MODULE: MARKET RESEARCH
700
1st SEMESTER
3rd YEAR
i
FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES
STUDY GUIDE
MODULE: MARKET RESEARCH 700
(1st SEMESTER)
Copyright © 2022
Richfield Graduate Institute of Technology (Pty) Ltd
Registration Number: 2000/000757/07
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including
photocopying machines, without the written permission of the Institution.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topics
Page no
Section A: Preface
1. Welcome
2. Title of Modules
vi
3. Purpose of Module
vi
4. Learning Outcomes
vi
5. Method of Study
vii
6. Lectures and Tutorials
vii
7. Notices
vii
8. Prescribed & Recommended Material
viii
9. Assessment & Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations
ix
10.Work Readiness Programme
xii
11.Work Integrated Learning
xiii
12. Interactive learning
xiii
vi
TOPIC 1: THE AIMS OF RESEARCH
1
1.1 What is research
2
1.2 Research methods and methodology
5
1.3 The aims of research
7
1.4 Types of research
9
TOPIC 2: RESEARCH TOPIC AND PROBLEM
11
2.1 The research process
12
2.2 Research problem statement
13
2.3 Relationship between variables
14
2.4 Research Hypothesis
14
TOPIC 3: LITERAURE REVIEW
16
3.1 Significance of literature review
17
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3.2 Planning literature review
19
3.3 Sources of literature review
21
3.4 Evaluating literature review
24
3.5 The referencing system
24
TOPIC 4: POPULATION AND SAMPLING TYPES
26
III
i
4.1 Research designs
27
4.2 The sampling design
29
4.3 Sampling process
30
4.4 Quality of survey results
33
TOPIC 5: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
36
5.1 Experimental Research
37
5.2 Quasi-Experimental Research
38
5.3 Non-experimental research design
38
TOPIC 6: VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS
39
6.1 Internal validity threats
40
6.2 External validity threats
44
TOPIC 7: QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
48
7.1 The nature of measurement
50
7.2 Reliability measures
52
TOPIC 8: PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
55
8.1 Primary data
56
8.2 Primary data collection methods
57
TOPIC 9: THE SURVEY METHOD
62
9.1 Characteristics of survey method
62
9.2 Survey errors
63
9.3 Data collection survey methods
65
TOPIC 10: DATA ANALYSIS
77
10.1 Data preparation
77
10.2 Measure scale types
78
10.3 Descriptive analysis
79
10.4 Bivariate data analysis
80
10.5 Inferential data analysis
81
TOPIC 11: COMMUNICATING RESEARCH RESULTS
84
11.1 Importance of communicating research results
85
11.2 Components of the research reports
86
TOPIC 12: ORAL PRESENTATION
88
12.1 The importance of an oral report
89
12.2 What is a research report
90
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12.3 Characteristics of a good report
91
12.4 Oral presentation
92
TOPIC 13 STUDY CASE
93
TOPIC 14 PAST EXAMINATIONS
95
iii
SECTION A: PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Faculty of Leadership & Business Administration at Richfield
Graduate Institute of Technology.
We trust you will find the contents and learning outcomes of this module both
interesting and insightful as you begin your academic journey and eventually, your
career in the business world. This section of the study guide is intended to orientate
you to the module before the commencement of formal lectures. The following lectures
will focus on the study units described
Table 1: Welcome and Orientation
SECTION A: WELCOME & ORIENTATION
Study unit 1: Orientation Programme
Introducing academic staff to the students by the academic head.
Introduction of institution policies.
Study unit 2: Orientation of Students to Library and
Students Facilities
Introducing students to physical structures
Issuing of foundation learner guides and necessary learning material
Study unit 3: Orientation of Market Research 700 Student
Guide, Textbooks and Prescribed Materials
Study unit 4: Discussion of the Objectives and Outcomes of
Research Methodology 700
Study unit 5: Orientation and guidelines for completing
Assignments
Review and Recap of Study units 1-4
Lecture 1
Lecture 2
Lecture 3
Lecture 4
Lecture 5
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MODULE DETAILS
Table 2: Module details
1nd Semester
Title Of Module:
NQF Level:
Credits:
Mode of Delivery:
Details
Market Research 700
NQF 7
10
Contact
PURPOSE OF THE MODULE
The purpose of this module is to give students a thorough understanding of the basic
business tools required to enter the business/employment world. Naturally, the module
is only an introduction to what the working environment is all about, but we trust that
students will gain sufficient knowledge about the various business functions to enable
them to choose possible areas of work preference and further study and articulation.
Market Research 700
This module guide is intended to be a practical resource: those who are doing a
marketing research project can use it to progress through that project in an organized
way and will find a lot of practical information about how to do so; those who work with
a researcher will have a better idea of what the researcher should be doing and
whether he or she is doing a good job.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this module, students should have a basic/fundamental practical and
theoretical knowledge of:
•
Apply the whole research process systematically
•
Develop a questionnaire for an identified research project based on the guidelines
given for questionnaire design.
•
Distinguish between the concepts of sampling and a census and explain why a
sample is preferred to a census in marketing research.
•
Effective selection and application of fieldwork procedure.
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•
Present and communicate primary data.
•
Analyse and execute simple and cross-tabulation
METHOD OF STUDY
Only the key sections that have to be studied are indicated under each topic in this
study guide are expected to have a thorough working knowledge of the prescribed
textbook. These form the basis for tests, assignments and examinations. To be able
to do the activities and assignments for this module, and to achieve the learning
outcomes and ultimately to be successful in the tests and exams.
You will need an in-depth understanding of the content of these sections in the learning
guide and the prescribed books. To master the learning material, you must accept
responsibility for your studies. Learning is not the same as memorising. You are
expected to show that you understand and can apply the information. Lectures,
tutorials, case studies and group discussions may also be used to present this module.
LECTURES AND TUTORIALS
Students must refer to the notice boards on their respective campuses for details of
the lecture and tutorial timetables. The lecturer assigned to the module will also inform
you of the number of lecture periods and tutorials allocated to a particular module. Prior
preparation is required for each lecture and tutorial. Students are encouraged to
actively participate in lectures and tutorials to ensure success in tests, group
discussions, assignments and examinations.
NOTICES
All information about this module such as tests dates, lecture and tutorial timetables,
assignments, examinations etc. will be displayed on the notice board located at your
campus. Students must check the notice board daily. Should you require any
clarification, please consult your lecturer, programme manager or administrator of your
respective campus.
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PRESCRIBED & RECOMMENDED MATERIAL
PRESCRIBED MATERIAL
Wiid, J. (2020). Marketing Research .4th Ed. South Africa: Juta Publishers.
RECOMMENDED MATERIAL
Bryman, A. 2018. Business Research Methods .5th Ed. South Africa: Oxford University
Press.
Akandwanaho, S.2021.Research Methodology. South Africa: Wizebooks. ISBN:
9780620926232
LIBRARY INFRASTRUCTURE
The following services are available to you:
•
Each campus keeps a limited quantity of the recommended reading titles and a
wider variety of similar titles which you may borrow. Please note that students are
required to purchase the prescribed materials.
•
Arrangements have been made with municipal, state and other libraries to stock
our recommended reading and similar titles. You may use these on their premises
or borrow them if available. It is your responsibility to safe keeps all library books.
•
RGIT has also allocated one library period per week to assist you with your formal
research under professional supervision.
•
RGIT has dedicated electronic libraries for use by its students. The computers
laboratories, when not in use for academic purposes, may also be used for
research purposes. Booking is essential for all electronic library usage.
ASSESSMENT
The assessment for this module will comprise two Continuous Assessment (CA) Tests,
an assignment and an examination. Your lecturer will inform you of the dates, times
and the venues for each of these. You may also refer to the notice board on your
campus or the Academic Calendar, which is displayed in all lecture rooms.
CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TESTS
vii
ASSIGNMENT
There is one compulsory assignment for each module in each semester. Your lecturer
will inform you of the Assignment questions at the commencement of this module.
EXAMINATION
There is one two-hour examination for each module. Make sure that you diarise the
correct date, time and venue. The examinations department will notify you of your
results once all administrative matters are cleared, and fees are paid up. The
examination may consist of multiple-choice questions, short questions and essay type
questions.
This requires you to be thoroughly prepared as all the content matter of lectures,
tutorials, all references to the prescribed text and any other additional
documentation/reference materials are examinable in both your tests and the
examinations. The examination department will make available to you the details of
the examination (date, time and venue) in due course.
You must be seated in the examination room 15 minutes before the commencement
of the examination. If you arrive late, you will not be allowed any extra time. Your
learner registration card must always be in your possession.
FINAL ASSESSMENT
There are two compulsory tests for each module (in each semester). The final
assessment for this module will be weighted as follows:
CA Test 1
CA Test 2
Assignment
40%
Examination
60%
Total
100%
viii
KEY CONCEPTS IN ASSIGNMENTS AND EXAMINATIONS
In assignment and examination questions, you will notice certain vital concepts (i.e.
words/verbs) which tell you what is expected of you. For example, you may be asked
in a question to list, describe, illustrate, demonstrate, compare, construct, relate,
criticise, recommend or design information/aspects/factors/situations. To help you to
know what these key concepts or verbs mean so that you will know what is expected
of you, we present the following taxonomy by Bloom, explaining the concepts and
stating the level of cognitive thinking that theses refer to.
Table 3: Bloom's Taxonomy
Comprehension
Knowledge
Competence
Skills Demonstrated
•
Observation and recall of information
•
Knowledge of dates, events, places
•
Knowledge of major ideas
•
Mastery of subject matter
Question Cues
list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine,
tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.
•
Understanding information
•
Grasp meaning
•
Translate knowledge into a new context
•
Interpret facts, compare, contrast
•
Order, group, infer causes
•
Predict consequences
Question Cues
summarize,
describe,
interpret,
contrast,
predict,
associate, distinguish, estimate, differentiate, discuss, extend
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Application
Analysis
•
Use information
•
Use methods, concepts, theories in new situations
•
Solve problems using required skills or knowledge
Questions Cues
apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate, show, solve,
examine, modify, relate, change, classify, experiment, discover
•
Seeing patterns
•
Organisation of parts
•
Recognition of hidden meanings
•
Identification of components
Question Cues
analyse, separate, order, arrange, divide, compare, select, infer,
connect, classify, explain
•
Use old ideas to create new ones
•
Generalise from given facts Relate knowledge from several areas
•
Predict, draw conclusions
Synthesis
Question Cues
combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create,
design, invent, what if? compose, formulate, prepare, generalise,
rewrite
•
Compare and discriminate between ideas
•
Assess the value of theories, presentations
•
Make choices based on reasoned argument Verify value of
evidence recognise subjectivity
Evaluation
Question Cues
assess, decide, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, convince,
select, judge, explain, discriminate, support, conclude, compare,
summarise
WORK READINESS PROGRAMME (WRP)
x
To prepare students for the world of work, a series of interventions over and above the
formal curriculum, are concurrently implemented to prepare students. These include:
•
Soft skills
•
Employment skills
•
Life skills
•
End-User Computing (if not included in your curriculum)
It is in your interest to attend these workshops, complete the Work Readiness Logbook
and prepare for the working world. The illustration below outlines some of the key
concepts for Work Readiness that will be included in your timetable.
Figure 1: Work Readiness
SOFT SKILLS
•Time management
•Working in Teams
•Problem solving skills
•Attitude & goal
setting
•Etiquettes & Ethics
EMPLOYMENT
SKILLS
Work
Readiness
•CV writing skills
•Interview skills
•Presentation skills
•Employer/Employee
relationship
•End-user computing
LIFE SKILLS
•Manage personal
finance
•Driving skills
•Basic life support &
first aid
WORK INTEGRATED LEARNING
Work Integrated Learning (WIL) forms a core component of the curriculum for the
completion of this programme. All modules which form part of this qualification will be
assessed in an integrated manner towards the end of the programme or after
completion of all other modules. Prerequisites for placement with employers will
include:
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•
Completion of all tests & assignment
•
Success in examination
•
Payment of all arrear fees
•
Return of library books, etc.
•
Completion of the Work Readiness
xii
•
ss Programme (WRP).
Students will be fully inducted on the Work Integrated Learning Module, the Workbooks
& assessment requirements before placement with employers. The partners in the
Work Integrated Learning are the same as the Work Readiness Programme:
Figure 1: Work Integrated Learning
Good luck and success in your studies…
The topics that will be covered in this module is summarised in Table 4 below:
Table 4: Module topics
TOPIC 1: : THE AIMS OF RESEARCH
Lecture
(L)
What is research?
Research methods and methodology
L6-8
The aims of research
Types of research
TOPIC 2: RESEARCH TOPIC AND PROBLEM
i
The research process
Research problem statement
L17 –
19
Relationship between variables
Research Hypothesis
L20 –
24
TOPIC 3: LITERAURE REVIEW
Significance of literature review
Planning literature review
L25 –
27
Sources of literature review
Evaluating literature review
The referencing system
TOPIC 4: POPULATION AND SAMPLING TYPES
Research designs
L35 –
36
The sampling design
Sampling process
Quality of survey results
TOPIC 5: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental Research
Quasi-Experimental Research
L39 –
40
Non-experimental research design
TOPIC 6: VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS
Internal validity threats
External validity threats
L42 –
TOPIC 7: QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
44
The nature of measurement
Reliability measures
TOPIC 8: PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Primary data
Primary data collection methods
ii
TOPIC 9 THE SURVEY METHOD
Characteristics of survey method
Survey errors
Data collection survey methods
TOPIC 10: DATA ANALYSIS
Data preparation
Measure scale types
Descriptive analysis
Bivariate data analysis
Inferential data analysis
TOPIC 11: COMMUNICATING RESEARCH RESULTS
Importance of communicating research results
Components of the research reports
TOPIC 12: ORAL PRESENTATION
The importance of an oral report
What is an research report
Characteristics of a good report
Oral presentation
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TOPIC 1
THE AIMS OF RESEARCH
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
Differentiate between research methodology as opposed to
research methods and techniques.
Briefly describe the differences between the qualitative and
quantitative approaches.
Name the three key characteristics of scientific knowledge that
differentiate it from the common human inquiry.
•
Explain how research produces scientific knowledge
•
Discuss the various forms of research
1.1 WHAT IS RESEARCH
Research refers to the process of using scientific methods to expand knowledge in a
particular field of study. Research is a process that involves obtaining scientific
knowledge utilizing various objective methods and procedures.
RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed
as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They
include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical
approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution
to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on
collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They
accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.
The research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of
studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which
1
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena
are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which
knowledge is gained. It aims to give the work plan of research.
THE AIMS OF RESEARCH
The purpose of the research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of the research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research
study has its specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into
several following broad groupings:
•
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
•
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group
•
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something
•
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
The major purpose of descriptive research is the description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present.
Applied vs. Fundamental
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” In an applied research one solves certain problems
employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the
experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are essentially
2
applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. Research, the
outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research.
Such a research is of practical use to current activity.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. The basic and applied researches can be
quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is expressed or described in
terms of one or more quantities. The result of this research is essentially a number or
a set of numbers. Some of the characteristics of qualitative re- search/method are:
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and
uses numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates what, where and when of decision making.
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. It
finds applications not only in physical sciences but also in economics, social sciences
and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods often begins with the
collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or experiment followed by the
application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods. Qualitative research is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. Some of the characteristics
of qualitative research/method are:
• It is non-numerical, descriptive, apply to reason and uses words.
• It aims to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.
3
Outline the main differences between quantitative and
qualitative research in terms of:
•
Relationship between theory and data
•
Epistemological considerations
•
Ontological considerations
CONCEPTUAL VS. EMPIRICAL
Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
1.1 OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above-stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or based on some
other similar factor. From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as
one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case, the research is confined
to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over
several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research
follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach basic causal relations.
Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data-gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research
studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains,
etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and
groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion4
oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented research, a
researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is
prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the
need of a decision-maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his inclination.
Figure 1: Defining the Epistemology concept
Epistemology
What is Epistemology?
Epistemology is the study of our method of acquiring knowledge. It answers the question, "How do we
know?" It encompasses the nature of concepts, the constructing of concepts, the validity of the senses,
logical reasoning, as well as thoughts, ideas, memories, emotions, and all things mental. It is concerned
with how our minds are related to reality, and whether these relationships are valid or invalid. Why is
Epistemology important?
Epistemology is the explanation of how we think. It is required to be able to determine the true from
the false, by determining a proper method of evaluation. It is needed to use and obtain knowledge of
the world around us. Without epistemology, we could not think. More specifically, we would have no
reason to believe our thinking was productive or correct, as opposed to random images flashing before
our mind. With an incorrect epistemology, we would not be able to distinguish truth from error. The
consequences are obvious. The degree to which our epistemology is correct is the degree to which we
could understand reality and the degree to which we could use that knowledge to promote our lives
and goals. Flaws in epistemology will make it harder to accomplish anything.
What are the key elements of a proper Epistemology?
Our senses are valid, and the only way to gain information about the world. The reason is our method
of gaining knowledge and acquiring understanding. Logic is our method of maintaining consistency
within our set of knowledge. Objectivity is our means of associating knowledge with reality to
determine its validity. Concepts are abstracts of specific details of reality or other abstractions. A
proper epistemology is a rational epistemology.
Source: Adapted from Research Philosophy, http://research-methodology.net/researchphilosophy/ontology/. [Accessed November 30, 2020].
Ontology and epistemology are two different ways of viewing the research philosophy.
Ontology can be defined as “the science or study of being and it deals with the nature
of reality. Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual
about what constitutes a fact. In simple terms, ontology is associated with a central
question of whether social entities need to be perceived as objective or subjective.
Accordingly, objectivism (or positivism) and subjectivism can be specified as two
important aspects of ontology. Objectivism portrays the position that social entities
exist in reality external to social.
5
Figure 1: Defining the Research Philosophies
Research
philosophy
Ontology: the researcher’s view of the nature of reality or
being
Pragmatism
External, multiple, view chosen to best enable answering of the
research question
Positivism
External, objective and independent of social actors
Realism
Is objective. Exists independently of human thoughts and beliefs
or knowledge of their existence (realist), but is interpreted through
social conditioning (critical realist)
Subjectivism
Socially constructed, subjective, may change, multiple
Source: Adapted from Research Methodologies, http://research-methodology.net/researchphilosophy/ontology/. [Accessed November 30, 2020]
Alternatively, objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena
and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors.
Subjectivism is also known as constructionism, on the contrary, perceives that social
phenomena are created from perceptions and consequent actions of those social
actors concerned with their existence. Formally, constructionism can be defined as the
ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are
continually being accomplished by social actors.
Suppose children regularly eat apples because their teacher
taught them that this habit promotes healthy teeth. Are we
dealing here with a source of scientific knowledge or nonscientific knowledge?
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1.2 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A researcher must design a methodology for the problem chosen. One should note
that even if the method considered in two problems is same the methodology may be
different. The researcher needs to know not only the research methods necessary for
the research undertaken but also the methodology.
For example, a researcher not only needs to know how to calculate mean, variance
and distribution function for a set of data, how to find a solution of a physical system
described by a mathematical model, how to determine the roots of algebraic equations
and how to apply a particular method but also need to know the following
(i) Which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?
(ii) What is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?
(iii) What is the efficiency of the method?
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH CYCLES
There are two main approaches to research, that is, the positivist and the anti-positivist.
The positivist is also known as quantitative and the anti-positivistic is also known as
the qualitative approach. The positivist underlies the natural-scientific method in
human behavioural research and holds that research must be limited to what we can
observe and measure objectively. It focuses on knowledge that can be generated
independently of the feelings and opinions of the research objects
The positivist approach is opposed by anti-positivists who believe that knowledge can
be generated through the concept of phenomenology that seeks to understand the
lived experiences of research subjects based on their lived experience when subject
to the phenomenon under study. According to anti-positivists, knowledge can be
generated by understanding the feelings, opinions, values, beliefs and attitudes of
research subjects.
While the positivist researcher attempts to develop and test theories whereby, for
example, leadership can be predicted, the phenomenological researcher will attempt
to understand how leaders in South Africa experience their transactional role as
opposed to leaders in other countries.
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QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
The difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches are as follows:
•
The purpose of quantitative research is to evaluate objective data consisting of
numbers while qualitative research deals with the lived experiences of research
subjects.
•
As a result of dealing with numbers, quantitative researchers use a process of
analysis that is based on complex structured methods to confirm or disapprove
hypotheses. Flexibility is limited to prevent any form of bias. Qualitative research
is based on flexible and explorative methods because it allows the researcher to
change the data progressively to have a detailed understanding of the
phenomenon under study.
•
The purpose of quantitative research is not to deal directly with everyday life, but
rather with the abstraction of reality. In contrast quality research deals with the lived
experiences of research subjects.
•
Quantitative researchers try to understand the facts of a research investigation from
an outsider’s perspective. The researcher is detached from the subject under study
and this avoids researcher bias. Qualitative researchers adopt an insider view by
talking to subjects or subjectively observing their behaviour, they believe that firsthand experience with subjects generates the best data.
•
Quantitative researchers try to keep the research process stable. They focus on
the causal aspects of behaviour that are relatively stable. In contrast, qualitative
researchers work with the dynamic and changeable nature of reality.
•
Quantitative researchers control the investigation and structure of the research
situation to identify and isolate variables. In contrast, qualitative researchers adopt
a holistic approach that allows them to have detailed knowledge of the
phenomenon under study.
•
Both quantitative and qualitative researchers aim at reliable and valid results.
However, quantitative researchers focus more on reliability which is a consistent
and stable measurement of data as well as explicability. Validity is considered more
important in qualitative research because the objective of the study must be
representative of what the researcher is studying.
8
•
Quantitative research usually aims for a larger number of cases and the analysis
of results is usually based on statistical significance. Qualitative research involves
small samples of subjects studied utilizing in-depth methods such as interviews.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Suppose you want to investigate the nature of prison gangs and the
reasons why prisoners become involved in them. Which methodology is
the best to answer the research problem?
2.
Discuss the difference between a scientific and a non-scientific inquiry.
MCQ Exercises
1. A recent study of car owners indicated that 10% felt Brand A had the best quality, 9% felt
Brand B did, and 6% felt other models did. The remainder had no opinion. The advertising
claim that most car owners who gave an opinion believe that Brand A has the best quality is
an example of _____ which is _______.
A) biased research, unethical
B) effective advertising, ethical
C) misleading reporting, unethical
D) incomplete reporting, unethical
2. Naturalism has been defined as:
A) Viewing natural and social objects as belonging to the same realm
B) Being true to the nature of the phenomenon under investigation
C) Minimising the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection into the field
D) All of the give options
3. The interpretivist view of the social sciences is that:
A) Their subject matter is fundamentally different to that of the natural sciences
B) We should aim to achieve the interpretive understanding of social action
C) It is important to study the way people make sense of their everyday worlds
D) All of the given options
4. What is the epistemological position held by a positivist?
A) There is no substitute for an in-depth, hermeneutic understanding of society
B) Scientific research should be based on value-free, empirical observations
C) Events and discourses in the social world prevent us from having direct knowledge of the
natural order
D) It is important to remain optimistic about our research, even when things go wrong
5. Which approach says that the purpose of research is to study the creation of social
meaning?
A) Positivism
B) Interpretative Social Science
C) Critical Social Science
D) None of the given choices
10
TOPIC 2: THE RESEARCH TOPIC AND
RESEARCH PROBLEM
EARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to:
•
Differentiate between research methodology and research methods
•
Explain the role of theory in scientific research
•
Discuss the basic steps of the research process
•
Differentiate between independent and dependent variables
•
Distinguish between deductive and inductive research
2. THE RESEARCH TOPIC AND RESEARCH PROBLEM
The first step in the scientific research process is to formulate the specific research
problem. The research problem needs to have a theoretical foundation and can be
expressed in form of a hypothesis. A theory is a group of logical, related statements
that are presented as an explanation of a phenomenon. A hypothesis is a tentative
assumption or preliminary statement about the relationship between variables under
study.
2.1 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important steps to
follow. The problem must be stated clearly, including any simplifying assumptions. The
results have to be interpreted to arrive at a decision. This will require experience and
an understanding of the situation in which the problem is embedded. A general set of
sequential components of research is the following:
1. Identifying a research topic
2. Defining the research problem
3. Determining the research problem
4. Determining how to conduct the study
5. Collecting the research data
6. Analysing and interpreting the research data
7. Writing the report
11
Reading Activity
Refer to Bryman and Bell (2017:100) for a detailed explanation of the main
steps in the quantitative research process.
STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem refers to some difficulty that the researcher experiences in the
context of either theoretical or practical situation and to which he or she wants to obtain
a solution. To define the problem correctly, the researcher must know what a problem
is. There is a need to distinguish between a problem and a symptom.
Identification of a Research Topic and Problems
Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are the following:
(1) Theory of one’s interest
(2) Daily problems
(3) Technological changes
(4) Recent trends
(5) Unexplored areas
(6) Discussion with experts and research supervisor.
DEFINITION AND FORMULATION OF A PROBLEM
After identifying a problem, to solve it, it has to be defined and formulated properly. For
this purpose, one can execute the following:
• State the problem in questionnaire form or an equivalent form
• Specify the problem in detail and precise terms
• List the assumptions made
• Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem
• Examine the feasibility of a particular solution
12
Implicit in each research question or research problem is the view that some variables
are the causes of other variables. A variable is a property that takes two or more
values and is subject to change while a constant has one value only.
The main aim of a diamond mining company is to retrieve diamonds successfully
from underground and enhance profit. Identify the two variables
In research, variables are classified as dependent or independent variables. A
dependent variable is that factor which the researcher observes and measures to
determine how it was affected by the variable (independent variable). An independent
variable is that factor that the researcher selects and manipulates to determine its
effect on the observed phenomenon (the problem being investigated).
Fire causes smoke and this case fire is the independent variable and smoke
is the dependent variable. The more the fire rages on the more the smoke.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
Relationships between variables can either be causal or correlational.
•
One variable is regarded as the direct cause of another if the former precedes the
latter in time and if changes in the latter can be related to changes to only the former
(and not to any other variable).
•
A correlational relationship means that changes to one variable are associated with
changes to another variable, but that the one is not necessarily the cause of the
other.
•
A causal relationship between two variables also implies a correlational relationship
between them. However, the correlational relationship does not imply causality.
13
In research, variables may also be embedded in theory. A theory is a statement or a
collection of statements that specify the relationships between variables to explain
phenomena such as human behaviour.
2.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Descriptive and causal are the main types of research. The main differences between
causal and descriptive are summarised as follows:
Figure 2. Comparison of causal and descriptive research
Descriptive
Causal
Objective
Describe market
characteristics or functions
Determine cause and
relationships.
Characteristics
Marked by the prior
formulation of specific
hypotheses.
Follows a pre-planned and
structured design.
Manipulation of one or more
independent variables.
Methods
Secondary data
Surveys, panels,
observational
Control of
variables.
other
effect
mediating
Experiments
Source: Adapted from Bryman, A. 2015. Business Research Methods .4th Ed. South Africa: Oxford
University Press.
2.3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a statement or proposition that can be tested by reference to the
empirical study. A research question differs from a hypothesis is that the research
question is always expressed as a question, while a hypothesis is expressed as a
statement. The question format lends itself more to descriptive and inductive research,
while hypothesis is more appropriate for explanatory and deductive research.
Hypothesis is usually stated in a form that predicts a difference between two groups
regarding some variable. When formulating a hypothesis, a research problem is
translated into a relationship between two or more variables.
14
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What is a paradigm?
2.
Discuss the various forms of research paradigms?
MCQ Exercises
1. A sequencing effect that occurs when performance in one treatment condition is
influenced by participation in a prior treatment condition is known as ____.
A) counterbalancing effect
B) carryover effect
C) treatment effect
D) order effect
2. If we took the 500 people attending a school in Durban, divided them by gender, and
then took a random sample of the males and a random sampling of the females, the
variable on which we would divide the population is called the _____.
A) Independent variable
B) Dependent variable
C) Stratification variable
D) Sampling variable
3. Rationalism is the application of:
A) Research solution
B) Logic and arguments
C) Reasoning
D) Previous findings
4. Which of the following is NOT a legitimate research problem as stated?
A) What is the relationship between the number of books children read and their reading
scores?
B) Should competitive games be banned from elementary schools?
C) What does it mean to be a special needs child "included" in Ms. Amara’s fourth grade
class?
D) What are the major legal principles applied to educational cases decided by the
Supreme Court?
5. Which of the following should not be a consideration in writing a proposal?
A) Understanding the purpose behind the request for proposal
B) Understanding the problem situation
C) The appearance/form of the proposal
D) Responding to every element exactly as specified by the client
15
TOPIC 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
Conduct a literature search on a research topic
Compile a literature review and reference system
Write a review of the literature.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review set the scene for a clear formulation of the research problems or
hypothesis. The comprehensiveness of the literature review depends on the kind of
research project. By conducting a literature review, researchers can be aware of gaps
and inconsistencies that may justify the research. Such a literature review enables
researchers to indicate exactly where their proposed research fits in. A literature review
is also used to develop the theoretical framework of the study.
A theoretical framework refers to a group of related ideas that guides a research project
or business endeavour. A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts,
like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides
your research, determining what things you will measure, and what statistical
relationships you will look for.
3.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The following are some of the reasons for conducting the literature review:
• Provides the researcher with important facts and background information about the
subject under study
•
Such a review enables the researcher to avoid duplicating previous research
•
If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, a review provides the
researcher with information about aspects of the problem which have not been
investigated
•
Insights regarding the weaknesses and problems of previous studies can be gained
16
•
The researcher can get ideas on how to proceed with the investigation
•
In relational and exploratory studies, the review provides the researcher with a
basis to determine variable relationships, types of relationships and measurement
•
Findings and conclusions of past studies can be accessed which the researcher
can relate to his findings and conclusions
3.3 PLANNING THE LITERATURE SEARCH
You must plan a literature search carefully to ensure that you locate relevant and
current literature. Before conducting a literature search, it is suggested that you plan
your search by doing the following:
Define the parameters of your search
The researcher needs to be clear about the following issues:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Language of publication
Subject area
Business sector
Geographical area
Publication period
Literature type
Generate keywords and search terms
The identification of keywords or search terms is the most important part of literature
review planning. These keywords are the basic terms that describe the research
questions and research objectives. The following is a very useful checklist:
•
Is the spelling correct?
•
Are you using the right terminology?
•
Are you using the correct acronym?
•
Are you using the correct language?
Guidelines for writing the literature review
Step 1: Review Harvard writing guidelines
Read about the Harvard referencing style so that you become familiar with the common
core elements of how to write: in particular, pay attention to general document
17
guidelines (e.g. font, margins, spacing), title page, abstract, body, text citations,
quotations.
Step 2: Decide on a topic
It will help you considerably if your topic for your literature review is the one on which
you intend to do your final project, or is in some way related to the topic of your final
project.
Step 3: Identify the literature that you will review:
Familiarize yourself with online databases (see UMD library resource links below for
help with this), identifying relevant databases in your field of study. Using relevant
databases, search for literature sources using Google Scholar and also searching
using Furl (search all sources, including the Furl accounts of other Furl members).
Some tips for identifying suitable literature and narrowing your search:
➢ Start with a general descriptor from the database thesaurus or one that you know
is already a well-defined descriptor based on past work that you have done in this
field. You will need to experiment with different searches, such as limiting your
search to descriptors that appear only in the document titles, or in both the
document title and in the abstract.
➢ Redefine your topic if needed: as you search you will quickly find out if the topic
that you are reviewing is too broad. Try to narrow it to a specific area of interest
within the broad area that you have chosen (remember: this is merely an
introductory literature review for RM 700). It is a good idea, as part of your literature
search, to look for existing literature reviews that have already been written on this
topic.
➢ As part of your search, be sure to identify landmark or classic studies and theorists
as these provide you with a framework/context for your study.
Step 4: Analyse the literature
Once you have identified and located the articles for your review, you need to analyse
them and organize them before you begin writing:
•
Overview the articles: Skim the articles to get an idea of the general-purpose and
content of the article (focus your reading here on the abstract, introduction and first
few paragraphs, the conclusion of each article. Tip: You can take notes onto note
18
cards or into a word processing document instead or as well as using RefWorks,
but having your notes in RefWorks makes it easy to organize your notes later.
•
Group the articles into categories (e.g. into topics and subtopics and
chronologically within each subtopic). Once again, it's useful to enter this
information into your RefWorks record. You can record the topics in the same box
as before (User 1) or use the User 2 box for the topic(s) under which you have
chosen to place this article.
Take notes:
1. Decide on the format in which you will take notes as you read the articles (as
mentioned above, you can do this in RefWorks. You can also do this using a Word
Processor, or a concept mapping program like Inspiration (free 30 trial download),
a database program (e.g. Access or File Maker Pro), in an Excel spreadsheet, or
the "old-fashioned" way of using note cards. Be consistent in how you record notes.
2. Define key terms: look for differences in the way keys terms are defined (note these
differences).
3. Note key statistics that you may want to use in the introduction to your review.
4. Select useful quotes that you may want to include in your review. Important: If you
copy the exact words from an article, be sure to cite the page number as you will
need this should you decide to use the quote when you write your review (as direct
quotes must always be accompanied by page references). To ensure that you have
quoted accurately (and to save time in note-taking), if you are accessing the article
in a format that allows this, you can copy and paste using your computer "edit -->
copy --> paste" functions. Note: although you may collect a large number of quotes
during the note-taking phase of your review, when you write the review, use quotes
very sparingly. The rule I follow is to quote only when some key meaning would be
lost in translation if I were to paraphrase the original author's words, or if using the
original words adds special emphasis to a point that I am making.
5. Note emphases, strengths & weaknesses: Since different research studies focus
on different aspects of the issue being studied, each article that you read will have
different emphases, strengths and weaknesses. Your role as a reviewer is to
evaluate what you read so that your review is not a mere description of different
articles, but rather a critical analysis that makes sense of the collection of articles
19
that you are reviewing. Critique the research methodologies used in the studies,
and distinguish between assertions (the author's opinion) and actual research
findings (derived from empirical evidence).
6. Identify major trends or patterns: As you read a range of articles on your topic, you
should make note of trends and patterns over time as reported in the literature. This
step requires you to synthesize and make sense of what you read, since these
patterns and trends may not be spelt out in the literature, but rather become
apparent to you as you review the big picture that has emerged over time. Your
analysis can make generalizations across a majority of studies, but should also
note inconsistencies across studies and over time.
7. Identify gaps in the literature, and reflect on why these might exist (based on the
understandings that you have gained by reading literature in this field of study).
These gaps will be important for you to address as you plan and write your review.
8. Identify relationships among studies: note relationships among studies, such as
which studies were landmark ones that led to subsequent studies in the same area.
You may also note that studies fall into different categories (categories that you see
emerging or ones that are already discussed in the literature). When you write your
review, you should address these relationships and different categories and
discuss relevant studies using this as a framework.
9. Keep your review focused on your topic: make sure that the articles you find are
relevant and directly related to your topic. As you take notes, a record which specific
aspects of the article you are reading are relevant to your topic (as you read you
will come up with key descriptors that you can record in your notes that will help
you organize your findings when you come to write up your review). If you are using
an electronic form of note-taking, you might note these descriptors in a separate
field (e.g. in RefWorks, put these under User 2 or User 3; in Excel have a separate
column for each descriptor; if you use Inspiration, you might attach a separate note
for key descriptors.
10. Evaluate your references for currency and coverage: Although you can always find
more articles on your topic, you have to decide at what point you are finished with
collecting new resources so that you can focus on writing up your findings.
However, before you begin writing, you must evaluate your reference list to ensure
that it is up to date and has reported the most current work. Typically, a review will
20
cover the last five years, but should also refer to any landmark studies before this
time if they have significance in shaping the direction of the field. If you include
studies before the past five years that are not landmark studies, you should defend
why you have chosen these rather than more current ones.
Step 5: Summarize the literature in table or concept map format
•
Organize, and summarize your findings, and including one or more of the tables
that you create may be helpful in your literature review. If you do include tables as
part of your review each must be accompanied by an analysis that summarizes,
interprets and synthesizes the literature that you have charted in the table. You can
plan your table or do the entire summary chart of your literature using a concept
map such as using Inspiration
1. You can create the table using the table feature within Microsoft Word or can create
it initially in Excel and then copy and paste/import the Excel sheet into Word once
you have completed the table in Excel. The advantage of using Excel is that it
enables you to sort your findings according to a variety of factors (e.g. sort by date,
and then by author; sort by methodology and then date)
2. Examples of tables that may be relevant to your review:
Definitions of key terms and concepts.
Research methods
Summary of research results
Step 6: Synthesize the literature before writing your review
Using the notes that you have taken and summary tables, develop an outline of your
final review. Use the following key steps:
1. Consider your purpose and voice before beginning to write. In the case of this RM
700 introductory literature review, your initial purpose is to provide an overview of
the topic that is of interest to you, demonstrating your understanding of keywords
and concepts within your chosen area of focus. You are also developing skills in
reviewing and writing, to provide a foundation on which you will build in subsequent
courses in your final project. In your final project, your literature review should
demonstrate the command of your field of study and/or establishing context for a
study that you have done.
21
2. Consider how you reassemble your notes: plan how you will organize your findings
into a unique analysis of the picture that you have captured in your notes. Important:
A literature review is not a series of annotations (like an annotated bibliography).
3. Create a topic outline that traces your argument: first, explain to the reader your
line or argument (or thesis); then your narrative that follows should explain and
justify your line of argument. You may find the program Inspiration useful in
mapping out your argument (and once you have created this in a concept map
form, Inspiration enables you to convert this to a text outline merely by clicking on
the "outline" button). This can then be exported into a Microsoft Word document.
4. Reorganize your notes according to the path of your argument
5. Within each topic heading, note differences among studies.
6. Within each topic heading, look for obvious gaps or areas needing more research.
7. Plan to describe relevant theories.
8. Plan to discuss how individual studies relate to and advance theory
9. Plan to summarize periodically and, again near the end of the review
10. Plan to present conclusions and implications
11. Plan to suggest specific directions for future research near the end of the review
12. Flesh out your outline with details from your analysis
Step 7: Writing the review
1. Identify the broad problem area, but avoid global statements
2. Early in the review, indicate why the topic being reviewed is important
3. Distinguish between research finding and other sources of information
4. Indicate why certain studies are important
5. If you are commenting on the timeliness of a topic, be specific in describing the
time frame
6. If citing a classic or landmark study, identify it as such
7. If a landmark study was replicated, mention that and indicate the results of the
replication
8. Discuss other literature reviews on your topic
9. Refer the reader to other reviews on issues that you will not be discussing in details
10. Justify comments such as, "no studies were found."
11. Avoid long lists of nonspecific references
22
12. If the results of previous studies are inconsistent or widely varying, cite them
separately
13. Cite all relevant references in the review section of thesis, dissertation, or journal
article
Step 8: Developing a coherent essay
1. If your review is long, provide an overview near the beginning of the review
2. Near the beginning of a review, state explicitly what will and will not be covered
3. Specify your point of view early in the review: this serves as the thesis statement
of the review.
4. Aim for a clear and cohesive essay that integrates the key details of the literature
and communicates your point of view (a literature is not a series of annotated
articles).
5. Use subheadings, especially in long reviews
6. Use transitions to help trace your argument
7. If your topic teaches across disciplines, consider reviewing studies from each
discipline separately
8. Write a conclusion for the end of the review: Provide closure so that the path of the
argument ends with a conclusion of some kind. How you end the review, however,
will depend on your reason for writing it. If the review was written to stand alone,
as is the case of a term paper or a review article for publication, the conclusion
needs to make clear how the material in the body of the review has supported the
assertion or proposition presented in the introduction. On the other hand, a review
in a thesis, dissertation, or journal article presenting original research usually leads
to the research questions that will be addressed. Check the flow of your argument
for coherence.
3.4 SOURCES FOR LITERATURE SEARCHERS
Primary literature sources
They include published sources such as reports, government publications. They also
include unpublished manuscripts such as letters, memos that may be analysed as data
in their own right
23
Secondary literature sources
They include books and journals that are generally aimed at a wider audience and are
easier to locate than primary literature.
CD-ROM Databases
A CD-ROM contains permanent, digitally encoded information on a large scale which
may represent text, graphics, images or data. The advantage is that it can be accessed
quickly although it is expensive
3.5 EVALUATING THE RELEVANCE OF LITERATURE
The following questions are relevant in assessing the relevance of literature:
•
How recent is the information?
•
What are the methodological omissions within the work?
•
Does the item contradict or supports your argument?
•
Is the precision sufficient?
24
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Discuss the various ethical considerations in the literature review
2.
Discuss the chronological order to follow when writing a literature
review
MCQ Exercises
1. The purpose of a literature review is to:
A) Help you find out what is already known about this area.
B) Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
C) Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which the current study can be
located.
D) Find what is already known, identify gaps demonstrate awareness.
2. To read critically means:
A) Taking an opposing point of view to the ideas and opinions expressed
B) Skimming through the material because most of it is just padding
C) Evaluating what you read in terms of your research questions
D) Being negative about something before you read it
3. Why do you need to review the existing literature?
A) To make sure you have a long list of references
B) Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
C) To find out what is already known about your area of interest
D) To help in your general studying
4. A systematic literature review is:
A) One which starts in your library, then goes to on-line databases and, finally, to the internet
B) A replicable, scientific and transparent process
C) One which gives equal attention to the principal contributors to the area
D) A responsible, professional process of time-management for research
5. According to the Harvard referencing convention, which is the correct reference?
A) Bryman, A. (2008, 3e) Social Research Methods, Oxford; Oxford University Press
B) Bryman (2008, second edition), Oxford University Press
C) Bryman, Alan, Social Research Methods (2008: OUP)
D) Bryman, A. Social Research Methods (2008)
25
TOPIC 4
POPULATION AND SAMPLING TYPES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Differentiate between populations, sampling frame
and samples, and understand the theory of sampling
•
Understand the types of sampling methods
•
What are sampling error, non-sampling error, and
sample bias?
•
How should a population be defined for sampling
purposes?
4. RESEARCH DESIGNS
The research design is a set of philosophical assumptions, methods and procedures
that are utilised in an attempt to provide insights into a research problem. The research
design is defined as a blueprint that specifies the methods and procedures employed
for data collection and analysis in a study. The primary objective of the research design
is to provide an outline of the research process to facilitate the assessment of the study
in terms of its reliability and validity. The research design also directs the researcher
on the selection of suitable data collection and data analysis methods.
Theory of Sampling
The theory of sampling is as follows:
1.
Researchers want to gather information about a whole group of people (the
population).
2.
Researchers can only observe a part of the population (the sample).
3.
The findings from the sample are generalized, or extended, back to the
population.
4.
Therefore, the key question in sampling is How representative is the sample
of the target population? This question is the foundation of population
26
validity, the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized from
the sample to the target population.
The analogy of a fruit market can be used when thinking about the population, the
sample, and the sampling technique. The first step in sampling is to identify the unit
of analysis. This is described in Chapter 11, Identify the Population. Let's say that
you are conducting research related to a fruit market. What will be studied in the fruit
market? Is it a type of fruit or the fruit sellers themselves? Let's say you identify citrus
fruit as the unit of analysis, and your population is all citrus fruit within the Bauchi
Road fruit market. There are too many pieces of citrus fruit for you to study in that
market, so you must select only a sample of the citrus fruit.
A common error in sampling is that the sample and population are not identical. For
example, the sample may be too narrow. If the population is all citrus fruit within the
Bauchi Road fruit market, then the sample cannot only consist of lemons because
your sample would be missing oranges, grapefruit, and limes. Therefore, you must
find a way of selecting a representative sample of citrus fruit from your population.
To apply to an educational study, perhaps one may say that the population is all
university students, but only university students in public schools are sampled.
Another common error is to make the population too broad. Some may say that the
population is all mangoes in the Bauchi Road fruit market, but they are only
interested in green mangoes. If only green mangoes are of interest, then the
population should be green mangoes in the Bauchi Road fruit market. In educational
research, sometimes researchers are only interested in a population with a certain
characteristic, such as a student who has not chosen a career (in the case of career
counselling). Thus, the population and sample must be the same.
Preliminary Considerations in Selecting a Sample
Before selecting a sampling procedure, first, consider the following:
•
Select the unit of analysis. When selecting the sample, the sampling technique
must select cases based on this unit of analysis. In other words, if the unit of
analysis is students, then the sampling technique must focus solely on how the
27
students were selected. It would be an error to describe the selection of schools
as the sampling technique when the unit of analysis is students.
•
Determine how many units need to be sampled. This step is a tricky balancing
act. On the one hand, larger samples tend to be more representative of the target
population and provide stronger statistical power. On the other hand, larger
samples can decrease the quality of the research study, particularly for
experimental and quasi-experimental designs. In experimental designs, if many
people participate in the treatment, then the quality of treatment that each individual
receives might suffer, resulting in inaccurate conclusions. It is a truism that
overpopulation in classrooms reduces the impact of instruction; if there are too
many students in the class, then the teaching will not be as effective. Likewise, we
should equally avoid the problem of overpopulation in experiments: too many
participants in a treatment group will reduce the impact of the treatment. Therefore,
smaller treatment groups are generally preferable.
In general, descriptive designs require at least 100 participants, correlational designs
require at least 30 participants, and experimental, quasi-experimental, and causalcomparative designs require at least 15 participants per group. The size of the sample
in experiments depends on how effective the treatment is. If you have a very effective
treatment, then only a few participants are necessary. However, if the treatment is
weak, then a larger sample size is necessary to find a significant effect .
4.1 THE SAMPLING DESIGN
The empirical design process primarily defines the target population, the sample
frame, sample size, sampling methods, data collection methods and measurement
instruments of the study
4.2 SAMPLING
Sampling refers to the process of choosing a sample of elements from a total
population of elements.
Sampling process
The sampling process comprises several stages:
•
Defining the population of concern
28
•
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
•
Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
•
Determining the sample size
•
Implementing the sampling plan
•
Sampling and data collecting
•
Reviewing the sampling process
The target population of the study
The successful statistical practice is based on a focused problem definition. In
sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A
population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristics one
wishes to understand.
Since there is rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or
everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or
subset) of that population.
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is a property that can be used to identify every single element and
include any in our sample. The most straight forward type of frame is a list of elements
of the population with appropriate contact information. For example, in an opinion poll,
possible sampling frame includes:
•
Electoral register
•
Telephone directory
Not all frame explicitly lists population elements, for example, a street map can be used
as a frame for a door-to-door survey; although it does not show individual houses, we
can select streets from the map and then visit all houses on those streets. The
sampling frame must be representative of the population and this is a question outside
the scope of statistical theory demanding the judgment of experts in the particular
subject matter being studied.
29
4.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is the easiest form of probability sampling. All the researcher
needs to do is assure that all the members of the population are included in the list and
then randomly select the desired number of subjects. There are a lot of methods to do
this. It can be as mechanical as picking strips of paper with names written on it from a
hat while the researcher is blindfolded or it can be as easy as using computer software
to do the random selection for you.
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is also known as proportional random sampling. This is a
probability sampling technique wherein the subjects are initially grouped into different
classifications such as age, socioeconomic status or gender. Then, the researcher
randomly selects the final list of subjects from different strata. It is important to note
that all the strata must have no overlaps.
Researchers usually use stratified random sampling if they want to study a particular
subgroup within the population. It is also preferred over the simple random sampling
because it warrants more precise statistical outcomes.
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling can be likened to an arithmetic progression wherein the
difference between any two consecutive numbers is the same. Say for example you
are in a clinic and you have 100 patients.
1. The first thing you do is pick an integer that is less than the total number of the
population; this will be your first subject e.g. (3).
2. Select another integer which will be the number of individuals between subjects
e.g. (5).
3. Your subject will be patients 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and so on.
30
Cluster Random Sampling
Cluster random sampling is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible
because of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling
when the population in question is the entire population of Asia.
1. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our example;
it can be countries within Asia.
2. The researcher randomly selects several identified areas. All areas (countries)
within the population must be given equal chances of being selected.
3. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or he
can randomly select subjects from the identified areas.
Mixed/Multi-Stage Random Sampling
This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling
techniques enumerated above. In most of the complex researches done in the field or
the lab, it is not suited to use just a single type of probability sampling. Most of the
researches are done in different stages with each stage applying a different random
sampling technique.
4.4 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling can assume many forms the following are the different types
of non-probability sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With
convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the
researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This
technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time-consuming.
Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to
include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling
technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it
31
includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation
of the entire population.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher
ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is
considered as the basis of the quota.
For example, if the basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs
equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students,
another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the
quota are usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of
sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind.
With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for
the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are
purposively chosen as subjects.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is usually done when there is very small population size. In this
type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential
subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball
sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.
Each approach has advantages and disadvantages. The main advantages of nonprobability sampling are convenience and cost. However, with non-probability
samples, we cannot make probability statements about our sample statistics. For
example, we cannot compute a confidence interval for an estimation problem or a
region of acceptance for a hypothesis test.
32
Probability samples, in contrast, allow us to make probability statements about sample
statistics. We can estimate the extent to which a sample statistic is likely to differ from
a population parameter. The remainder of this tutorial focuses on probability sampling.
When to Use Non-Probability Sampling
•
This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists
in the population.
•
It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory
study.
•
It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost
limitless.
•
It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used
to create generalizations about the entire population.
•
It is also useful when the researcher has a limited budget, time and workforce.
•
This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again
using a randomized, probability sampling.
4.6 QUALITY OF SURVEY RESULTS
When researchers describe the quality of survey results, they may use one or more of
the following terms.
•
Accuracy. Accuracy refers to how close a sample statistic is to a population
parameter. Thus, if you know that a sample mean is 99 and the true population
mean is 100, you can make a statement about the sample accuracy. For example,
you might say the sample mean is accurate to within 1 unit.
•
Precision. Precision refers to how close estimates from different samples are to
each other. For example, the standard error is a measure of precision. When the
standard error is small, estimates from different samples will be close in value; and
vice versa. Precision is inversely related to standard error. When the standard error
is small, sample estimates are more precise; when the standard error is large,
sample estimates are less precise.
•
The margin of error.
The margin of error expresses the maximum expected
difference between the true population parameter and a sample estimate of that
33
parameter. To be meaningful, the margin of error should be qualified by a
probability statement. For example, a pollster might report that 50% of voters will
choose the Democratic candidate. To indicate the quality of the survey result, the
pollster might add that the margin of error is +5%, with a confidence level of 90%.
•
This means that if the same sampling method were applied to different samples,
the true percentage of Democratic voters would fall within the margin of error 90%
of the time. The margin of error is equal to half of the width of the confidence
interval.
4.7 SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
There are always errors in research. By sampling, the total errors can be classified into
sampling errors and non-sampling errors.
Sampling error
Sampling errors are caused by the sampling design. It includes:
•
Selection error: Incorrect selection probabilities are used.
•
Estimation error: biased parameter estimates because of the elements in these
samples.
Non-sampling error
•
Over coverage: inclusion of data from outside of the population
•
Undercover age: sampling frame does not include elements in the population
•
Measurement error: The respondent misunderstands the question
•
Processing error: Mistakes in data coding
•
Non-response
34
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT QUESTIONS
1.
What is a sample frame, and how can frame problems be
fixed?
2.
What is the difference between probability and non-probability
sampling, and when is each appropriate?
MCQ Exercises
1. A technique used when selecting clusters of different sizes is called _____.
A) cluster sampling
B) one-stage sampling
C) two-stage sampling
D) probability proportional to size or PPS
2. In which of the following sampling methods People are available such as volunteer
or can be easily recruited?
A) Simple random sampling
B) Cluster sampling
C) Systematic sampling
D) Convenience sampling
3. Setting quotas for hard-to-reach respondents is one way to minimize _____ bias.
A) interviewer
B) respondent
C) instrument
D) sampling
4. Which of the following formulae is used to determine how many people to include
in the original sampling?
A) Desired sample size/Desired sample size + 1
B) Proportion likely to respond/desired sample size
C) Proportion likely to respond/population size
D) Desired sample size/Proportion likely to respond
5. Which of the following is not true about stratified random sampling?
A) It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
B) Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population
proportions
C) Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large
enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
D) Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
options are EPSEM
35
TOPIC 5 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Understand forms of quantitative research design
•
Compare cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
•
Compare the criterion-groups design with prediction studies
5. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design determines the structure of the research project. The main forms
of research designs:
•
•
•
•
experimental research
quasi-experimental research
non-experimental research
Qualitative research
5.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
All types of experimental research involve some form of the invention. The
measurement of the dependent variable before the intervention is known as premeasurement, and after the measurement is called post-measurement. We, therefore,
need a control group that is not exposed to the experimental intervention to which we
can compare the group that was exposed to the intervention.
A control group, as its name indicates, therefore is a group that does not receive the
intervention, but serves to exercise control over nuisance variables (irrelevant
variables).
Characteristics of true experimental research
True experimental research has three distinct characteristics which are:
•
control over the independent variable
•
random assignment of units of analysis
36
•
Control over nuisance variables
5.2 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Under this research design, the researcher cannot randomly assign subjects to
different groups. These groups may therefore differ from one another in terms of
nuisance variables as well as the independent variable. There are two types of quasiexperimental research which are:
The non-equivalent control group
In this design two groups are used as an experimental and a control group. The threat
of group differences that may exist before the start of the experimental intervention is
considered by measuring both groups on the dependent variable.
The Interrupted time-series design
The design represents an improvement on the pre-measurement and postmeasurement design that reduces the effect of nuisances.
5.3 NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
In non-experimental research design, there is no planned intervention and it
encompasses the following methods:
•
Survey designs (relationships between variables)
•
correlation design
•
cross-sectional design
•
longitudinal design
37
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. When using an experimental design describe the validity issues that
must be considered in a patient’s case. Describe and provide an
example for each of the following: history, maturation, testing,
instrumentation, selection bias, experimental mortality, and diffusion of
treatments.
2. Discuss what should be considered when constructing a questionnaire.
Be sure to discuss how the questionnaire should be laid out, the
ordering of items, questionnaire instructions, and pre-testing.
MCQ Exercises
1. Factorial design is one in which ____.
A) Only one independent variable is studied to determine its effect on the dependent
variable
B) Only two independent variables are simultaneously studied to determine their
independent and interactive effects on the dependent variable
C) Two or more independent variables are simultaneously studied to determine their
independent and interactive effects on the dependent variable
D) Two dependent variables are studied to determine their interactive effects
2. A friend makes the following comment: “Persons who grew up with a much older sibling
tend to treat the older sibling as a parent figure.” She is making a:
A) Verstehen
B) Theory
C) Relativism
D) Generalization
3. A researcher is interested in the effects of a preschool program on later school
performance. Because she is concerned that socio-economic-status (SES) is a potential
extraneous variable in her study, she picks children to study who are only from low SES
homes. The control technique she used in this study was:
A) Matching
B) Random assignment
C) Holding the extraneous variable constant
D) Statistically controlling the extraneous variable
4. All of the following are common characteristics of experimental research except:
A) it relies primarily on the collection of numerical data
B) it can produce important knowledge about cause and effect
C) it uses the deductive scientific method
D) it rarely is conducted in a controlled setting or environment
5. Dr Mitchel said that social science cannot be value-neutral, and a good study requires
putting results into action to help people change society. Dr Mitchel uses which approach to
social science?
A) Positivism
B) Interpretative Social Science
C) Critical Social Science
D) None of the given choices
38
TOPIC 6
VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
•
•
•
Illustrate the control of variables
Distinguish independent variables from intervening, moderating,
nuisance and third variables
Discuss validity as it relates to various research designs
Differentiate between factors that jeopardise internal and external
validity
6. VALIDITY INTRODUCTION
Validity refers to the degree a measuring procedure accurately reflects or assesses
and captures the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure.
6.1 INTERNAL VALIDITY AND THREATS
Internal validity and threats
The term internal validity describes the degree to which changes in the dependent
variable are indeed due to the independent variable rather than other factors. Internal
validity is therefore of critical importance in the case of experimental research. The
distinguishing feature of experimental research designs stems from its objective to
promote internal validity.
The minimum requirement for internal validity regarding experimental research
designs is some basis of comparison. This may be obtained by using at least two
groups that are equal in respect of both the dependent variable and all nuisance
variables.
There are two ways in which such a basis for comparison can be created namely,
•
By randomly assigning participants to two or more groups
•
By matching participants in respect of the relevant nuisance variables and
randomly assigning the members of each matched pair to the groups.
39
Internal validity does not depend on whether or not the experimental intervention
caused the effect, but on our ability to conclude as to whether or not the experimental
intervention caused the effect. In the absence of a group that was not exposed to an
intervention, it is usually impossible to make such a conclusion with a reasonable
degree of certainty. The internal validity of conclusions reached employing the two
single-group designs may be extremely suspect because it tends to be compromised
by factors by factors beyond the researcher’s control. Factors which are beyond the
researcher’ control include:
History
The threat of history refers to events that take place concurrently with the experimental
intervention and that may also affect the dependent variable. This threat is particularly
relevant to longitudinal studies, that is, those that take place over a long period.
Spontaneous change
The likelihood that this threat to internal validity may play a role increases as the
duration of the experimental intervention lengthens.
1.
List and discuss the functions of measurement in
the research process. Discuss how measurement
functions are different from, and similar to, the
quantitative and qualitative research approaches.
2.
Discuss what is meant by measurement validity.
Provide an example of measurement validity via a
hypothetical work example. Discuss how measurement
validity is different from and similar to, the quantitative and
qualitative research approaches.
6.2 EXTERNAL VALIDITY AND THREATS
A threat to external validity is an explanation of how you might be wrong in
generalizing. Generally, generalizability is limited when the cause (i.e. the independent
variable) depends on other factors; therefore, all threats to external validity interact
with the independent variable.
40
A theory always holds for a specific population of units of analysis and a universal of
conditions. The degree of population validity depends on the representativeness of the
sample.
It is common for researchers to claim that experiments are by their nature low in
external validity. Some claim that many drawbacks can occur when following the
experimental method. By the virtue of gaining enough control over the situation to
randomly assign people to conditions and rule out the effects of extraneous variables,
the situation can become somewhat artificial and distant from real life. There are two
kinds of generalisability at issue:
1. The extent to which we can generalize from the situation constructed by an
experimenter to real-life situations (generalisability across situations), and
2. The extent to which we can generalize from the people who participated in the
experiment to people in general (generalisability across people).
Critics of experiments suggest that external validity could be improved by the use of
field settings (or, at a minimum, realistic laboratory settings) and by use of true
probability samples of respondents. However, if one's goal is to understand
generalizability across subpopulations that differ in situational or personal background
factors, these remedies do not have the efficacy in increasing external validity that is
commonly ascribed to them. If background factor X treatment interactions exist of
which the researcher is unaware (as seems likely), these research practices can mask
a substantial lack of external validity
Generalizability across situations
Research in psychology experiments attempted in universities are often criticized for
being conducted in artificial situations and that it cannot be generalized to real life. To
solve this problem, social psychologists attempt to increase the generalizability of their
results by making their studies as realistic as possible. As noted above, this is in the
hope of generalizing to some specific population. Realism per se does not help make
statements about whether the results would change if the setting were somehow more
realistic, or if study participants were placed in a different realistic setting. If only one
41
set is tested, it is not possible to make statements about generalizability across
settings. However, many authors conflate external validity and realism. There is more
than one way that an experiment can be realistic:
1. The similarity of an experimental situation to events that occur frequently in
everyday life and it is clear that many experiments are decidedly unreal.
2. In many experiments, people are placed in situations they would rarely encounter
in everyday life.
Generalisability across people
Social psychologists study how people, in general, are susceptible to social influence.
Several experiments have documented an interesting, unexpected example of social
influence, whereby the mere knowledge that others were presently reduced the
likelihood that people helped.
The only way to be certain that the results of an experiment represent the behaviour
of a particular population is to ensure that participants are randomly selected from that
population. Samples in experiments cannot be randomly selected just as they are in
surveys because it is impractical and expensive to select random samples for social
psychology experiments.
It is difficult enough to convince a random sample of people to agree to answer a few
questions over the telephone as part of a political poll, and such polls can cost
thousands of dollars to conduct. Moreover, even if one somehow was able to recruit a
truly random sample, there can be unobserved heterogeneity in the effects of the
experimental treatments. A treatment can have a positive effect on some subgroups
but a negative effect on others. The effects shown in the treatment averages may not
generalize to any subgroup.
42
Replications
The ultimate test of an experiment's external validity is replication and conducting the
study over again, generally with different subject populations or in different settings.
Researches will often use different methods, to see if they still get the same results.
When many studies of one problem are conducted, the results can vary. Several
studies might find an effect of the number of bystanders on helping behaviour, whereas
a few do not. To make sense out of this, there is a statistical technique called metaanalysis that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an
independent variable is reliable.
A meta-analysis essentially tells us the probability that the findings across the results
of many studies are attributable to chance or the independent variable. If an
independent variable is found to affect in only of 20 studies, the meta-analysis will tell
you that that one study was an exception and that, on average, the independent
variable is not influencing the dependent variable. If an independent variable is
affecting most of the studies, the meta-analysis is likely to tell us that, on average, it
does influence the dependent variable.
Population validity
Research hypotheses are concerned with postulated relationships between variables
in one or more populations. Population validity refers to the degree to which the
findings obtained for a sample may be generalized to the total population to which the
research hypothesis applies. Whereas the random selection of participants is required
for population validity, the random assignment of participants promotes internal
validity.
The use of volunteers may affect population validity of results obtained. To the extent
that volunteers differ from the remainder of the relevant population in respect of
variables related to the dependent variable, biased results may be obtained.
43
Ecological validity
The ecological validity of the obtained results refers to the degree to which they may
be generalized to all circumstances that are implied by the research hypothesis. While
population validity refers to the generalization of the results obtained to the population
to which the research hypothesis applies, ecological validity involves the
generalization to situations other than the one in which the experiment has been
carried out. Ecological validity refers to the generalization to a relevant universe of
conditions.
Factors which jeopardize internal validity
•
History: the specific events which occur between the first and second
measurement. The 2008 economic recession is a good example. Due to the budget
crisis, many schools cut back resources. A treatment implemented around that time
may be affected by a lack of supporting infrastructure.
•
Maturation: the processes within subjects which act as a function of the passage
of time. i.e. if the project lasts a few years, most participants may improve their
performance regardless of treatment.
•
Testing: the effects of taking a test on the outcomes of taking a second test. In
other words, the pre-test becomes a form of "treatment."
•
Instrumentation: the changes in the instrument, observers, or scorers which may
produce changes in outcomes.
•
Statistical regression: It is also known as regression towards the mean. This
phenomenon was first discovered by British statistician Francis Galton in the 19th
century. Contrary to popular belief, Galton found that tall parents do not necessarily
have tall children. If the parent is extremely tall, the offspring tend to closer to the
average. This pattern was re-discovered by Jewish-American psychologist Daniel
Kahneman (2011) in his study about why rebuking pilots cannot explain flight
performance. In the context of research design, the threat of regression towards
the mean is caused by the selection of subjects based on extreme scores or
characteristics. If there are forty poor students in the treatment program, they will
likely show some improvement after the treatment. However, if the students are
44
extremely poor and thus are unresponsive to any treatment, then it is called the
floor effect.
•
Selection of subjects: the biases which may result in the selection of comparison
groups. Randomization (Random assignment) of group membership is a counterattack against this threat. However, when the sample size is small, randomization
may lead to Simpson Paradox, which has been discussed in an earlier lesson.
•
Experimental mortality: the loss of subjects. For example, in a Web-based
instruction project entitled Eruditio, it started with 161 subjects and only 95 of them
completed the entire module. Those who stayed in the project all the way to end
may be more motivated to learn and thus achieved higher performance. The hidden
variable, intention to treat, might skew the result.
•
Selection-maturation interaction: the selection of comparison groups and
maturation interacting which may lead to confounding outcomes, and erroneous
interpretation that the treatment caused the effect.
•
John Henry effect: John Henry was a worker who outperformed a machine under
an experimental setting because he was aware that his performance was
compared with that of a machine.
Factors which jeopardize external validity
•
Reactive or interaction effect of testing: a pre-test might increase or decrease a
subject's sensitivity or responsiveness to the experimental variable. Indeed, the
effect of pre-test to subsequent tests has been empirically substantiated Wilson
(1999).
•
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements: it is difficult to generalize to
non-experimental settings if the effect was attributable to the experimental
arrangement of the research.
•
Multiple treatment interference: as multiple treatments are given to the same
subjects, it is difficult to control for the effects of prior treatments
•
Improving External Validity How can we improve external validity?
One way, based on the sampling model, suggests that you do a good job of drawing
a sample from a population. For instance, you should use random selection, if
possible, rather than a non-random procedure. And, once selected, you should try to
45
assure that the respondents participate in your study and that you keep your dropout
rates low.
A second approach would be to use the theory of proximal similarity more effectively.
How? Perhaps you could do a better job of describing the ways your contexts and
others differ, providing lots of data about the degree of similarity between various
groups of people, places, and even times. You might even be able to map out the
degree of proximal similarity among various contexts with a methodology like concept
mapping. Perhaps the best approach to criticisms of generalizations is simply to show
them that they're wrong and do your study in a variety of places, with different people
and at different times. That is, your external validity (ability to generalize) will be
stronger the more you replicate your study.
Describe the two different characterizations of the
relationship between internal validity and external
validity. Which do you prefer and why?
The various forms of internal and external validity are summarised as follows:
Table 2: Types of research and their correspondence to external and internal validity
Type of research
Types of validity
Experimental
Internal validity is of primary importance while population
validity is less important
Laboratory experiments
Ecological validity is low
Field experiments
Ecological validity is high
Quasi-experimental
Internal and external validity are important
Non-experimental
Population validity is extremely important while internal
validity is less important.
Qualitative
Ecological validity is much more important than other types
of validity
Source: Adapted from Bryman, A. 2018. Business Research Methods .4th Ed. South Africa: Oxford
University Press
46
REVIEW QUESTIONS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
Discuss validity threats in qualitative research
2.
Discuss the approaches that are used to enhance validity
in a qualitative study
MCQ Exercises
1. "Internal validity" refers to:
A) Whether or not there is a causal relationship between two variables
B) Whether or not the findings are relevant to the participants' everyday lives
C) The degree to which the researcher feels that this was a worthwhile project
D) How accurately the measurements represent underlying concepts
2. If a study is "reliable", this means that:
A) It was conducted by a reputable researcher who can be trusted
B) The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions
C) The findings can be generalized to other social settings
D) The methods are stated enough for the research to be replicated
3. The group that receives the experimental treatment condition is the _____.
A) Experimental group
B) Control group
C) Participant group
D) Independent group
4. What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?
A) As one variable increases, so does the other
B) As one variable increases, the other decreases
C) The correlation between the two variables is 0
D) The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0
5. If a measure is consistent over multiple occasions, it has:
A) Inter-rater reliability
B) Construct validity
C) Internal validity
D) Test-retest reliability
47
TOPIC 7
DATA COLLECTION AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Understand data collection methods in quantitative research
•
Distinguish between different measuring instruments
•
Explain why ethical issues are important in a measurement
7. DATA COLLECTION INTRODUCTION
Each data collection method and the measuring instrument has its advantages and
disadvantages. What counts in research is to collect meaningful data that has the
potential to answer the research question. There are a variety of techniques that can be
used to collect data in a quantitative research study. However, all of them are geared
towards the numerical collection.
This numerical data can be collected through:
•
observation
•
interview
•
questionnaires
•
scales
•
physiological measurement
In quantitative research, the data are collected and recorded systematically, and these
are then organised so that they can be entered into a computer database. Quantitative
approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardised
so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be
measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the
investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.
48
The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured
data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and
generalize.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the
research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments.
If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational
characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome,
variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
•
Experiments/clinical trials.
•
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients
waiting in an emergency at specified times of the day).
•
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
•
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to-face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc.).
7.1 THE NATURE OF MEASUREMENT
The levels of measurement measure variables in research based on distinguishability,
an order of rank, equal intervals between successively higher numbers and absolute
size. Data can be classified in terms of its scale of measurement. The scale of
measurement indicates the strength of the data in terms of how much statistical
analysis is possible on the data. Based on these characteristics; levels of
measurement may be distinguished. The levels of measurement are:
•
Nominal measurement
•
Ordinal measurement
49
•
Interval measurement
•
Ratio measurement
Nominal measurement
Nominal data is associated with categorical data e.g. gender, mode of transport, home
language etc.
Ordinal measurement
Ordinal data is also associated with categorical data but has an implied ranking order
between the different categories e.g. Income category (1=lower; 2=middle; 3=high) or
company size (1=micro; 2=medium; 3=large).
Interval measurement
Interval data-is is known as a semantic differential rating scale that uses bi-polar
adjectives and it takes the form of a like rating scale e.g. 1=strongly
disagree,5=strongly agree etc.
Ratio measurement
Ratio data: consists of all real numbers associated with quantitative random variables.
Examples include the age of employees, income, distance travelled etc.
7.2 VALIDITY
The validity of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed
to measure. An effect or test is valid if demonstrates or measures what it is intended
to measure. A given measuring instrument has three components namely:
•
The construct intended
•
Irrelevant constructs
•
Random measurement error
Forms of validity
Construct validity: refers to the extent to which operationalization of a construct (i.e.,
practical tests developed from a theory) do measure what the theory says they do. For
example, to what extent is a questionnaire measuring "intelligence"?
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Convergent validity refers to the degree to which a measure is correlated with other
measures that it is theoretically predicted to correlate with.
Discriminant validity tests whether concepts or measurements that are supposed to
be unrelated are, in fact, unrelated.
Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves the systematic
examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample
of the behaviour domain to be measured.
Criterion validity evidence involves the correlation between the test and a criterion
variable (or variables) taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it
compares the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to be
valid. For example, employee selection tests are often validated against measures of
job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often validated against measures of
academic performance (the criterion).
Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates
with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When
the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related
(or correlated).
Predictive validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization can predict (or
correlate with) other measures of the same construct that are measured in the future.
Again, with the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered
to applicants, all applicants are hired, their performance is reviewed at a later time,
and then their scores on the two measures are correlated.
External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study
can be held to be true for other cases, for example to different people, places or times.
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7.3 RELIABILITY
The extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of
the total population under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study
can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is
considered to be reliable. A measure is said to have high reliability if it produces
similar results under consistent conditions.
Types of reliability
Inter-rater reliability and inter-rater agreement, or concordance is the degree of
agreement among rates. It gives a score of how much homogeneity, or consensus,
there is in the ratings given by judges.
Test-retest reliability is the variation in measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the same item and under the same conditions. A less than perfect testretest reliability causes test-retest variability. Such variability can be caused by, for
example, intra- variability and intra-observer variability. A measurement may be said
to be repeatable when this variation is smaller than some agreed limit.
Test-retest reliability method: directly assesses the degree to which test scores are
consistent from one test administration to the next:
•
Administering a test to a group of individuals
•
Re-administering the same test to the same group at a later stage
•
Correlating the first set of scores with the second
Internal consistency -is typically a measure based on the correlations between
different items on the same test or the same subscale on a larger test. It measures
whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce
similar scores. Internal consistency is usually measured with Cronbach's alpha, a
statistic calculated from the pairwise correlations between items. Internal consistency
ranges between negative infinity and one.
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Parallel-forms method:
The key to this method is the development of alternate test forms that are equivalent
in terms of content, response processes and statistical characteristics. For example,
alternate forms exist for several tests of general intelligence, and these tests are
generally seen equivalent.
With the parallel test model, it is possible to develop two forms of a test that are
equivalent in the sense that a person’s true score on form A would be identical to their
true score on form B. If both forms of the test were administered to several people,
differences between scores on form A and form B may be due to errors in
measurement only.
Split-half method:
This method treats the two halves of a measure as alternate forms. It provides a simple
solution to the problem that the parallel-forms method faces: the difficulty in
developing alternate forms.
•
•
•
Administering a test to a group of individuals
Splitting the test in half
Correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the
test
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions
1.
Discuss the difference between validity and reliability
2.
Discuss the various approaches that are employed to enhance
validity in a quantitative study.
MCQ Exercises
1. Alteration in performance due to being aware that one is participating in a study is
known as ______.
A) operationalism
B) reactivity
C) temporal validity
D) mortality
2. Internal validity refers to which of the following?
A) The ability to infer that a causal relationship exists between 2 variables
B) The extent to which study results can be generalized to and across populations of
persons, settings, and times
C) The use of effective measurement instruments in the study
D) The ability to generalize the study results to individuals not included in the study
3. The use of multiple data sources to help understand a phenomenon is one
strategy that is used to promote qualitative research validity. Which of the following
terms describes this strategy?
A) Data matching
B) Pattern matching
C) Data triangulation
D) Data feedback
4. This type of validity refers to the ability to generalize the results of a study across
settings.
A) Temporal validity
B) Internal validity
C) Ecological validity
D) External validity
5. Which is not a direct threat to the internal validity of a research design?
A) History
B) Testing
C) Sampling error
D) Differential selection
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TOPIC 8
COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Explain the concept of primary data
•
Understand various methods of qualitative data collection methods
•
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of primary data
collection methods.
8. INTRODUCTION TO COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
Primary data is information that is collected to address the specific problem at hand.
The types of primary data that are important for marketing research are demographic
and socio-economic characteristics, psychological and personal characteristics,
attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge and motives. Primary data can be collected
through either quantitative research or qualitative. This topic will focus on qualitative
primary data.
8.1 QUALITATIVE PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
1. Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis
2. Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting
Qualitative research data collection methods are time-consuming. Therefore data is
usually collected from a smaller sample than would be the case for quantitative
approaches. Hence, this makes qualitative research more expensive.
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The benefits of the qualitative approach are that the information is richer and has a
deeper insight into the phenomenon under study. The main methods for collecting
qualitative data are:
1. Individual interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Observations
4. Action Research
Choosing the method for data collection is a delicate process. The volume of data
required, objectivity and reliability of required data, the cost and duration of the study
influence the selection of the research method.
The characteristics of qualitative market research are:
•
A small sample
•
The sample is not considered to be representative of larger populations
•
in-depth is delivered
•
Data collection methods are usually unstructured
•
it is reliant on the researcher’s interpretation
•
It is most useful when conducting exploratory research to define a more complex
problem.
8.2 FOCUS GROUPS
A focus group is a research technique that relies on an objective discussion leader or
moderator who introduces a topic to a group of respondents and directs the discussion
of the topic in a non-structured manner. Focus groups are used to collect data from a
small group of participants’ usually six to ten. Interviews are conducted in groups rather
than individually and take the form of an informal, open discussion, during which each
participant can comment and put questions of other participants.
The following steps are necessary when utilizing focus groups as a research
method:
•
Set research objectives
•
select and recruit group members
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•
recruit moderator and write the moderato’s outline
•
arrange venue
•
analyse findings
•
write a report and conduct a presentation
To ensure that focus groups are productive, the following guidelines should be
adhering to:
•
The group should contain between six to twelve participants. A group is ineffective
if larger than this.
•
The participants should be carefully screened to ensure that they are
knowledgeable about the topic being discussed.
•
The environment should be relaxed and conducive to encouraging free flow
discussion
•
The moderator must be well trained.
Advantages of focus groups
•
Cost and speed: Focus groups are conducted with six to 12 people at a time and
therefore are cheaper and quicker.
•
Group interaction allows information depth
•
The social context is useful in stimulating new ideas
•
allows for in-depth exploration of the phenomenon understudy
Disadvantages of focus groups
•
Non-representative sample
•
Inconclusive results
•
Effect of dominant personalities
•
Effect of the moderator
8.3 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS
In-depth interviews are relatively unstructured, extensive interviews in which the
interviewer asks many questions and probes for in-depth answers. The following
guidelines should be followed to ensure a successful interviewing process:
57
•
The interview should last between 30 minutes to two hours. The duration depends
on the nature of the topic and the level of interviewee fatigue.
•
Respondents must be properly trained to have quality information
•
The interviewee should have the necessary skills and knowledge to conduct
interviews
•
The interview must be recorded to capture all key issues
•
The environment should be conducive for interviews
The steps to be followed when planning an in-depth interview include:
•
set research objectives
•
select and recruit interviewees
•
write interview guide
•
conduct interviews
•
transcribe and edit interviews
•
analyse findings and write the report
Advantages of in-depth interviews
•
Greater detail and insight can be gained
•
the opportunity exists for probing
•
specific responses can be directly linked to the individual respondent
•
The interviewer with good rapport can get more detailed and revealing information
from the respondent
•
Compared to the focus groups, the effects of peer pressure can be eliminated.
Disadvantages of in-depth interviews
•
The method is costly to administer in terms of cost and money
•
The depth and detailed nature of the data gathered makes analysis more time
consuming
•
The use of an interviewer brings in the sense of subjectivity
•
Errors are inherent in the transcription process
•
The unstructured nature of interviews results in validity and reliability problems
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8.4 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective techniques are an indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent
to project beliefs and feelings on a third party, onto an inanimate object or in a task
situation. Projective techniques are based on the theory that to describe a vague object
requires interpretation and this interpretation can only be based on background,
attitudes and values of the individual. Projective techniques are highly specialized and
the researcher must be familiar with the application, design and analysis of the
techniques.
Projective techniques are mainly exploratory, seeking greater insight and to generate
hypotheses. They are used to explore a respondent’s feelings, attitudes and to
generate hypotheses. The most frequently used projective techniques are
association techniques, completion techniques, construction techniques and
expressive techniques.
•
Association techniques: Word association is the oldest and simplest projective
technique. The respondent is given several words, one at a time and must respond
immediately by saying the first word that comes to mind. Word association
techniques are used mainly to test potential brands, product attributes, trade
names, packaging and advertisements.
•
Completion techniques: Requires the respondent to complete an incomplete
stimulus. The most important ones used by marketers are sentence and story
completion. These techniques are mostly used to test the image of and feeling
towards a specific product. The results can also be used to identify advertising
themes and important product attributes.
•
Construction techniques: Require the respondent to produce a story, dialogue
or a description. This technique is similar to the sentence completion technique but
the initial structure provided is less completion.
•
Expressive techniques: Takes the form of role-playing. Using a picture or a
description, the respondents are sketched a situation and then required to play the
role of one of the characters, for instance, a salesperson selling a product.
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Limitations of projective techniques
•
While projective techniques may help uncover hidden feelings and attitudes of
respondents, the have the following limitations:
•
They are extremely expensive because highly trained skilled interviewers are
required
•
The sample sizes are smaller due to high cost thereby raising questions of reliability
and validity
•
The non-response rate is high due to the amount of time required to complete the
tests.
•
The interpretation of the techniques is time-consuming and complex which adds
significantly the cost of these techniques
•
The interpretation of the data is highly subjective and open to misinterpretation
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REVISION QUESTIONS
Short Questions
1.
Discuss the limitations associated with qualitative research and make
suggestions on how these limitations can be overcome to ensure that the research
conducted is valid and reliable.
2.
Assume that SABC 1 is seeking to gain a greater understanding of their
viewers and their perceptions of the new positioning strategy. Which qualitative
technique would you use to collect data and why?
MCQ Exercises
1. Alteration in performance due to being aware that one is participating in a study is
known as ______.
A) operationalism
B) reactivity
C) temporal validity
D) mortality
2. Internal validity refers to which of the following?
A) The ability to infer that a causal relationship exists between 2 variables
B) The extent to which study results can be generalized to and across populations of
persons, settings, and times
C) The use of effective measurement instruments in the study
D) The ability to generalize the study results to individuals not included in the study
3. The use of multiple data sources to help understand a phenomenon is one
strategy that is used to promote qualitative research validity. Which of the following
terms describes this strategy?
A) Data matching
B) Pattern matching
C) Data triangulation
D) Data feedback
4. This type of validity refers to the ability to generalize the results of a study across
settings.
A) Temporal validity
B) Internal validity
C) Ecological validity
D) External validity
5. Which is not a direct threat to the internal validity of a research design?
A) History
B) Testing
C) Sampling error
D) Differential selection
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TOPIC 9 COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: SURVEY METHOD
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Explain the nature of the survey method by referring to its characteristics
•
Discuss the various survey errors that the researcher may encounter when
conducting a survey
•
Describe the various types of different types of survey methods used in
conducting primary research.
9. INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY METHOD
The communication method known as surveys involves collecting data from selected
individuals through verbal or written communication. A survey is a method of primary
data collection in which information is gathered by communicating with a
representative sample. There are various types of surveys you can choose from. The
types of surveys are broadly categorized into two: according to instrumentation and
according to the period involved. The types of surveys according to instrumentation
include the questionnaire and the interview. On the other hand, the types of surveys
according to the period used to conduct the survey are comprised of cross-sectional
surveys and longitudinal surveys.
9.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURVEY METHOD
The main characteristics of the survey method are summarised as follows:
•
Survey research is based on specific, logical and formal procedure
•
Survey research selects units of the population without personal preference or
prejudice
•
The content of the survey data is primarily the respondent’s own opinion on the
specific matter being investigated.
•
Used to find out how much, how many, how often, to what extent
•
Aims to be objective and scientific in its approach
•
Quantitative research is hypothetic co-deductive in its approach to constructing
social theories
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•
Aims to assess and measure
•
Is regarded as a way to get to the truth, to understand the world well enough so
that we might predict and control it through identifying cause and effect
relationships
•
Quantitative research can be administered by the researcher
•
self-administered one to one
•
in a group
•
face to face
•
telephone
•
postal
•
email
According to Instrumentation
In survey research, the instruments that are utilized can be either a questionnaire or
an interview (either structured or unstructured).
Questionnaires.
Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the
respondents. The usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended
questions, which are followed by response options. However, some questionnaires
ask open-ended questions to explore the answers of the respondents.
Today, questionnaires are utilized in various survey methods, according to how they
are given. These methods include the self-administered, the group-administered, and
the household drop-off. Among the three, the self-administered survey method is often
used by researchers nowadays.
The self-administered questionnaires are widely known as the mail survey method.
However, since the response rates related to mail surveys had gone low,
questionnaires are now commonly administered online, as in the form of web surveys.
Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or
consumer research.
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Disadvantages: Limit the researcher’s understanding of the respondent’s answers;
requires a budget for the reproduction of survey questionnaires
Interviews
Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing.
Questionnaires do not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the
answers of the respondents, but interviews do.
Several survey methods utilize interviews. These are the personal or face-to-face
interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.
Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide a better understanding of the
answers of the respondents.
Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed
phone numbers or no telephones at all.
Cross-Sectional Surveys and Longitudinal Surveys
There are two different types of surveys the cross-sectional and longitudinal survey.
Both approaches can be used by researchers, subject to the intent and objectives of
the study.
Cross-Sectional Surveys
Collecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the crosssectional type of survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask
about a particular topic at one point in time. For instance, a researcher conducted a
cross-sectional survey asking teenagers’ views on cigarette smoking as of May 2010.
Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the relationship between two
variables, as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a crosssectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among
teenagers as of May 2010.
64
Longitudinal Surveys
When the researcher attempts to gather information over some time or from one point
to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. Longitudinal surveys aim to collect data
and examine the changes in the data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in
cohort studies, panel studies and trend studies.
SURVEY ERRORS
The two most important causes of survey errors are random sampling errors and nonsampling (systematic) errors. Together the sampling errors and non-sampling errors
form the total error of the sample survey
Sampling error
Sampling error refers to the difference between the population value and the sample
value. It is an error that results from chance variation. It is an error that arises if only a
small portion of the population is surveyed. This error can be eliminated by increasing
the sample size but cannot be eliminated unless the entire population is surveyed.
Non-sampling errors (Systematic errors)
Not all errors in a sample have a direct influence on the process of sampling. Nonsample errors are errors that will occur even if the whole population is surveyed.
Systematic errors occur during the data collection process or in the actual research
design process. In other words, they are errors caused by a constraint bias in the
design or implementation of the measurement instrument. These errors are also
known as observation or measurement errors.
Non-sampling errors can be divided into sample design errors and measurement
errors.
Sample design errors:
These errors occur when the sample has been determined incorrectly. For example,
the sampling frame may be incorrect or the initial population was incorrectly specified.
Such errors happen when subjects who are not part of the population are surveyed.
65
Measurement errors
They are errors that result from a variation between information being sought and what
is obtained by the measurement process. There are four main types of measurement
errors:
•
Response error: Respondents may be unwilling to respond accurately because
they are concerned about their privacy or they may lack information on the
phenomenon under study.
•
Non-response error: Arises when interviewees refuse to take part in the survey.
•
Interviewer error:
Occurs when the interview consciously or subconsciously
influences the respondents to answer in a particular way.
•
Administrative error: Occurs if the data is incorrectly captured, edited or coded.
The extent of non-sample errors will be limited if:
•
The population is well defined
•
The sample represents the population
•
The respondents selected are available and willing to participate
•
Respondents understand the survey questions
•
The researcher is competent
•
The research instruments are suitable and effective.
9.2 DATA COLLECTION SURVEY METHODS
The survey methods are divided into four distinctive categories: personal interviews,
telephone interviews, mail survey and Internet surveys.
Personal interviews
Personal interviews take the form of face-to-face and the interviewer asks the
respondent certain questions on a specific subject. It can take the form of door-to-door
interviewing or executive interviewing (conducted in an office environment).
Advantages of personal interviews
•
personal contact with immediate feedback
•
use of visual aids
•
opportunity to explain
66
Disadvantages of personal interviews
•
Limited geographical cover
•
depends on the commitment of the respondent
•
Time constraints
•
Intensive control essential
•
High unit cost.
Telephone Interviews
Telephone interviews are surveys conducted using the telephone. Nowadays
computers are being used in telephone surveys known as computer-aided telephone
interviewing (CATI). CATI offers the following advantages:
•
Data is captured immediately saving time and money
•
Data capturing errors are reduced
•
The researcher can refer to interim results during the interview process because
the data is captured immediately
•
Surveys can be easily monitored and controlled
Two methods that can be used to give all potential respondents an equal chance of
being selected in the sample are random digit dialling and directory-assisted sampling
design. In random digit dialling, the interviewer uses the telephone numbers in the
directory as a sampling frame. In directory-assisted sampling design, the sampling
frame is all possible working telephone numbers in the telephone exchange area and
the sample numbers are selected randomly.
Advantages of telephone interviews
•
The response rate is good
•
Technical presentation of the questionnaire can be done quickly
•
High geographical cover
•
Not limited by the level of literacy
Disadvantages of telephone interviews
•
Only people with private phones can be conducted
•
Duration of interviews limited by cost
67
•
suspicion in some respondents
MAIL SURVEYS
In a mail survey, the researcher posts a structured questionnaire to the respondent.
The respondent fills it in and returns it to the researcher. The mailing package includes
the outer envelope, the letter, the questionnaire, and the return envelope and response
incentives.
Advantages of postal surveys
•
Unit cost is relatively low
•
The freedom of the respondent is enhanced
•
Geographical cover
Disadvantages of postal surveys
•
addresses must be available beforehand
•
limited to literate people
•
impersonal
•
lack of control
WEB-BASED (INTERNET) SURVEYS
Web-based surveys take the form of computer-aided interviewer-administered surveys
or computer-aided self-administered surveys.
Computer-aided, interviewer-administered surveys refer to surveys where the
interviewer is present but uses a computer to guide and capture the respondent’s
answers. For example, computer-aided personal interviewing and computer-aided
telephone interviewing.
Advantages of web-based surveys
•
Automatic data capture and analysis
•
Interviewer bias is eliminated
•
easy and quick delivery
•
Quick and convenient response
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Disadvantages of web-based surveys
•
confidentiality concerns
•
Anonymity not guaranteed
•
junk mail factor
•
limited access to internet
•
Potential for sample errors
9.3 QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
In marketing research, questions are asked because the answers will help improve
marketing decisions. This connection between question and decisions means that a
question can be technically perfect-clearly stated, easy to understand, easy to answer
yet still be a bad question because it does not properly serve the marketing purpose
at hand.
To choose the best question form, you have to know why you asking the questions.
To help ask the right question in a marketing research project two rules should be
followed:
•
As to whether the question is consistent with how the market works. If this is not
known, ask someone who knows. For example, before writing a question to
measure awareness, ask someone to tell you how awareness relates to sales in
this particular market.
•
Specify how you will use the results to conclude the market, and ask yourself
whether those conclusions address the research objectives. If a question is
consistent with how the market works and it addresses the research objectives,
then the question being asked is probably the right one.
Rules for designing the physical questionnaire
•
Use a booklet format.
•
Identify the questionnaire.
•
Do not crowd the question.
•
Use large, clear type.
•
Number all questions and use an outline form for branching
69
•
Do not split questions across pages.
•
Put special instructions on the questionnaire.
•
Use vertical answer formats for closed questions.
•
Pre-code all closed questions.
•
Record the times when the interview begins and ends.
•
Provide a beginning and an end to the interview
Steps in designing and implementing a questionnaire
A good questionnaire should not be too lengthy. Simple English should be used and
the question shouldn’t be difficult to answer. A good questionnaire requires sensible
language, editing, assessment, and redrafting
Questionnaire Design Process
State the information required- This will depend upon the nature of the problem, the
purpose of the study and hypothesis framed. The target audience must be
concentrated on.
State the kind of interviewing technique- interviewing method can be telephone,
mails, personal interview or electronic interview. A telephonic interview can be
computer-assisted. A personal interview can be conducted at respondent’s place or
mall or shopping place. Mail interview can take the form of mail panel. The electronic
interview takes place either through electronic mails or through the internet.
Decide the matter/content of individual Questions-There are two deciding factors
for this1. Is the question significant? - Observe the contribution of each question. Does the
question contribute to the objective of the study?
2. Is there a need for several questions or a single question? - Several questions are
asked in the following cases:
✓ When there is a need for cross-checking
✓ When the answers are ambiguous
✓ When people are hesitant to give correct information.
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Overcome the respondents’ inability and unwillingness to answer- The
respondents may be unable to answer the questions because of the following
reasons•
The respondent may not be fully informed
•
The respondent may not remember
•
He may be unable to express or articulate
•
The respondent may be unwilling to answer due to-
•
There may be sensitive information which may cause embarrassment or harm the
respondent’s image.
•
The respondent may not be familiar with the genuine purpose
•
The question may appear to be irrelevant to the respondent
•
The respondent will not be willing to reveal traits like aggressiveness
If the interviewer is asked “Do you hit your wife, sister”, etc. there might be some
reservations and perhaps resistance to respond. To overcome the respondent’s
unwillingness to answer the following can be implemented:
•
Place the sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire
•
Preface the question with a statement
•
Use the third person technique (For example - Mark needed a job badly and he
used wrong means to get it - Is it right?? Different people will have different opinions
depending upon the situation)
•
Categorize the responses rather than asking a specific response figure (For
example - Group for income levels 0-25000, 25000-50000, 50000 and above)
Decide on the structure of the question- Questions can be of two types:
•
Structured questions- These specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. These can be classified into multiple-choice questions (having
various response categories), dichotomous questions (having only 2 response
categories such as “Yes” or “No”) and scales (discussed already).
•
Unstructured questions- These are also known as an open-ended question. No
alternatives are suggested and the respondents are free to answer these questions
in any way they like.
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Determine the question language/phrasing- If the questions are poorly worded,
then either the respondents will refuse to answer the question or they may give
incorrect answers. Thus, the words of the question should be carefully chosen.
Ordinary and unambiguous words should be used. Avoid implicit assumptions,
generalizations and implicit alternatives. Avoid biased questions. Define the issue in
terms of who the questionnaire is being addressed to, what information is required,
when is the information required, why the question is being asked, etc.
Properly arrange the questions- To determine the order of the question, take
decisions on aspects like opening questions (simple, interesting questions should be
used as opening questions to gain co-operation and confidence of respondents), type
of information (Basic information relates to the research issue, classification
information relates to social and demographic characteristics, and identification
information relates to personal information such as name, address, contact number of
respondents), difficult questions (complex, embarrassing, dull and sensitive questions
could be difficult), the effect on subsequent questions, logical sequence, etc.
Recognize the form and layout of the questionnaire- This is very essential for the
self-administered questionnaire. The questions should be numbered and pre-coded.
The layout should be such that it appears to be neat and orderly, and not clattered.
Reproduce the questionnaire- Paper quality should be good. The questionnaire
should appear to be professional. The required space for the answers to the question
should be sufficient. The font type and size should be appropriate. Vertical response
questions should be used, for example:
Do you use brand X of shampoo?
•
Yes
•
No
Pre-test the questionnaire- The questionnaire should be pre-tested on a small
number of respondents to identify the likely problems and to eliminate them. Every
dimension of the questionnaire should be pre-tested. The sample respondents should
be similar to the target respondents of the survey.
72
Finalize the questionnaire- Check the final draft questionnaire. Ask yourself how
much will the information obtained from each question contribute to the study. Make
sure that irrelevant questions are not asked. Obtain feedback of the respondents on
the questionnaire
Piloting the questionnaires
Even after the researcher has proceeded along the lines suggested, the draft
questionnaire is a product evolved by one or two minds only. Until it has been used in
interviews and with respondents, it is impossible to say whether it is going to achieve
the desired results. For this reason, it is necessary to pre-test the questionnaire before
it is used in a full-scale survey, to identify any mistakes that need correcting. The
purpose of pretesting the questionnaire is to determine:
•
whether the questions as they are worded will achieve the desired results
•
whether the questions have been placed in the best order
•
whether the questions are understood by all classes of respondent
•
whether additional or specifying questions are needed or whether some questions
should be eliminated
•
whether the instructions to interviewers are adequate.
Usually, a small number of respondents are selected for the pre-test. The respondents
selected for the pilot survey should be broadly representative of the type of respondent
to be interviewed in the main survey. If the questionnaire has been subjected to a
thorough pilot test, the final form of the questions and questionnaire will have evolved
into its final form. All that remains to be done is the mechanical process of laying out
and setting up the questionnaire in its final form. This will involve grouping and
sequencing questions into an appropriate order, numbering questions, and inserting
interviewer instructions
1. Where should interviewer instructions about responses
to a particular question be placed on the questionnaire?
2. Summarise the qualities of a good questionnaire
73
Ways of minimizing problems related to understanding the question:
There are ways and steps that researchers can take to minimise the challenges that
are presented by the lack of understanding questions.
•
Be specific.
•
Specify who, what, when, where and how.
•
Specify how the answer should be given.
•
Use simple language.
•
Try to use words with only one meaning.
•
Use numbers (rather than indefinite adjectives) to measure
magnitudes.
•
Ask questions one at a time.
•
Pre-test the questionnaire to see whether respondents have trouble
understanding some of the questions.
•
Pre-test the questionnaire to see what respondents have in mind when
they answer key questions.
Testing the questionnaire
Anytime a questionnaire is written, there is a chance that some of the questions will
cause problems. Questionnaire testing is needed to identify and eliminate these
problems.
Basic tests for questionnaires
The most basic test for the questionnaire is to have as many people as possible look
at the drafts of the questionnaire. Other researchers may be asked to review the
questionnaire and warn of any problems they see. These researchers could be people
in your own office, other professional colleagues, or a consultant you use as a
sounding board. The worst questionnaire problem will be uncovered by these reviews.
9.4 CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE SURVEY METHOD
The following are some possible guidelines for choosing the most appropriate survey
method for a particular research project:
•
A representative of the sample
74
•
Response rate
•
Rate of refusal
•
Financial implications
75
REVISION QUESTIONS
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the characteristics and limitations associated with the
survey method
2. Discuss the two most important causes of survey errors. Highlight
your answer with examples where appropriate.
MCQ Exercises
1. All of the following are disadvantages of telephone interviewing except one. Which
one?
A) Higher cost than mail questionnaires
B) Introduces interviewer bias
C) Under time pressures some interviewers might cheat
D) Interviewers tend to interpret
2. Another way managers can gain valuable information is through small
convenience samples by asking customers what they think or inviting a small group
out to lunch to get reactions. Here, they are using ________.
A) informal surveys
B) experiments
C) observation
D) focus groups
3. Another way managers can gain valuable information is through small
convenience samples by asking customers what they think or inviting a small group
out to lunch to get reactions. Here, they are using ________.
A) informal surveys
B) experiments
C) observation
D) focus groups
4. Back translation of questionnaires is often used with international research.
Cultural differences involving language can add to research costs in foreign markets
and can increase the ________.
A) foreign trade
B) risks of error
C) likelihood of not finding a translator
D) likelihood that a smaller sample could be used
5. Because of the scarcity of good secondary data, international researchers often
must collect their primary data. An initial problem with this collection is finding and
developing good _____.
A) representative samples
B) research firms
C) rapport with nationals
D) relations with channel member
76
Topic 10
DATA ANALYSIS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Describe the procedure for testing hypothesis.
•
Use hypothesis tests to test specific ideas concerning means and
proportions obtained from independent samples and related
samples.
•
Explore the difference between statistical significance.
10. STEPS IN PREPARING QUANTITATIVE DATA FOR ANALYSIS
The analysis of quantitative data requires a meticulous process and sequence of steps
that can filter and syntheses information that the research seeks to interpret. The
following sequence of steps proves vital to this process:
•
Physically inspect the documents.
•
Code the data in numeric form.
•
Prepare a codebook to document the codes.
•
Edit the data and correct any errors.
•
Enter the data into a computer file.
•
Clean the data file.
•
Make any desired data transformations.
•
Prepare documentation for the final data file.
10.1 DATA PREPARATION FOR COMPUTER- BASED DATA
In some marketing research studies, data are gathered directly on the computer, rather
than on paper. Computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) systems are the major
source of computer-based data. The data processing procedures used for these
studies have many similarities to the data processing procedures used for paperbased data. For example, the principles of coding are the same for all data, as are the
77
procedures for cleaning and documentation a data set. However, there are some
points of difference, as follows:
•
Definition of the data file. CATI data are entered directly into a computerized data
file. As a result, the nature of this file must be defined in advance of the study. One
should not gather the data, and then decide how the variables are to be defined.
•
The use of pre-coded categories. All telephone interviews have a preference for
questions with pre-coded categories, but this preference is particularly strong in
CATI interviews because direct data entry requires pre-coded categories.
•
The use of online editing. The answers to pre-coded questions in CATI interviews
are directed online, as they are entered. If an out-of-range answer is entered, the
interviewer receives an error message and is asked to re-enter the answer. The
computer can also be programmed to check for logic inconsistencies between
questions. If an inconsistency occurs, the interviewer is instructed to check the
current question to see if the correct answer has been entered. If the current
answer has been entered correctly, the interviewer is asked to check the earlier
question. Too many logic checks slow the interview, so they are usually limited to
important questions where mistakes are likely to occur.
•
The capture method for open-ended responses. CATI interviewers record the
answers to open questions by typing them on the keyboard rather than writing them
down. In the process, they seem to record open answers more completely, which
makes these answers easier to code.
Some CATI operations have experimented with using voice chips to capture openended responses. This technology has exciting potential because it allows managers
to hear customers in their own words.
10.2 MEASUREMENT SCALE TYPES
Marketing research data are usually coded with numerical values whether or not the
data are quantitative. Consequently, the numerical values for a variable can represent:
78
•
Definite quantities, such as the number of dollars spent on sporting goods during
the past twelve months, where a code of 1 represents R1 represents R2 and so
on.
•
Indefinite quantities, such as level of satisfaction with a purchase, where 1
represents “Not at all satisfied,” 2 represents “Slightly satisfied,” and so on.
•
Non-quantitative categories, such as gender, where 1 represents “Male” and 2
represent “Female.”
The numbers used to code these different types of variables all look the same, but they
have different mathematical properties. Variables can be classified into four scale
types according to these properties. The four scale types are ratio, interval, ordinal and
nominal.
Ratio scale variables have the properties of (1) order among scale points, (2) equal
distances among all adjacent scale points, and (3) an absolute zero.
Interval scale variables have the properties of order among scale points and equal
distances among scale points, but not the property of an absolute zero. Interval data
can be meaningfully added and subtracted. Because they can be added, they can also
be averaged.
Ordinal scale variables have only the property of the order among scale points.
Product rankings are one example of the use of ordinal data: the highest- ranked
product is better than the second-highest-ranked product, and the second-highest
ranked product is better than the third-highest-ranked product, but the distances
among products are not necessarily equal. Since ordinal data do not have equal
distances among scale points, addition and subtraction are not meaningful.
Nominal scale variables do not even have the property of order among scale points.
The numbers are simply names for the categories, hence the term “nominal.” Nominal
scale variables are also sometimes called categorical variables or qualitative
variables. Ordinal, internal and ratio scale variables are sometimes called continuous
79
variables or quantitative variables. These distinctions are important because they
determine what kinds of analyses are appropriate.
10.3 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
That is, an analysis that is used to describe the distribution of a variable, are then
discussed. These procedures include tabulations, summary measures of central
tendency (the mean, median and mode) and summary measures of dispersion (the
range, variance, standard deviation and interquartile range). Which measures apply to
which types of data are indicated, and the section ends with comments regarding the
best descriptive procedures to use in different analysis situations.
10.4 BIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS
Bivariate analysis is a statistical method that helps researches study relationships
(correlation) between data sets. Many businesses, marketing, and social science
questions and problems could be solved using bivariate data sets. Bivariate data
analysis approaches are summarised as follows:
•
Cross tabulation- Both variables are categorical in approach if a question is posed
as following “Is your interest in our product (yes-no) related to your gender (malefemale)?” The results should demonstrate the percentage who are interested in the
product and it will vary between men and women.
•
Comparison of means- One variable categorical approach. One variable
quantitative. The question could read “Is level of expenditure on our product
(continuous) related to gender (male-female)?” Does this imply that the mean
expenditure varies between men and women?
•
Correlation- Both variables quantitative approach. The question could pose as “Is
the level of expenditure on our product (continuous) related to income
(continuous)?”
•
Bivariate regression- Both variables quantitative. The question will be phrased
differently the interpretation would follow suit. It would read as follows: “What is
the linear equation that relates the level of expenditure to income?”
80
Figure 2: Bivariate Data: A scatter plot graph
Source: Adapted from Intell Spot: http://www.intellspot.com/bivariate-data-examples/. [Accessed
November 30, 2020].
The above illustrative figure highlights that the values seem to group around a straight
line i.e. it shows that there is a possible linear relationship between the age and systolic
blood pressure. Essentially the graph depicts that there is a connection. The age and
blood pressure of employees can find a correlation in the results being high or low.
This is dependent on the compelling variables that either shows a positive correlation
or negative.
The simplest form of bivariate analysis is two-way cross-tabulation (also called crossclassification), which counts the number of observations in each cross-category of two
variables. The basic descriptive result of a cross-tabulating is a frequency count for
each cell in the analysis.
As with the simplest tabulation, the results of a cross-tabulation are more meaningful
if frequencies are expressed as percentages. This can be done in two ways:
•
First, percentages can be calculated concerning the total number of observations.
•
Second, percentages for one variable can be calculated within categories of the
other.
81
Since the usual purpose of cross-tabulation is to learn whether variables are related,
category percentages are usually more useful than a total percentage. The preferred
basis for calculating category percentages depends on the nature of the relationship
between the variables. If one of the variables can be viewed as dependent on the
other, percentages for the dependent variables should be calculated within
categories of the independent variable.
10.5 INFERENTIAL ANALYSES FOR CROSS-TABULATION
The primary inferential question in bivariate cross-tab is whether the overall
relationship between the two variables significantly differs from zero. The issue is
tested through chi-square (X2), which works in the following way:
•
If two events are independent-e.g. not related to each other-the probability of their
joint occurrence can be calculated by multiplying the probabilities of their
occurrences. For example, the probability of drawing an ace of hearts from a deck
of cards, which equals 1/52, can be calculated as the probability of drawing an ace
(4/52, or 1/13) multiplied by the probability of drawing a heart (13/52, or ¼).
•
Given observed and expected frequencies for each cell in the cross-tabulation, a
chi-square statistic will be calculated
Using the Chi-square formula calculate the probability of
winning the lottery competition?
Tip: Several unit dimensional variables influence every
outcome in life
82
REVISION QUESTIONS
Short Questions
1. Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics
2. Describe the procedure for testing hypothesis
MCQ Exercises
1. A graph that uses vertical bars to represent data is called a ____.
A) Line graph
B) Bar graph
C) Scatterplot
D) Vertical graph
2. A pictogram is:
A) a photograph.
B) an illustration where each bar is replaced by a picture or series of pictures chosen
to represent the data.
C) a way of measuring the impact of data presentation techniques.
D) a line drawing.
3. A pie chart is:
A) any form of pictorial representation of data.
B) an illustration where the data are divided into proportional segments according to
the share each has of the total value of the data.
C) only used in catering management research.
D) a chart demonstrating the increasing incidence of obesity in society.
4. After the data has been collected, the researcher is left with most of these things.
Which ONE of them will give information to which the researcher was not exposed
during the group itself?
A) Stimulus materials.
B) Sound recordings.
C) Self-memos.
D) Respondent notes.
5. Analysis takes place during data collection in:
A) qualitative studies.
B) quantitative studies.
C) both qualitative and quantitative studies
D) none of the research studies
83
TOPIC 11
COMMUNICATING RESEARCH RESULTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
What information should be included in a research report?
•
How can numerical tables be presented so they are easy to
understand?
•
How can charts and graphs be presented effectively?
•
How can multivariate results be communicated?
•
How can effective oral presentations be made?
11. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATING RESEARCH RESULTS
The research process culminates with the research report. This report will include all
of your information, including an accurate description of your research process, the
results, conclusions, and recommended courses of action. The report should provide
all the information the decision-maker needs to understand the project. It should also
be written in language that is easy to understand.
11.1 THE CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Executive summary
4. Brief description of research methods
5. Detailed results
6. Supporting exhibits (Numerical tables, if any, Graphic displays, if any etc.
7. Appendices (detailed description of methods, if desired, data collection
instruments, raw data and/ miscellaneous analyses etc.)
84
Table of contents
The table of contents gives the title and page locations of the major section in the
report. Additional mention may be made of important subsections, although a table of
contents with too much detail is self-defeating because it takes too much time to use.
Title Page
The title page gives the title of the report and indicates the source of information. In
some cases, this will be the names of the individual authors; in other cases, the name
of the vendor or the research department.
Executive Summary
This is the only part of the research report that is certain to be read. The executive
summary starts with a brief statement of the problem, the study addresses, followed
by the findings and the recommendations. Usually, there is no discussion of research
methods in the executive summary except possibly an indication of when the study
was done, who did the study and what the sample size was.
Description of Research Methods
After the executive summary, the report should begin with a brief description of the
research methods. This description should not take more than one page of the text. Its
purpose is not to provide full details on the methods employed but simply to give
readers some background to help them interpret the results.
Detailed Results
The largest part of the research report will be a detailed discussion of findings. This
part of the report may range from a few pages to several hundred pages, depending
on the complexity of the study. The detailed findings are most easily communicated if
split into topic sections, each of which concentrates on the main theme. Topic sections
can be ordered according to either of two principles one possibly is to order them by
importance, with the most important sections first. Another is to order sections
according to some logical progression.
85
Appendices
Appendices to the research report include copies of all measurement instruments,
along with copies of material such as interviewer instructions and coding and
processing specifications. Appendices may also include data tabulations or other
results that are not crucial to the report but may be of interest to some readers.
86
REVISION QUESTIONS
Short Questions
1. How can multivariate results be communicated?
2. How can effective oral presentations be made?
MCQ Exercises
1. All of these situations are likely to influence eye contact. Which one would you try
to ask the meeting organiser to change to give you better eye contact?
A) Room layout.
B) Temperature.
C) Reason for the meeting.
D) Acoustics.
2. The method section for ___________ includes detailed information on the
sampling frame; sample size; variables selected for measurement; questionnaire,
sampling procedure; response rates.
A) a qualitative study
B) a desk research study
C) a quantitative study
D) all of the given options
3. The user of research information must be aware of how visual displays can be
misleading. Which ONE of these is most likely to help the user?
A) Including sample sizes.
B) Removing data.
C) Concealing data.
D) Changing scales.
4. Which is more appropriate when referring to someone with a disability?
A) A stroke victim
B) A person who has had a stroke
C) None of the given options
D) Both ‘a stroke victim’ and ‘a person who has had a stroke’ are appropriate
5. Which of the following is not true about the use of language in research reports?
A) You should choose accurate and clear words that are free from bias.
B) You should avoid labelling people whenever possible
C) You should avoid using the term “subjects” whenever possible
D) All of the above are true according to the APA Guidelines
87
TOPIC 12
ORAL PRESENTATION
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:
•
Explain the issues involved in communicating the research findings to
management.
•
Explain the general guidelines for writing the research project.
•
Illustrate how the data should be presented.
•
Discuss the general guidelines for the oral presentation.
•
Illustrate the use of visual aids.
12. THE IMPORTANCE OF AN ORAL REPORT
Presentation of one’s research work in a scientific meeting is an oral report. Scientific
meetings include conference, seminar, symposium, workshop, departmental weekly
seminar. Researchers in certain research institutions not only discuss their work but
also have discussions on very recently reported work of other scientists.
An oral report provides a bridge between the researcher and audience and offers
greater scope to the researcher for explaining the actual work performed its outcome
and significance. It also leads to a better understanding of the findings and their
implications. In an oral report, the researcher can present the results and
interpretations which are not clearly understood by him and may request the experts
in the audience to give their opinions and suggestions. Oral reporting at a conference
or a seminar requires more elaborate preparation than the written report.
88
One or two rehearsals of the report in the presence of colleagues, supervisor and
collaborators can be exercised to:
•
Complete the presentation within the allotted time
•
Improve the quality of presentation and maintain the fluency of the presentation.
12.2 WHAT IS A RESEARCH REPORT?
Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects
of the research work done. Scientific writing, a thesis or a paper, is intended to present
the purpose and outcome of a specific research investigation. It is the last but a major
part of the research study. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other
researchers and experts working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and
originality of the researcher’s work. Without a report, a research study is incomplete
and of no use. A report essentially conveys the outcome of a research work to
interested persons.
12.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT
A good report results from slow, pain taking and accurate inductive work. To attract a
reader, the reading matter of a report should be clear and interesting. It should not be
obscure and dull. The write-up should be logical, clear and concise. The basic quality
or characteristics of a good scientific report/paper and thesis are the following:
•
Good presentation
•
Good organization of various chapters/sections
•
Accuracy
•
Clarity
•
Free from contradictions and confusion.
•
What are the considerations to be kept in mind while preparing a report?
•
First, an outline of a report has to be prepared.
•
A sketch of what information to be conveyed must be made.
•
Then, one can write down various topics, subtopics to be considered and what
material to be presented in them.
•
The sentences which are to be expanded reworded and verified for its validity can
be marked.
89
The outline of the report helps us concentrate on:
•
What is to be presented
•
Logical relationships between different parts of the report
•
Smooth flow of the content
•
Continuity in the presentation.
The outline can be discussed with the guide, collaborators, colleagues and experts in
the local area. Based on their comments the structure of the report can be modified. A
three-stage preparation of a report is generally done by researchers. They are:
•
First draft – Rough draft.
•
The second draft – Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft.
•
The third draft – Writing the final draft.
12.4 ORAL PRESENTATION
In many instances, the oral presentation is as important in determining how the overall
project is received as the written report. It provides the management team with
opportunities to ask questions and to have points clarified; most importantly, it allows
managers to think aloud their interpretations of the research findings.
12.5 TIPS FOR MAKING EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Organize the presentation.
•
Tell them what you are going to tell them, then tell them, then tell them what you
told them.
•
Use an outline format and show it on your visuals.
•
Follow the same sequence as you would in a written report.
Stay on time
•
Research
•
Plan to use only two-thirds of the allotted time.
•
In your notes, record time breaks by section so you can see if you are behind
•
If you fall behind, edit material rather than rushing
90
•
Do not be too ambitious.
Relate to your listeners
•
Face the participants and try to look at them.
•
Take questions in the way that fits you best.
•
Do not worry about making jokes
Use effective visuals
•
The entire presentation, start to finish, should be supported by visuals.
•
Do not put too much onto each visual.
•
Use a separate visual for each topic.
•
Show your outline structure on the visuals.
•
Show headings, not content.
•
Use charts and graphs.
•
Keep visuals up long enough for the audience to absorb them
•
Do not play with your pointer.
•
Text and graphics must be large enough to read.
•
Fit the medium to the room.
•
Check the room’s audio-visual capacities in advance.
•
Test the audio-visual equipment in advance of the presentation.
91
REVISION QUESTIONS
Short Questions
1. Explain the issues involved in communicating the research findings
to management.
2. Explain the general guidelines for writing the research project.
MCQ Exercises
1. Editorial style specifies that ______ should be used infrequently or sparingly.
A) italics
B) abbreviations
C) headings
D) both italics and abbreviations
2. Good research reports will always:
A) provide respondent names and addresses.
B) focus on the Harvard style.
C) provide results that may be irrelevant.
D) focus on addressing the research objectives.
3. Recommendations should be based on:
A) assumptions.
B) findings.
C) hypothesis
D) words
4. The report writer should always remember that people have expectations about
what information they will find and where it will be. It is unusual for final reports to
have a section with:
A) research costs.
B) appendices.
C) method.
D) recommendation.
5. When referencing other works you have cited within the text of the report you
should
A) State the first and last name of the author
B) Use the author, date citation method
C) Use an asterisk and a footnote
D) Insert the complete citation in parenthesis
92
MINI CASE STUDY
Housebreaking is the number one crime in SA
There were about 1,3 million incidences of housebreaking affecting 5,8% of households in South Africa. The most
likely victims of housebreaking were male-headed households, households in metros, Indian/Asian households
followed by white households, very low and very high-income households, and households in Northern Cape,
Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal. Approximately 48% of affected households reported incidences to the police.
This is according to the Governance, Public Safety and Justice Survey (GPSJS) 2018/19 released by Stats SA.
Data on victims of crime was previously collected through the Victims of Crime Survey (VOCS); this survey was
redesigned into the GPSJS to make provision for new information on required on governance. Thus far, two
reports from GPSJS have been published – one on governance themes and the other on victims of crime.
In 2018/19 there were about 260 000 incidences of home robberies, affecting roughly 1% of all households in
South Africa. The most likely victims of the home robbery were households in metros, white-headed households
and households headed by young people. The most common weapons used in home robbery were guns (54%)
and knives (47%). Around 60% of households reported one or more incidences of home robbery to the police.
The number of households that reported incidences of home robbery is about 120 000.
Source: Adapted from Governance and Public Safety http://wwwstatssa.gov.za.
1.1
Based on your understanding of research methods describe the various types of different types of survey
methods used in conducting primary research.
1.2
Explain the various survey errors that the researcher may have encountered when conducting the crime
survey
1.3
Discuss how the margin of error in surveys impacts the accuracy of the data collected
93
RICHFIELD GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (PTY) LTD
HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
FACULTY OF COMMERCE & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 700
1ST SEMESTER NATIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY EXAMINATION
DURATION: 2 HOURS
2017
MARKS: 100
EXAMINER: KUDZAI LIBERTY SUKUTA
DADA MIA
DATE: 27 January
MODERATOR:
MS
F.
This paper consists of 5 questions of 9 pages including this page.
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING:
1. Ensure that you are writing the correct examination paper, and that there are no missing
pages.
2. You are obliged to enter your student details on the answer sheet. The answer sheet
provided are the property of Richfield Graduate Institute of Technology (Pty) Ltd and all
extra sheets must be handed to the invigilator before you leave the examination room.
3. If you are found copying or if there are any documents / study material in your possession,
or writing on parts of your body, tissue, pencil case, desk etc. your answer sheet will be
taken away from you and endorsed accordingly. Appropriate disciplinary measures will
be taken against you for violating the code of conduct of Richfield Graduate Institute of
Technology (Pty) Ltd Examinations Board. Therefore, if any of these materials are in your
possession you are requested to hand these over to the invigilator before the official
commencement of this paper.
4. The question paper consists of 3 sections.
4.1. Sections A and B are compulsory.
4.2. Section C comprises of 3 questions, you are required to answer any 2 questions.
SUGGESTED TIME REQUIRED TO ANSWER THIS QUESTION PAPER
NUMB
ERS
QUESTIONS
MARKS
TIME IN MINUTES
SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
1
2
Question
30
One
SECTION B: SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
Question
30
Two
35
35
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3
4
5
SECTION C: ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS
Question
20
Three
Question
20
Four
Question
20
Five
TOTAL
100
25
25
25
120
95
SECTION A: ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
QUESTION ONE
(30 MARKS)
Four (4) alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the
correct alternative for each of the questions/statements and write down the alphabet
corresponding to your choice next to the question number in the answer sheet
provided.
1.1. Which of the following is not a type of non-random sampling?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Cluster sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
1.2. Which of the following would usually require the smallest sample size because of its
efficiency?
A. One stage cluster sampling
B. Simple random sampling
C. Two stage cluster sampling
D. Quota sampling
1.3. A technique used when selecting clusters of different sizes is called _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Cluster sampling
One-stage sampling
Two-stage sampling
Probability proportional to size or PPS
1.4. The process of drawing a sample from a population is known as _________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Sampling
Census
Survey research
None of the given choices
1.5. Identify the option that best describes Analysis of covariance.
A.
B.
C.
D.
A statistical technique that can be used to help equate groups on specific variables
A statistical technique that can be used to control sequencing effects
A statistical technique that substitutes for random assignment to groups
Adjusts scores on the independent variable to control for extraneous variables
96
1.6. To determine whether noise affects the ability to solve math problems, a researcher
has one group solve math problems in a quiet room and another group solve math
problems in a noisy room. The group solving problems in the noisy room completes
15 problems in one hour and the group solving problems in the quiet room completes
22 problems in one hour. In this experiment, the independent variable is
____________ and the dependent variable is _____________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
the number of problems solves; the difficulty of the problems
the number of problems solved; the noise level in the room
the noise level in the room; the number of problems solved
the noise level in the room; the difficulty of the problems
1.7. The post-test-only design with non-equivalent groups is likely to control for which of
the following threats to internal validity_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
history
differential selection
additive and interactive effects
differential attrition
1.8. The group that receives the experimental treatment condition is the _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
experimental group
control group
participant group
independent group
1.9. Which option is not a method of data collection?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Questionnaires
Interviews
Experiments
Observations
1.10.An item that directs participants to different follow-up questions depending on their
response is called a ____________.
A.
B.
C.
D.
response set
probe
semantic differential
contingency question
97
SECTION B: COMPULSORY
MARKS)
(30
QUESTION TWO
MARKS)
(30
Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow:
The marketing director for digital channels of a leading South African bank would like to
increase market share in the bank’s new digital marketing channels in the growing youth
segment of the market, particularly the Generation Y customers that are techno-savvy
and starting to earn consistent incomes. The bank is uncertain whether it is providing this
segment with the necessary ease of access, applications, and technology to grow this
business, nor how it stands relative to the competition. The marketing director is
particularly interested in mobile banking usage, whether the bank is gaining or losing
market share over the last few years, and what the perceptions of the target market are
of the bank’s image in mobile banking. The marketing director intends to engage the
services of a market research agency to provide this information.
Based on the mini case study, answer all the questions that follow for this section. You
may make any reasonable assumptions that you believe may be useful in answering the
questions.
iv.
2.1 With reference to the mini case study above, describe and evaluate:
i. The marketing problem
ii. The research problem
iii. Possible research questions
Possible research design and two (2) data collection tools
(SECTION
C: ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS
(40 MARKS)
QUESTION THREE
MARKS)
(20
3.1 When using an experimental design analyse the validity issues that must be considered.
In particular analyse and provide an example for each of the following: history,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection bias, experimental mortality, and
diffusion of treatments.
98
QUESTION FOUR
Marks)
(20
4.1 Analyse the pros and cons of at least 4 different sampling methods. Indicate and qualify
where each method may be used.
QUESTION FIVE
Marks)
(20
5.1 Critically analyse your preparation for conducting an in person interview. Highlight the
factors you consider important including appearance and demeanor, familiarity,
question wording, recording responses, and probing.
99