3 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 3.0 Introduction This section provides studies on foundations of curriculum. The cordinal principle in foundations of curriculum is that in a democratic society such as Kenya, education should develop in an individual knowledge, attitudes, skills and powers whereby the individual would find his place in the society and be able to use the foundations to shape both himself and the society for noble ends. You will find in this, statements of the aims of education with specific objectives based on a set of beliefs of society. 3.2.1 Objectives of Foundation of Curriculum At the end of lectures on foundations of curriculum, you should be able to: • Define major terminologies used in foundations of curriculum. • Name major foundations of curriculum in development. • Discuss how foundations of curriculum influence Kenyan’s decision-making and policy on education. • Identify various ways in which foundations of curriculum are used in Kenya. • Suggest ways and means of how to develop and utilize Kenyan’s resources in curriculum development. • Identify strengths and weakness of the Kennya’s 8:4:4 system of education in line with foundations of curriculum. 3.1 Purposes of Foundations of Curriculum According to Bishop 1985, the main purposes of foundations of curriculum are to: Preserve Cultural Heritage Control Direction and Size of Education Assist in Designing Curriculum Use for Selecting Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives Use for Identify Curriculum Implementation Strategies Guide in the Development of Evaluation Instruments Used for identifying Innovation Needs Used for Cultivating Desired Attitudes, Knowledge and Skills Used in policy and Decision Making 3.2 Types of Foundations of Curriculum 3.2.1 Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum What is Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum? How does this foundation influence curriculum practice? In what way is philosophical foundation of curriculum the main curriculum source? What is the meaning of the following terms as used in philosophical foundation of curriculum: Realism, Pragmatism, Idealism, Existentialism, Axiology, Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionalism? Activity 7: How can schools promote the ideas of equality and Excellence at the same time? Philosophical foundation of curriculum refers to the nature of man in respect to his policy to select, design, and formulate objectives to develop and evaluate his objectives and evaluate his knowledge, attitudes, and skills of man in decision making for situational, society’s and learning needs. Man, also derives his methods of presentation, expression, skills to develop and formation of desirable attitudes from philosophical foundation of curriculum. Objectives of the lecture on philosophical foundation of curriculum are to: Identify major philosophies of education in ancient and modern periods Discuss how the major philosophies of education influence curriculum decision making Establish the fact that philosophical foundation of curriculum is the center of all educational activities. Activity 8: Identify areas in which the philosophical foundation of c the curriculum has contributed to Kenyans Education systems since Independence. Decisions are made on: communities, societies, and learners’ needs. Methods of presentation, skills to be developed and desirable attitudes to be formed, require correct decision making derived from the philosophy and policy of a country. Philosophy has entered into every sphere of decisionmaking about curriculum and teaching. This view caters for approaches to: Formation of education purpose Selection of knowledge Organization of knowledge, attitudes, and skills Formation of basic procedures in education and curriculum Selection of educational resources such as personnel, materials, and equipment Identification, selection and development of assessment instruments. Tyler‟s 1949 view of philosophy in relation to school purposes is based on five criteria for selecting educational purposes We shall examine four major schools of philosophy, which have guided the writing, organizing and designing of school curriculum. Some of these philosophies are known by names. We shall refer to them as reconstructionism, progressivism, essentialism, and perennialism. Reconstructionism is the most liberal of the four philosophies and prennialism as the most conservative. Most educational practitioners have used a combination of essentialism and progressivism in curriculum planning construction. Pragmatism: This philosophy is sometimes referred to as experimentalism, which is based on the change process and relativity while idealism and realism philosophies emphasize subject matter, disciplines, and content or ideas, pragmatism construes knowledge as progress in which reality is constantly changing. Learning goes on as the student engages in problem-solving. The idea of problem solving, is however transferable to a wide variety of subjects and situations, knowing is considered a transaction between the student and environment and are constantly changing. To a pragmatist nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation to a pattern. Idealism: In considering the influence of philosophies thought on curriculum, several classification schemes are possible. The cluster of ideas as organized in idealism, are those that often evolve during curriculum development. Plato is the father of idealist/ philosophy. Idealism emphasizes moral and spiritual development reality as the drier explanation of the world. Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal. The world of mind and ideas is permanent, regular and orderly, it represents a perfect order. The idealist educator prefers the order and pattern or subject matter curriculum that relates ideas and concepts to each other. Realism: Aristotle is often linked to the development of realism, which is another school of thought in philosophical foundation of curriculum. The realism views the world in terms of objects and matter. People come to know the world through their senses and reason. Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its laws. When behavior is relational, it conforms to the laws of nature and is governed by physical and social laws. Like the idealist, the realist stresses a curriculum consisting of organized, separate subject matter, content and knowledge that classifies objectives. The realist locates the most general and abstract subjects at the top of the curriculum literally and gives particular and transitory subjects a lower order of priority. They believe that the main aim of education is the disciplining of the mind, the development of the ability of reason and pursuit of truth. Therefore, curriculum should emphasize grammar, rhetoric, logic, classical and modern languages, mathematics and the great books of the truth, which is the same today as it was then and always, shall be. These thinkers add to the curriculum the study of the Bible and Theological writings. Perennialism: Perennialism can afford education, which is suitable to a small percentage of students who possess high verbal and academic aptitude. The ideal education is not directed to immediate needs, specialization but it is education calculated to develop the mind. Activity 9: Identify some of the beliefs concerning values that are held by educators who belong to the school of perenialists. Reconstructionism Reconstructionism is a philosophical school of thought that broke off from the progressive movement because of unresolved problems of democracy when they wanted to rebuild the social order. They see education as a powerful instrument for effecting planned social changes in given society. It is most likely to be favoured in times of economic, political and technological turbulence such as has been experienced recently by the newly independent countries of Africa. They believe that new education can make new and better men and women therefore the school should transmit cultural heritage. Also, the school is seen as an agent of solving political and social problems. These schools of thought can be regrouped into two big schools. (a) Progressivism, including Reconstuctionism (b) Traditionalism, including Perennialism and Essentialism However, progressivists and traditionalists disagree on many points concerning subject matter which is to be included in the curriculum, such as: Which knowledge is most worthy? Should we emphasize process or information? Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant or differentiated, practical or liberal? To a large extent one’s answers to these questions depends upon one’s system of values. Perennialism The school of perennialist teaches subjects in their customary separate forms, history as history, geography as geography etc. rather than in the combination as general/social studies. The teachers and patrons of this school are sure that some subject is too trivial to be included in the curriculum. Only subject matter that is alleged to be hard to learn is admissible. They do not believe in the feelings and emotions of body movement, memory and thinking. Activity 10 Identify some of the beliefs concerning values which are held by educators who belong to the school of reconstructinists. Essentialism Historically, essentialism and progressivism have succeeded in commanding education in the western world. But essentialism is the more powerful than the progressivism. It was only in the early 1950‟s specifically 1957 the year of sputnic that the progressivism emerged for a short time as the victor among the world philosophies of education. This did not last long. During the 1970’s up to now, essentialism has proven that it was not the looser but the leader. Activity 11 Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who belong to the school of essentialism. Progressivism/ pragmatism In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Progressivism also known as pragmatism, swept through the educational structure of America challenging the time-honored doctrines of essentialism. This movement was led by John Dewey, Willian H. Kilpatrick, John Childs, George S. Counts, who were Faculty Members at Teachers College, Columbia University. Boyd Bodode the progressivist maintained that it was time to subordinate subject matter to the learner. Borrowing from time European philosophers like Rousseau who advocated rearing a child in a relaxed environment without forcing learning, the progressivists created the child – centered school. John Dewey formulated progressive beliefs in a series of publications that included among others Democracy and Education, Experiences and Education. How we think and My pedagogic Creed progressivists captured the attention of educators when they insisted that the needs and interests of learners bring their bodies, needs and interests or learners bring their bodies, emotions and spirits to school with their minds. Progressivists view education not as a product to be learned e.g., facts, and motor skills, but as a process that continues as long as one lives. To their way of thinking a child learns best when actively absorbing presented content. If experiences in school are designed to meet the needs and interests of individual learners, it follows that no single pattern of subject matter can be appropriate to all learners. At the heart of progressivism thinking is an abiding faith in democracy. Hence the progressivists see little place of authoritarian practices in the classroom and the school. Teachers who are influenced by progressive thinking see themselves as counselors to pupils and facilitators of learning rather than expounders of the subject matter. Cooperation is fostered in the classroom rather than competition. Individual growth in relationship to one’s ability is considered more important than growth in comparison to others. Diagram 1 Ancient Education Philosophers Philosophy Area Knowledge Curriculum Content Idealism Rethinking latent or spiritual concepts Knowledge-based humanities Realism Natural laws scientific Humanistic and science-based subject Inquiry sensations abstraction Pragmatism Experience-based Problems solving subjects Scientific Preparation for change Inquiry changes in knowledge Environmental knowledge Existentialism Altitude-based Affective subject matter emotion Aesthetics value judgment Ego-centrism Subject knowledge Personal Choice Epistemology Originality Truth Nature of truth Axiology Goodness worth, interest Learner-centered subject matter Motivation Logic Reason Order Anxious Deductive and Inductive forms of inquiry Diagram 2 Modern Education Philosophers Philosophical Area Knowledge Perennialism Essentialism Curriculum Content Past and permanent studies Classical subjects Mastery of concepts and literary analysis Principles of subject matter Constant curriculum essential skills Essential skills such language matter mastery of Concepts principles of subject matter Progressivism Growth and development Student-based Living and learning process and Interdisciplinary relevant learning. Subject matter methods of instruction. Reconstruction skills and subjects for change. Emphasis on social sciences, Problem solving and focus on Education. Research methods, problems and issues. You should note that philosophy is a basis for curriculum decisions. A concern for the many unresolved problems of democracy led to a split in the progressive movement with a group calling itself, “Reconstructionists” advocating that schools become the instrument for building a new social order. It has been mentioned that the perenialist considers truth to be absolute, enduring, and found in the wisdom of the past; the essentialist regards truth as relative, changing and in many cases as yet to be discovered. Education for the pragmatist is continuing search for the truth utilizing whatever sources are needed to discover that truth. Table 3.1 Overview of Educational Philosophies Educatio nal Philosop hy Perennialis m Essentialis m Progressivi sm Philosop hical Base Idealism Realism Idealism Realism Pragmatis m Educat Knowledge ion Focus Aims Educati onal Roles Educate the rational person. Teacher helps students think rationally. Cultivat e the intell ect. Focus on past and permanent studies, mastery of facts, and Explicit timeless knowledge. teaching of traditional values. Promote the intellect ual growth Essential skills and of the academic subjects individu Mastery of concepts al. and principles of Educate subject matter the compet ent person. Promote Knowledge leads to democr growth and atic, development. Teacher is an authority in his or her subject field. Explicit teaching of traditional values. Teacher is a guide for problem- Curriculu m Focus Classical subjects Constant curriculum Essential skills (three Rs – reading, writing, and arithmetic) Essential subjects (English, sci ence, history, math) Based on students’ interests. Educatio nal Philosop hy Philosop hical Base Educat Knowledge ion Focus Aims Educati onal Roles social living. solving and scientific inquiry. Focus on active and relevant learning. Curriculu m Focus Involves the application of human problems and affairs. Interdiscipli nary subject matter; activities and projects . Improve and reconstr uct society. Reconstruct Pragmatis ivism m Educati on is for change and social reform. Skills and subjects needed to identify and solve problems of society. Teacher serves as an agent of change and reform. Helps students become aware of problems confrontin g humankin d. Emphasis on social sciences and social research methods. Examination of social, economic, and political problems. Activity 12 Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who belong to the school of progressivists. 3.3 Historical Foundation of Curriculum This topic deals with past events, which have led to present trends of education. By analyzing past periods of curriculum, it is possible to view and review the needed curriculum in terms of current and future education needs. In this topic, historical foundation is addressed with the Republic of Kenya‟s perspective. What contributions has foundation Based on to our education systems and practices? Sources of this contribution are listed as: Foreign influence, especially in communication Contradictions between foreign and traditional ideology in education Greeks classical period on Kenya’s curriculum subjects The reformation period, especially Martin Luther Age of reason, known as the scientific world Return to nature as a way of reconstruction in modern history of curriculum Kenya’s progress in curriculum during pre- and post-independence. History repeats itself, you will find interesting views, which have come from far in man’s thirst for knowledge to where you are as a student of this day. Historical foundation of curriculum raises some persisting questions in education such as: How have foreigners, Europeans, Americans and Asians, influenced Kenyan’s education in theory and practice? How has Kenya emerged between traditional and foreign curricula in her education system? What do we mean by the phrase: Under development through a curriculum concept? Which traditional forms of education have persistent in Kenya’s curriculum despite modern forms? Is there a relevant curriculum in Kenya’s Curriculum in Kenya’s system of education? If yes, what is it, if none, why not? In consideration of African Traditional curriculum, such forms of content were addressed: Rituals and culture patterns Discipline and behavior norms Leadership training and the potentials of leaders Selection and practice of desirable attitudes Doctrinal and non-doctrinal forms of religion Entertainment concept and the theory of survival skills Reliance on group force for unity and collective bargain. To bring Africa where we are, foreign influence has meandered into African society both directly and indirectly, by periods. These are: Ancient Times: which address individual naturity, by Indians; moral values, by Chinese; practical knowledge and civilization of man, by Egyptians; and livelihood as an aspect of self-reliance Classical Period: which belonged to the Greeks and passed on knowledge on: selfimprovement, education as a continuous process, emphasis on practical experience, national unity concept, introduction of mathematics and science. Liberal arts education which people like: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and Pythagoras pioneered in knowledge areas. Architecture, design, sports, music leisure and laws are also subjects of this period. Worth wisdom service and symposia also appeared. Roman Empire Period: The Romans colonized the Greeks. Greek contributions, formal school system, language for sciences being Latin, literature and humanities were introduced in education. Christianity, the recognition of wisdom, home improvement, generosity and other values of mankind were set up. Education was home, school and community–centered and self-control led by all was emphasized in this period of the Roman Empire. Christian Period: During the Roman period two religious forces emerged by Jews and Arabs. Christianity which introduced the Bible and catechism for spiritual education. Christianity also paid tribute to the teaching of Jesus Christ and emphasized: moral behavior, ethical God, teacher-based instruction, discipleship, the concept of church, doctrine ship and informal theories of education. Medical doctors and the spread of Christianity were the main contributions. Islamic Period: Arabs mainly based in Egypt introduced the Islamic religion, mathematics especially algebra, science especially chemistry and medicine. This period also brought in Arabic language, science of astronomy and business. Architecture or urban planning was introduced. Morality and behavior were emphasized. Mohamed as a counter part of Jesus Christ disappeared in Mecca. Arabs Moslem University in Cairo or Al-Ashar is evidence of the Moslem contribution in education. Martin Lurther and Ignatius of Loyola reformation introduced the idea of constitution, sacred scriptures, uniform instruction and student teaching practice. Age of Reason: popularly known as the scientific world saw the introduction of solar system by Nicholars Copernicus. Sir Francis Bacon introduced scientific methods, authority of the church, analytic methods, the four introduced the idea of physic based Sir Isaac Newton introduced the idea of physics based on gravitational theory. Amos Comenius introduced the idea of child development and natural methods of teaching or Experience-centered design. Return to nature introduced a child’s stages of development, referred to as Piagets Studies, free play with objectives, specially the cognitive stages of human development: Infancy, up to 5 years Childhood, from 5-12years Youth, from 12-15years Maturity, from 15-20 years Some outstanding scholars emerged and addressed the following areas of education: Society needs, child-centered education, order of nature, doctrine of unity and Fredrick Froebel introduced sense of perception. He also addressed the concept of cooperation, manual training and kindergarten education. Immanuel Kent introduced virtues of man to include: obedience, goodness and justice. Johan Pestalozzi introduced physical laws of nature while Montessori introduced the idea of individual instruction, special education of mentally retarded children and sensory training. John Loske, between1959 – 1952, a British educationist founded the idea of studying the role of school, society and community. He introduced the study of individual differences for instruction, democratization, occupational education, moral education and the art of teaching as a profession. The reflection of these historical events moved into Africa and thereafter to East Africa and then in Kenya. For curriculum development purposes, the lessons on historical foundation of curriculum are numerous. Pre-colonial discovers, Christopher Columbus, witnessing the reduction, which split religion into Protestant and Catholic. Events which led to castle schools’ abolition of slave trade, coming of Christian missionaries with missionary education, training in basic skills, the curriculum of 3 R’s, which include Arithmetic, writing and reading, hospitals and Christian secretariat. Diagram 3 Events in Kenya Year Event Product 1920 The Indian Question Legco Representation 1923 White paper Kenya Colonized 1924 Phelps Stoke Commission Practical Education 1925 Advisory Commission 1926 Alliance of Missionaries: African Inland Mission Church, Missionary Society and United Methodist Church Birth of Alliance School Kikuyu. 1939 World War II, the turning point Founding of Catholic Secretariat for secondary or Technical Education 1944 British Education Act Establishment of Kagumo 1948 Training Expansion Soriba Teacher’s College at Maseno 1949 Beacher Commission Establishment of District Education Boards 1955 Higher Education Founding of Royal Technical College in Nairobi. 1963 Kenya’s Independence Focus on National Education 1964/65 Ominde commission National Unity and Medium of Instruction to be English language 1965 Sessional paper No.10 African socialism 1966 Kericho Conference Integration of Education 1972 The International Labour Office Education for Employment study of Kenya’s Education Curriculum 1972 Bassey Commission 1976 Gachathi Commission Education Curriculum to be practical education for all. 1981 Mackay Commission The 8:4:4 System of Education. Education for self-reliance. 1988 Kamunge Commission Education for Beyond – a vision and a mission in curriculum 1998 Koech Commission Search for More relevant Education Many other events took place, but those listed are across section of curriculum progression in Kenya. Issues for awareness in Kenya‟s history of education are: Medium of instruction, national language, official business language, sustainable economy for survival, multipatism and change process, emphasis quality or quantity of education products, search for relevant curriculum and literacy and reading culture. In the colonial period especially for Kenya and other parts of Africa, Europeans moved in and shared Africa, scramble for Africa. You can read Nyerere’s Book “Education for Selfreliance‟, 1967”. Education development programmes were undertaken: Missionary converted Africans into Christianity World wars brought in the need for money, medicines and literacy. The British finally colonized Kenya. Missionaries served both the African and the Europeans when schools emerged especially after Phelps Stoke Commission 1924. The educational institutions followed; Alliance 1925, Kabaa and Yala 1939, Kagumo Teachers College 1944, Siriba Collge or Maseno University 1948. Education has reached university status in Kenya. Education Commission in Kenya. Education in Africa moved from colonial to independence perspectives. Missionaries, colonial governments and world wars introduced: literacy, money and medicines with religious sects. 3.4 Psychological Foundation of Curriculum Focus: This unit focuses on: Definition of terms: Behaviorism, Cognitive Development, and Gestalt Theory as learning theories. Study how the various steps of psychology are solving, teaching, and learning in learning. How to use the term “Creativity” and explain the concept of creative thinking. What constitutes humanistic learning in Kenya’s schools. Psychology has a significant impact on the curriculum. It focuses on learning and teaching theories through three major theories: Behavioral Cognitive Humanistic Behavioral psychology is the oldest theory of learning. It is illustrated by such teaching-learning trends as: Micro-Teaching Instructional Training Models Individual Learning Direct Instruction Mastery Learning Most learning theories today are cognition–oriented or intellectual. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development show stages of human development. They are: Sensori Motor, 0-2 years pre-operational, 2-7 years Concrete, 7-12 years Formal, over 12 years Humanistic approach to curriculum is the most recent learning theory. It emphasizes that curriculum should be based on society’s needs. This approach includes: Formation of Desirable Attitudes Development of Humane Feelings Self-Actualization Freedom to Learn Value Classification You should note that behaviorist component is needed for planning and developing curriculum. Cognitive component is for development of the intellect through subject content and humanist component is for instruction. Each theory of learning is incomplete by itself, the three theories should be inter-dependent. In behaviorist class, Cogne’ identified these levels of learning: Signal, presented by a stimulus Motor chains, presented by Linkages Virtual Association, presented by Translation Multi-Discrimination, presented by Different Responses Concepts, presented by Abstract Reactions Rules, presented by Chain Family Relationship Problem – Solving, presented by Use of Rules Other theories of learning and teaching include: Maslow‟s on Human Needs Rogers on Freedom to Learn Guilford on Structure of Intellect Dewey on Reflective Thinking Stenberg on Critical Thinking Brunner on Structure of Subject and Inquiry / Discovery Methods Gestalt Theory on Shape, Form and Configuration, focusing on Stimulus Vs Response. You should note the influence of psychology on curriculum resources, teaching strategies, designs and stages of human development. 3.5 Sociological Foundation of Curriculum Focus: This unit addresses the following areas: Application of the terms: Curriculum, Education, Schooling and Moral Development How do you describe the rate and direction of change in a social setting? What knowledge is most worthwhile for students of your level? Why? How do curriculum developers organize knowledge? What type of knowledge should students learn to better cope with the future? In what ways can schools and society change the focus or priorities of education in Kenya? Explain in details how you use sociological foundation of curriculum in selecting curriculum content. Social forces have always had a major influence on schools and in terms of curriculum decisions. Some of these forces originate from the society and others from the local community. Educators are faced with a choice: To accept and mirror the tendencies of times or To appraise and improve the times. The first view represents a permanent notion of education while the second view represents a reconstructionist notion, which is the way of viewing the choice in terms of traditional against futuristic way of looking at schools. Futuristic suggests that the educator can analyze and evaluate the trends taking shape in society. In doing so, they can decide on appropriate aims of curricula and can therefore prepare students for the world of tomorrow by providing them with the type of knowledge, attitudes and skills needed for making wise decisions. Curriculum workers who merely participate in curriculum decisions play a major role in accomplishing the nationally stated aims, goals and objectives in curriculum content and process. Sociological foundation of curriculum considers curriculum areas such as: Home, school and society for corporate curriculum development Individual socialization as one of man’s to human rights practice Social implication of knowledge change for change changes the changeless Aims of education as man’s right and his nature of knowledge, attitudes and skills Various reform strategies in education planning and practice Political reforms as a means of fulfilling social change and adjustment Special considerations for sociological foundation of curriculum are: Society and modal personality in that members of society have a lot in common Gender roles and differences - Special sex roles - Patrolocalism and Matrolocalism roles - Gender Parity and Sensitivity - Opportunity Criteria - Staffing Criteria - Gender Sensitivity Another special consideration in sociological foundation of curriculum is the Human Task Needs, according to Robert Havighurst, with his six periods of human development: Infancy and Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Age Late Maturity There are moral development norms attached to these human task needs. Culture Language Politics Religion Interests Standards Phenix called these needs, moral traditions for curriculum. He calls for a changing and continuing curriculum to cater for: Human Rights Sex and Family Relation Code Social Relationship Within Society Property Rights and Succession Politics and Matters of Justice and Power Change and the curriculum Society as a Change Agent Rate and Direction of Change School as a Source of Change Education for Diversity /Variety Knowledge as a Source of Change /Worth New Core-Curriculum/Knowledge and Future Learning Main features in sociological foundation of curriculum center on: Schools and Society Individual Socialization Social Implications of Knowledge Change Aims of Education Various Reform Strategies Political Reforms Education is a sharp instrument in dealing with sociological foundation of curriculum: Constructive or Destructive Ends Promotion of Human Institutions Type of Society Depends on Type of Education Transmission of Culture or Education System - values - Beliefs - Norms Dewey says that Education is the means of perpetuating and improving society through organizing of experiences of learners through environmental and cultural influences. The cultural roots of curriculum also are important for consideration in the context of curriculum. Experience shows that curriculum is interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it. Every society distinguishes between the curriculum of: Common Education Universal Elements of Culture Curriculum of Special Education. These phases of curriculum are coupled with the requirements of special groups within the society. When a society passes from a class system, the special education for the upper classes in the earlier phase tends to persist in the later phase, under the guise of common education. The three aspects of cultural roots of curriculum are: Common Education based on cultural universals Special Education related to the specialties of the culture Class Education against common Education. Which policy does the Kenya society opt for a context of curriculum? How is this done? Consideration in Social Context: Society and Modal Personality. According to Ruth Benedict, “No culture yet observed has been able to eradicate the differences on temperament of the persons who composed it. However, members of a society have much in common.” Sex Roles and Sex Differences Specialized Sex Roles Patrolocalism Matrolocalism Gender Issue Staffing Criteria Gender Sensitivity. Human Tasks Needs: Robert Havighurst identified six periods in human development: Infancy and Early childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Age Late Maturity Needs assessment to fit each period Moral Development and Sharing of Common Norms: Culture Language Politics Religion Interest Standards. Kholberg outlines six developmental types of moral judgements grouped into three moral levels or stages corresponding to Piaget’s cognitive stages of development: Pre-conventional Level: - Children who do as they are told because they fear punishment - Children who realize that certain actions bring rewards. Conventional Level - children who seek their parent‟s approval by being nice - children who begin to think in terms of rules Post-conventional - Children who view morality of contractual obligations legally - Children who view morality in terms of individual principles of conscience. Extentialist educators view morality as something beyond cognitive processes. Phenix outlines five basic moral traditions that encompass society: Human Rights Sex and Family Relations Codes Social Relationship with Society Economic matters – Property Rights and Distribution of Goods and Services Political Matters Dealing with Justice and Power. Change and the Curriculum Society as a Source of Change Rate and Direction of Change School as a Source of Change Education for Diversity/Variety Knowledge as a Source of Change/Worth New Core-Curriculum /Knowledge and Future Learning Knowledge should comprise basic tools Knowledge should facilitate how to learn Knowledge should be applicable to the real world Knowledge should improve the learners’ - Self-concept - awareness skills - Sense of personal integrity Knowledge should comprise of many forms and methods Knowledge should prepare the individuals for the world of work Knowledge prepares individuals for the world of bureaucracy Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve information Knowledge acquisition should be a lifelong process Knowledge should be taught in context with values. 3.6 Professional Foundation of Curriculum Focus: This unit focuses on: Professionals Role Models Role of Professionals Characteristics of Professionals Teaching Authority Teaching Profession and Efficiency Teacher as a Researcher Roles of a Teacher Methods of Teaching and Learning Some Selected Methods of Teaching This Unit addresses various ways in which curriculum products are marketed through role models, characterization, tripartition and sport-checks on research, teaching and publication. Professionals are skilled specialists and experts in particular areas of curriculum subjects’ content: languages, humanities, sciences, technology and mathematics. Professionals Normally: Teach, research and publish materials through workshops, symposia, seminars, conferences, projects, exchange programmes, excursions etc. Professionals also interpret curriculum through design, development, implementation, evaluation and innovation. They use curriculum documents such as the syllabi, circulars, legal acts, reports, journals, textbooks, minutes, hansards, commission reports, schemes of work and archives among others. Characteristics of Professionals Include Productive personality, critical attitude, measurable responsibility, accountability, transparency and development conscience. In all, a professional must be balanced, mature and upright person. Such a person reads widely and wisely. The person is mindful of others’ needs and maintains a guiding personality to develop others for solving and not creating problems. The Teacher as Authority in the Profession: Every time teacher steps into a classroom to teach, they are putting themselves on the “firing line” and students either shoot at them down or claim them. Students continually assess their teachers informally and the amount of confidence they have in them depends to a large extent on the perceived level of competence in the subjects they teach. Students rate very highly their teachers who “know their stuff”. Studies have shown that in some cases, teachers fail to perform efficiently because of the following reasons: Lack of adequate preparation Poor delivery techniques Pitching the lesson above or below academic level of the students Insensitivity to the expectations of the students Un-called for arrogance in the teacher’s personal qualities as a role model A failure in time-management in the teaching process Failure to adhere to professional ethics. Lack of research experience and interest. In many instances, the ultimate goal of carrying-out research is to publish in learned documents. Being published constitutes a vital criterion for promotion. Three indicators of a professional teacher by efficiency are linked to: research, publication and promotion. A Professional Teacher is a consultant Many members of the public and scholars look upon a professional teacher to: Give public lessons on academic topics Chair functions organized in the community Carry out research on relevant issues Participate in the local politics Act as role models Assist with extension work. Roles of a Teacher Whether teachers are experienced or not, there is general agreement that using the right methods to teach is important because teaching forms significant part of the noble profession, so quality learning depends on the effectiveness of the approach used. Teaching has become complex due to new variables and constraints involved in the education options. In a teaching and learning situation, the following areas receive unchallenged attention: Teaching environment Protracted teaching methods Objectives of learning Group size and anatomy of students Teachers’ like and dislikes in the teaching area. List of some commonly used Methods of Teaching follow Lecture Laboratory work Tutorial Project Case study Problem-solving in groups Simulation Excursion. It is important to note that the degree of student anatomy in learning is increasingly featuring in the selection of methods for teaching. Full text of methodologies of teaching and learning are left to the Curriculum Implementation section of this module. Activity 13 Why are professionals role models? Which characteristics do professionals portray? State some important roles of professionalism. What do you understand by the term: “teaching authority?” How is efficiency in the professionals established? Why is a teacher a researcher? State specific roles of a professional teacher. List some teaching methods and explain how they affect learning