quadrants Inductive Reasoning Moving from specific to more broad (example: taking a list of things and deciding on a title) Starts with facts/examples and then comes up with a conclusion. relates back to bottom up logic. Deductive Reasoning Moving from broad/general to specific relates back to top down logic. Environmental Print A pre literacy skill. Young children begin reading in their environment. Pre Literacy scribbling, environmental print, reading left to right Foreigner Talk Simplified version of speech when a native speaker is trying to communicate to a nonnative speaker. Cognitive Strategies learning strategies that you can see students do (note taking, underlining. etc.) Metacognitive Strategies Strategies that students have in their heads (self-monitoring) Pull Out Technique Students are pulled from classroom to work with teacher or aide Push In Technique teachers or aides go into the classroom to work with students Sheltered ESL Program mainstream teacher is teaching, but making content comprehensible through ESL research-based strategies. This can be done with ELs and mainstream students. Structured English Immersion (SEI) Only for ELs and does not involve formal instruction in the native language. All instruction is in English. To help students understand, teacher will use ESL techniques. Students will be in this program for 1-3 years. Once they are exited from program students no longer receive services. Transitional Bilingual Education -Mostly offered in grades 1-3. -Most instruction starts out in their native language so students do not fall behind. -By the 3rd grade most of the instruction will be in English. -Teachers must be certified bilingual. -Once students exit the program they are placed in all English classroom without additional services. Maintenance, Developmental, or Late-exit Bilingual Education -A program where English Language Learners typically stay in these programs throughout Elementary school. -Teachers in this program should be proficient in English and the student's native language. -Students will learn literacy and content areas in their native language while taught ESL. -Their transition to English instruction is more gradual. Dual Language (Two-Way Immersion) -Two types of students are in the same classroom- ELs and native language speakers. -Instruction is presented in two languages. Compound or Additive Bilingualism When two languages are learned at the same time in the same context. Coordinate or Subtractive Bilingualism When two languages are learned in different contexts at different times. Receptive Bilingualism Someone who understands a second language, in written or spoken form but does not necessarily speak or write it. Productive Bilingualism Someone who not only understands but also speaks and possibly writes two or more languages. Subtractive Bilingualism -Happens when a second language is acquired at the expense of the aptitudes already acquired in the first language. -(When you lose your first language because you're learning your second.) -This happens in transitional bilingual programs. Additive Bilingualism Happens with L1 and L2 combine in a complimentary and enriching fashion. This happens in maintenance bilingual programs. Langauge Placement Tests -(MAC 11) Designed to place student in a specific program. -Sometimes a screener. -Just one factor. Language Proficiency Test -(ELDA) Measures how well students have met certain standards in a particular language. -Predetermined standards. -Unrelated to a course or student. -Used to enter/exit a program. Diagnostic Language Tests Designed to identify certain student's strengths and weaknesses in languages. Language Achievement Tests Related directly to a specific curriculum or course of study. Formal Assessment Standardized Informal Assessment Portfolio, conferencing, observations, etc. Validity Measures what it asserts to measure Internal Validity Avoiding other variables Content Validity Assessments align with knowledge/skills taught. Cultural Bias About holidays, birthdays of American culture. Attitudinal Bias Negative attitude of the examiner towards a certain language, dialect, or culture. Test or Norming Bias Excluding ELs from the norming process Translation Bias Translating literally from L2 to L1 Reliability Similar results when test is taken two times Practicality Ideal test is one that is: -Easy to administer and -Easy to grade while providing to be valid and reliable. Norm-referenced Test Based on norms; Scores are exact Critera- referenced Test ACT aspire or Benchmark, Percentiles Authentic Assessment Mirrors real life Formative Assessment Informs instruction Summative Assessment Assessment that comes at the end of a unit. Performance-based assessment Students are performing in tasks that are meaningful and engaging Comprehensive Error Correction Correcting all errors on an assignment Selective Error Correction Deciding which errors should be corrected and then focusing on those Direct Feedback Face to face, verbal, conferencing Indirect Feedback Written, whole class, or nonverbal Customs What is polite in one culture, may not be in another Beliefs and Institutions Have strong emotional influence on ELs and should always be respected. Sometimes referred to as deep culture. Cultural Variables -Individualism vs. collectivism -High context language vs. low context language -Momonochromic vs. polychronic Individualist Concerned with taking care of self and promoting self Collectivist Concerned with taking care of group and promoting group Low Context Culture -Anglos, Germans, Scandinavians. -Things are fully and concisely spelled out. High Context Culture - Japanese, Arabs, French. - Less is spelled out Field-Independent Teachers Competitive American teachers Field-sensitive Teachers Asians and latinos care about helping others and are sensitive to their feelings. Ethnocentrism Judging another's culture solely based on one's own culture Acculturation A process where the cultural aspects of the majority community are adapted without losing the traditions and customs of the minority community. Assimilation Process where the majority community's cultural aspects are absorbed in such a manner that the home cultural aspects get mitigated or lost. Chronemics Study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Monochronic Things done at one time. Schedules, time lines, time frames Polychronic More than one thing going at a time. Time and schedules are flexible. Proxemics Space that people feel they need to set between themselves and others. TESOL Teachers of English Speakers of Other Languages (quarterly research) TOEIC Test of English for International Communication TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign language Title 1 Schools will get funding because of low income students Title 3 part of NCLB that authorizes funds for English-Language Acquisition programs. Lau Vs. Nichols 1974 Chinese students in San Fran who were placed in mainstream classrooms and left to sink or swim since they were not proficient in English. The district said they were treating those students equal to other students. A remedies was created that protected LEP students all over the united states and was protected under federal law Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974. Castaneda Vs. Pickard 1981 Texas school district sued for not meeting all needs of ELs. Because of this a 3 pronged test was created to test districts to see if they were taking appropriate action to address the needs of ELs. The "standard" mandates that programs be based on a sound educational theory, implemented effectively with sufficient resources and personnel, and be evaluated to determine whether they are effective in helping students overcome language barriers. Plyler Vs. Doe -1982 Supreme Court of the United States struck down a state statute denying funding for education to illegal immigrant children and at the same time struck down a municipal school district's attempt to charge illegal immigrants an annual one thousand dollar tuition fee to compensate for lost state funding.
