3 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
3.0 Introduction
This section provides studies on foundations of curriculum. The cordinal principle in foundations
of curriculum is that in a democratic society such as Kenya, education should develop in an
individual knowledge, attitudes, skills and powers whereby the individual would find his place in
the society and be able to use the foundations to shape both himself and the society for noble
ends.
You will find in this, statements of the aims of education with specific objectives based
on a set of beliefs of society.
3.2.1 Objectives of Foundation of Curriculum
At the end of lectures on foundations of curriculum, you should be able to:
•
Define major terminologies used in foundations of curriculum.
•
Name major foundations of curriculum in development.
•
Discuss how foundations of curriculum influence Kenyan’s decision-making and policy
on education.
•
Identify various ways in which foundations of curriculum are used in Kenya.
•
Suggest ways and means of how to develop and utilize Kenyan’s resources in curriculum
development.
•
Identify strengths and weakness of the Kennya’s 8:4:4 system of education in line with
foundations of curriculum.
3.1 Purposes of Foundations of Curriculum
According to Bishop 1985, the main purposes of foundations of curriculum are to:  Preserve Cultural Heritage
 Control Direction and Size of Education
 Assist in Designing Curriculum
 Use for Selecting Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

Use for Identify Curriculum Implementation Strategies
 Guide in the Development of Evaluation Instruments
 Used for identifying Innovation Needs
 Used for Cultivating Desired Attitudes, Knowledge and Skills
 Used in policy and Decision Making
3.2 Types of Foundations of Curriculum
3.2.1 Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum
 What is Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum?

How does this foundation influence curriculum practice?
 In what way is philosophical foundation of curriculum the main curriculum source?
 What is the meaning of the following terms as used in philosophical foundation of
curriculum: Realism, Pragmatism, Idealism, Existentialism, Axiology, Perennialism,
Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionalism?
Activity 7: How can schools promote the ideas of equality and Excellence at the same time?
Philosophical foundation of curriculum refers to the nature of man in respect to his policy to select,
design, and formulate objectives to develop and evaluate his objectives and evaluate his knowledge,
attitudes, and skills of man in decision making for situational, society’s and learning needs.
Man, also derives his methods of presentation, expression, skills to develop and formation of
desirable attitudes from philosophical foundation of curriculum.
Objectives of the lecture on philosophical foundation of curriculum are to:
 Identify major philosophies of education in ancient and modern periods
 Discuss how the major philosophies of education influence curriculum decision making
 Establish the fact that philosophical foundation of curriculum is the center of all educational
activities.
Activity 8: Identify areas in which the philosophical foundation of c the curriculum has contributed to
Kenyans Education systems since Independence.
Decisions are made on: communities, societies, and learners’ needs. Methods of presentation, skills
to be developed and desirable attitudes to be formed, require correct decision making derived from
the philosophy and policy of a country. Philosophy has entered into every sphere of decisionmaking about curriculum and teaching. This view caters for approaches to:
 Formation of education purpose
 Selection of knowledge
 Organization of knowledge, attitudes, and skills
 Formation of basic procedures in education and curriculum
 Selection of educational resources such as personnel, materials, and equipment
 Identification, selection and development of assessment instruments.
Tyler‟s 1949 view of philosophy in relation to school purposes is based on five criteria for selecting
educational purposes
We shall examine four major schools of philosophy, which have guided the writing, organizing and
designing of school curriculum. Some of these philosophies are known by names. We shall refer to
them as reconstructionism, progressivism, essentialism, and perennialism. Reconstructionism is the
most liberal of the four philosophies and prennialism as the most conservative. Most educational
practitioners have used a combination of essentialism and progressivism in curriculum planning
construction.
Pragmatism:
This philosophy is sometimes referred to as experimentalism, which is based on the change process
and relativity while idealism and realism philosophies emphasize subject matter, disciplines, and
content or ideas, pragmatism construes knowledge as progress in which reality is constantly
changing. Learning goes on as the student engages in problem-solving. The idea of problem solving,
is however transferable to a wide variety of subjects and situations, knowing is considered a
transaction between the student and environment and are constantly changing. To a pragmatist
nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation to a pattern.
Idealism:
In considering the influence of philosophies thought on curriculum, several classification schemes
are possible. The cluster of ideas as organized in idealism, are those that often evolve during
curriculum development. Plato is the father of idealist/ philosophy. Idealism emphasizes moral and
spiritual development reality as the drier explanation of the world. Truth and values are seen as
absolute, timeless and universal. The world of mind and ideas is permanent, regular and orderly, it
represents a perfect order. The idealist educator prefers the order and pattern or subject matter
curriculum that relates ideas and concepts to each other.
Realism:
Aristotle is often linked to the development of realism, which is another school of thought in
philosophical foundation of curriculum. The realism views the world in terms of objects and matter.
People come to know the world through their senses and reason. Everything is derived from nature
and is subject to its laws. When behavior is relational, it conforms to the laws of nature and is
governed by physical and social laws.
Like the idealist, the realist stresses a curriculum consisting of organized, separate subject matter,
content and knowledge that classifies objectives. The realist locates the most general and abstract
subjects at the top of the curriculum literally and gives particular and transitory subjects a lower
order of priority.
They believe that the main aim of education is the disciplining of the mind, the development of the
ability of reason and pursuit of truth. Therefore, curriculum should emphasize grammar, rhetoric,
logic, classical and modern languages, mathematics and the great books of the truth, which is the
same today as it was then and always, shall be. These thinkers add to the curriculum the study of the
Bible and Theological writings.
Perennialism:
Perennialism can afford education, which is suitable to a small percentage of students who possess
high verbal and academic aptitude. The ideal education is not directed to immediate needs,
specialization but it is education calculated to develop the mind.
Activity 9: Identify some of the beliefs concerning values that are held by educators who belong to
the school of perenialists.
Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is a philosophical school of thought that broke off from the progressive movement
because of unresolved problems of democracy when they wanted to rebuild the social order. They
see education as a powerful instrument for effecting planned social changes in given society. It is
most likely to be favoured in times of economic, political and technological turbulence such as has
been experienced recently by the newly independent countries of Africa. They believe that new
education can make new and better men and women therefore the school should transmit cultural
heritage. Also, the school is seen as an agent of solving political and social problems.
These schools of thought can be regrouped into two big schools.
(a) Progressivism, including Reconstuctionism
(b) Traditionalism, including Perennialism and Essentialism
However, progressivists and traditionalists disagree on many points concerning subject matter which
is to be included in the curriculum, such as:
 Which knowledge is most worthy?
 Should we emphasize process or information?
 Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant or differentiated, practical or liberal?
To a large extent one’s answers to these questions depends upon one’s system of values.
Perennialism
The school of perennialist teaches subjects in their customary separate forms, history as history,
geography as geography etc. rather than in the combination as general/social studies.
The teachers and patrons of this school are sure that some subject is too trivial to be included in the
curriculum. Only subject matter that is alleged to be hard to learn is admissible. They do not believe
in the feelings and emotions of body movement, memory and thinking.
Activity 10
Identify some of the beliefs concerning values which are held by educators who belong to the
school of reconstructinists.
Essentialism
Historically, essentialism and progressivism have succeeded in commanding education in the western
world. But essentialism is the more powerful than the progressivism. It was only in the early 1950‟s
specifically 1957 the year of sputnic that the progressivism emerged for a short time as the victor
among the world philosophies of education. This did not last long. During the 1970’s up to now,
essentialism has proven that it was not the looser but the leader.
Activity 11 Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who
belong to the school of essentialism.
Progressivism/ pragmatism
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Progressivism also known as pragmatism, swept
through the educational structure of America challenging the time-honored doctrines of essentialism.
This movement was led by John Dewey, Willian H. Kilpatrick, John Childs, George S. Counts, who
were Faculty Members at Teachers College, Columbia University. Boyd Bodode the progressivist
maintained that it was time to subordinate subject matter to the learner. Borrowing from time
European philosophers like Rousseau who advocated rearing a child in a relaxed environment
without forcing learning, the progressivists created the child – centered school. John Dewey
formulated progressive beliefs in a series of publications that included among others Democracy
and Education, Experiences and Education. How we think and My pedagogic Creed
progressivists captured the attention of educators when they insisted that the needs and interests of
learners bring their bodies, needs and interests or learners bring their bodies, emotions and spirits to
school with their minds.
Progressivists view education not as a product to be learned e.g., facts, and motor skills, but as a
process that continues as long as one lives. To their way of thinking a child learns best when actively
absorbing presented content. If experiences in school are designed to meet the needs and interests of
individual learners, it follows that no single pattern of subject matter can be appropriate to all
learners.
At the heart of progressivism thinking is an abiding faith in democracy. Hence the progressivists see
little place of authoritarian practices in the classroom and the school. Teachers who are influenced by
progressive thinking see themselves as counselors to pupils and facilitators of learning rather than
expounders of the subject matter. Cooperation is fostered in the classroom rather than competition.
Individual growth in relationship to one’s ability is considered more important than growth in
comparison to others.
Diagram 1 Ancient Education Philosophers
Philosophy
Area
Knowledge
Curriculum Content
Idealism
Rethinking latent or spiritual concepts
Knowledge-based humanities
Realism
Natural laws scientific
Humanistic and science-based subject
Inquiry sensations abstraction
Pragmatism
Experience-based
Problems solving subjects
Scientific
Preparation for change
Inquiry changes in knowledge
Environmental knowledge
Existentialism
Altitude-based
Affective subject matter emotion
Aesthetics value judgment
Ego-centrism
Subject knowledge
Personal Choice
Epistemology
Originality Truth
Nature of truth
Axiology
Goodness worth, interest
Learner-centered subject matter
Motivation
Logic
Reason Order Anxious
Deductive and Inductive forms of
inquiry
Diagram 2 Modern Education Philosophers
Philosophical Area Knowledge
Perennialism
Essentialism
Curriculum Content
Past and permanent studies
Classical subjects
Mastery of concepts and
literary analysis
Principles of subject matter
Constant curriculum
essential skills
Essential skills such language
matter
mastery of Concepts
principles of subject matter
Progressivism
Growth and development
Student-based
Living and learning process and
Interdisciplinary
relevant learning.
Subject matter
methods of instruction.
Reconstruction
skills and subjects for change.
Emphasis on social sciences,
Problem solving and focus on
Education.
Research methods,
problems and issues.
You should note that philosophy is a basis for curriculum decisions.
A concern for the many unresolved problems of democracy led to a split in the progressive
movement with a group calling itself, “Reconstructionists” advocating that schools become the
instrument for building a new social order.
It has been mentioned that the perenialist considers truth to be absolute, enduring, and
found in the wisdom of the past; the essentialist regards truth as relative, changing and in
many cases as yet to be discovered. Education for the pragmatist is continuing search for
the truth utilizing whatever sources are needed to discover that truth.
Table 3.1 Overview of Educational Philosophies
Educatio
nal
Philosop
hy
Perennialis
m
Essentialis
m
Progressivi
sm
Philosop
hical
Base
Idealism
Realism
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatis
m
Educat
Knowledge
ion
Focus
Aims
Educati
onal
Roles
Educate
the
rational
person.
Teacher
helps
students
think
rationally.
Cultivat
e
the intell
ect.
Focus on past and
permanent studies,
mastery of facts, and Explicit
timeless knowledge. teaching
of
traditional
values.
Promote
the
intellect
ual
growth
Essential skills and
of the
academic subjects
individu
Mastery of concepts
al.
and principles of
Educate subject matter
the
compet
ent
person.
Promote Knowledge leads to
democr growth and
atic,
development.
Teacher
is an
authority
in his
or her
subject
field.
Explicit
teaching
of
traditional
values.
Teacher
is a guide
for
problem-
Curriculu
m Focus
Classical
subjects
Constant
curriculum
Essential
skills (three
Rs –
reading,
writing, and
arithmetic)
Essential
subjects
(English, sci
ence,
history,
math)
Based on
students’
interests.
Educatio
nal
Philosop
hy
Philosop
hical
Base
Educat
Knowledge
ion
Focus
Aims
Educati
onal
Roles
social
living.
solving
and
scientific
inquiry.
Focus on active and
relevant learning.
Curriculu
m Focus
Involves the
application
of human
problems
and affairs.
Interdiscipli
nary subject
matter;
activities
and projects
.
Improve
and
reconstr
uct
society.
Reconstruct Pragmatis
ivism
m
Educati
on is for
change
and
social
reform.
Skills and subjects
needed
to identify and solve
problems of society.
Teacher
serves as
an
agent of
change
and
reform.
Helps
students
become
aware of
problems
confrontin
g
humankin
d.
Emphasis
on social
sciences
and social
research
methods.
Examination
of social,
economic,
and political
problems.
Activity 12
Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who belong to the
school of progressivists.
3.3 Historical Foundation of Curriculum
This topic deals with past events, which have led to present trends of education. By analyzing past
periods of curriculum, it is possible to view and review the needed curriculum in terms of current and
future education needs.
In this topic, historical foundation is addressed with the Republic of Kenya‟s perspective. What
contributions has foundation Based on to our education systems and practices?
Sources of this contribution are listed as:
 Foreign influence, especially in communication
 Contradictions between foreign and traditional ideology in education
 Greeks classical period on Kenya’s curriculum subjects
 The reformation period, especially Martin Luther
 Age of reason, known as the scientific world
 Return to nature as a way of reconstruction in modern history of curriculum

Kenya’s progress in curriculum during pre- and post-independence.
History repeats itself, you will find interesting views, which have come from far in man’s thirst for
knowledge to where you are as a student of this day.
Historical foundation of curriculum raises some persisting questions in education such as:

How have foreigners, Europeans, Americans and Asians, influenced Kenyan’s education in
theory and practice?
 How has Kenya emerged between traditional and foreign curricula in her education system?
 What do we mean by the phrase: Under development through a curriculum concept?
 Which traditional forms of education have persistent in Kenya’s curriculum despite modern
forms?
 Is there a relevant curriculum in Kenya’s Curriculum in Kenya’s system of education? If yes,
what is it, if none, why not?
In consideration of African Traditional curriculum, such forms of content were addressed:

Rituals and culture patterns
 Discipline and behavior norms
 Leadership training and the potentials of leaders
 Selection and practice of desirable attitudes
 Doctrinal and non-doctrinal forms of religion
 Entertainment concept and the theory of survival skills
 Reliance on group force for unity and collective bargain.
To bring Africa where we are, foreign influence has meandered into African society both directly and
indirectly, by periods. These are:
 Ancient Times: which address individual naturity, by Indians; moral values, by Chinese;
practical knowledge and civilization of man, by Egyptians; and livelihood as an aspect of
self-reliance
 Classical Period: which belonged to the Greeks and passed on knowledge on: selfimprovement, education as a continuous process, emphasis on practical experience, national
unity concept, introduction of mathematics and science. Liberal arts education which people
like: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and Pythagoras pioneered in knowledge areas.
Architecture, design, sports, music leisure and laws are also subjects of this period. Worth
wisdom service and symposia also appeared.

Roman Empire Period: The Romans colonized the Greeks. Greek contributions, formal
school system, language for sciences being Latin, literature and humanities were introduced
in education. Christianity, the recognition of wisdom, home improvement, generosity and
other values of mankind were set up. Education was home, school and community–centered
and self-control led by all was emphasized in this period of the Roman Empire.
 Christian Period: During the Roman period two religious forces emerged by Jews and Arabs.
Christianity which introduced the Bible and catechism for spiritual education. Christianity
also paid tribute to the teaching of Jesus Christ and emphasized: moral behavior, ethical God,
teacher-based instruction, discipleship, the concept of church, doctrine ship and informal
theories of education. Medical doctors and the spread of Christianity were the main
contributions.

Islamic Period: Arabs mainly based in Egypt introduced the Islamic religion, mathematics
especially algebra, science especially chemistry and medicine. This period also brought in
Arabic language, science of astronomy and business. Architecture or urban planning was
introduced. Morality and behavior were emphasized. Mohamed as a counter part of Jesus
Christ disappeared in Mecca. Arabs Moslem University in Cairo or Al-Ashar is evidence of
the Moslem contribution in education.
 Martin Lurther and Ignatius of Loyola reformation introduced the idea of constitution, sacred
scriptures, uniform instruction and student teaching practice.

Age of Reason: popularly known as the scientific world saw the introduction of solar system
by Nicholars Copernicus. Sir Francis Bacon introduced scientific methods, authority of the
church, analytic methods, the four introduced the idea of physic based Sir Isaac Newton
introduced the idea of physics based on gravitational theory. Amos Comenius introduced the
idea of child development and natural methods of teaching or Experience-centered design.
 Return to nature introduced a child’s stages of development, referred to as Piagets Studies,
free play with objectives, specially the cognitive stages of human development:

Infancy, up to 5 years

Childhood, from 5-12years

Youth, from 12-15years

Maturity, from 15-20 years
Some outstanding scholars emerged and addressed the following areas of education:

Society needs, child-centered education, order of nature, doctrine of unity and Fredrick
Froebel introduced sense of perception. He also addressed the concept of cooperation,
manual training and kindergarten education.

Immanuel Kent introduced virtues of man to include: obedience, goodness and justice. Johan
Pestalozzi introduced physical laws of nature while Montessori introduced the idea of
individual instruction, special education of mentally retarded children and sensory training.

John Loske, between1959 – 1952, a British educationist founded the idea of studying the role
of school, society and community. He introduced the study of individual differences for
instruction, democratization, occupational education, moral education and the art of teaching
as a profession.
The reflection of these historical events moved into Africa and thereafter to East Africa and then in
Kenya. For curriculum development purposes, the lessons on historical foundation of curriculum are
numerous.
 Pre-colonial discovers, Christopher Columbus, witnessing the reduction, which split
religion into Protestant and Catholic.
 Events which led to castle schools’ abolition of slave trade, coming of Christian
missionaries with missionary education, training in basic skills, the curriculum of 3 R’s,
which include Arithmetic, writing and reading, hospitals and Christian secretariat.
Diagram 3 Events in Kenya
Year
Event
Product
1920
The Indian Question
Legco Representation
1923
White paper
Kenya Colonized
1924
Phelps Stoke Commission
Practical Education
1925
Advisory Commission
1926
Alliance of Missionaries: African Inland Mission
Church, Missionary Society and United Methodist
Church
Birth of Alliance School Kikuyu.
1939
World War II, the turning point
Founding of Catholic Secretariat for
secondary or Technical Education
1944
British Education Act
Establishment of Kagumo
1948
Training Expansion
Soriba Teacher’s College at Maseno
1949
Beacher Commission
Establishment of District Education
Boards
1955
Higher Education
Founding of Royal Technical College
in Nairobi.
1963
Kenya’s Independence
Focus on National Education
1964/65 Ominde commission
National Unity and Medium of
Instruction to be English language
1965
Sessional paper No.10
African socialism
1966
Kericho Conference
Integration of Education
1972
The International Labour Office
Education for Employment study of
Kenya’s Education Curriculum
1972
Bassey Commission
1976
Gachathi Commission
Education Curriculum to be practical
education for all.
1981
Mackay Commission
The 8:4:4 System of Education.
Education for self-reliance.
1988
Kamunge Commission
Education for Beyond – a vision and
a mission in curriculum
1998
Koech Commission
Search for More relevant Education
Many other events took place, but those listed are across section of curriculum progression in Kenya.
Issues for awareness in Kenya‟s history of education are:
 Medium of instruction, national language, official business language, sustainable economy
for survival, multipatism and change process, emphasis quality or quantity of education
products, search for relevant curriculum and literacy and reading culture.
 In the colonial period especially for Kenya and other parts of Africa, Europeans moved in
and shared Africa, scramble for Africa. You can read Nyerere’s Book “Education for Selfreliance‟, 1967”. Education development programmes were undertaken:

Missionary converted Africans into Christianity

World wars brought in the need for money, medicines and literacy.
The British finally colonized Kenya. Missionaries served both the African and the Europeans when
schools emerged especially after Phelps Stoke Commission 1924. The educational institutions
followed; Alliance 1925, Kabaa and Yala 1939, Kagumo Teachers College 1944, Siriba Collge or
Maseno University 1948. Education has reached university status in Kenya. Education Commission
in Kenya.
Education in Africa moved from colonial to independence perspectives. Missionaries, colonial
governments and world wars introduced: literacy, money and medicines with religious sects.
3.4 Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
Focus: This unit focuses on:

Definition of terms: Behaviorism, Cognitive Development, and Gestalt Theory as learning
theories.

Study how the various steps of psychology are solving, teaching, and learning in learning.

How to use the term “Creativity” and explain the concept of creative thinking.

What constitutes humanistic learning in Kenya’s schools.
Psychology has a significant impact on the curriculum. It focuses on learning and teaching theories
through three major theories:
 Behavioral
 Cognitive
 Humanistic
Behavioral psychology is the oldest theory of learning. It is illustrated by such teaching-learning
trends as:

Micro-Teaching
 Instructional Training Models
 Individual Learning
 Direct Instruction
 Mastery Learning
Most learning theories today are cognition–oriented or intellectual. Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development show stages of human development. They are:

Sensori Motor, 0-2 years
 pre-operational, 2-7 years
 Concrete, 7-12 years
 Formal, over 12 years
Humanistic approach to curriculum is the most recent learning theory. It emphasizes that curriculum
should be based on society’s needs. This approach includes:

Formation of Desirable Attitudes
 Development of Humane Feelings
 Self-Actualization
 Freedom to Learn
 Value Classification
You should note that behaviorist component is needed for planning and developing curriculum.
Cognitive component is for development of the intellect through subject content and humanist
component is for instruction. Each theory of learning is incomplete by itself, the three theories should
be inter-dependent.
In behaviorist class, Cogne’ identified these levels of learning:
 Signal, presented by a stimulus
 Motor chains, presented by Linkages
 Virtual Association, presented by Translation
 Multi-Discrimination, presented by Different Responses
 Concepts, presented by Abstract Reactions
 Rules, presented by Chain Family Relationship
 Problem – Solving, presented by Use of Rules
Other theories of learning and teaching include:
 Maslow‟s on Human Needs
 Rogers on Freedom to Learn

Guilford on Structure of Intellect
 Dewey on Reflective Thinking
 Stenberg on Critical Thinking
 Brunner on Structure of Subject and Inquiry / Discovery Methods
 Gestalt Theory on Shape, Form and Configuration, focusing on Stimulus Vs Response.
You should note the influence of psychology on curriculum resources, teaching strategies, designs
and stages of human development.
3.5 Sociological Foundation of Curriculum
Focus: This unit addresses the following areas:
 Application of the terms: Curriculum, Education, Schooling and Moral Development
 How do you describe the rate and direction of change in a social setting?
 What knowledge is most worthwhile for students of your level? Why?
 How do curriculum developers organize knowledge?
 What type of knowledge should students learn to better cope with the future?
 In what ways can schools and society change the focus or priorities of education in Kenya?
 Explain in details how you use sociological foundation of curriculum in selecting curriculum
content.
Social forces have always had a major influence on schools and in terms of curriculum decisions.
Some of these forces originate from the society and others from the local community. Educators are
faced with a choice:
 To accept and mirror the tendencies of times or
 To appraise and improve the times.
The first view represents a permanent notion of education while the second view represents a
reconstructionist notion, which is the way of viewing the choice in terms of traditional against
futuristic way of looking at schools.
Futuristic suggests that the educator can analyze and evaluate the trends taking shape in society. In
doing so, they can decide on appropriate aims of curricula and can therefore prepare students for the
world of tomorrow by providing them with the type of knowledge, attitudes and skills needed for
making wise decisions.
Curriculum workers who merely participate in curriculum decisions play a major role in
accomplishing the nationally stated aims, goals and objectives in curriculum content and process.
Sociological foundation of curriculum considers curriculum areas such as:
 Home, school and society for corporate curriculum development
 Individual socialization as one of man’s to human rights practice
 Social implication of knowledge change for change changes the changeless
 Aims of education as man’s right and his nature of knowledge, attitudes and skills
 Various reform strategies in education planning and practice
 Political reforms as a means of fulfilling social change and adjustment
Special considerations for sociological foundation of curriculum are:
 Society and modal personality in that members of society have a lot in common
 Gender roles and differences
-
Special sex roles
-
Patrolocalism and Matrolocalism roles
-
Gender Parity and Sensitivity
-
Opportunity Criteria
-
Staffing Criteria
-
Gender Sensitivity
Another special consideration in sociological foundation of curriculum is the Human
Task Needs, according to Robert Havighurst, with his six periods of human development:
 Infancy and Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Age
 Late Maturity
There are moral development norms attached to these human task needs.
 Culture
 Language
 Politics
 Religion
 Interests
 Standards
Phenix called these needs, moral traditions for curriculum. He calls for a changing and continuing
curriculum to cater for:
 Human Rights
 Sex and Family Relation Code
 Social Relationship Within Society
 Property Rights and Succession
 Politics and Matters of Justice and Power
 Change and the curriculum
 Society as a Change Agent
 Rate and Direction of Change
 School as a Source of Change
 Education for Diversity /Variety
 Knowledge as a Source of Change /Worth
 New Core-Curriculum/Knowledge and Future Learning
Main features in sociological foundation of curriculum center on:
 Schools and Society
 Individual Socialization
 Social Implications of Knowledge Change
 Aims of Education
 Various Reform Strategies
 Political Reforms
Education is a sharp instrument in dealing with sociological foundation of curriculum:
 Constructive or Destructive Ends
 Promotion of Human Institutions
 Type of Society Depends on Type of Education
 Transmission of Culture or Education System
-
values
-
Beliefs
-
Norms
Dewey says that Education is the means of perpetuating and improving society through organizing of
experiences of learners through environmental and cultural influences.
The cultural roots of curriculum also are important for consideration in the context of curriculum.
Experience shows that curriculum is interwoven with the social fabric that sustains it. Every society
distinguishes between the curriculum of:
 Common Education
 Universal Elements of Culture
 Curriculum of Special Education.
These phases of curriculum are coupled with the requirements of special groups within the society.
When a society passes from a class system, the special education for the upper classes in the earlier
phase tends to persist in the later phase, under the guise of common education. The three aspects of
cultural roots of curriculum are:
 Common Education based on cultural universals
 Special Education related to the specialties of the culture
 Class Education against common Education.
Which policy does the Kenya society opt for a context of curriculum? How is this done?
Consideration in Social Context: Society and Modal Personality. According to Ruth Benedict, “No
culture yet observed has been able to eradicate the differences on temperament of the persons who
composed it. However, members of a society have much in common.”

Sex Roles and Sex Differences
 Specialized Sex Roles
 Patrolocalism
 Matrolocalism
 Gender Issue
 Staffing Criteria
 Gender Sensitivity.

Human Tasks Needs: Robert Havighurst identified six periods in human development:
 Infancy and Early childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Age
 Late Maturity

Needs assessment to fit each period

Moral Development and Sharing of Common Norms:
 Culture

Language
 Politics
 Religion
 Interest
 Standards.

Kholberg outlines six developmental types of moral judgements grouped into three moral
levels or stages corresponding to Piaget’s cognitive stages of development:
 Pre-conventional Level:
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Children who do as they are told because they fear punishment
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Children who realize that certain actions bring rewards.
 Conventional Level
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children who seek their parent‟s approval by being nice
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children who begin to think in terms of rules
 Post-conventional
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Children who view morality of contractual obligations legally
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Children who view morality in terms of individual principles of conscience.
Extentialist educators view morality as something beyond cognitive processes.

Phenix outlines five basic moral traditions that encompass society:
 Human Rights
 Sex and Family Relations Codes
 Social Relationship with Society
 Economic matters – Property Rights and Distribution of Goods and Services
 Political Matters Dealing with Justice and Power.

Change and the Curriculum
 Society as a Source of Change
 Rate and Direction of Change
 School as a Source of Change
 Education for Diversity/Variety
 Knowledge as a Source of Change/Worth

New Core-Curriculum /Knowledge and Future Learning
 Knowledge should comprise basic tools
 Knowledge should facilitate how to learn
 Knowledge should be applicable to the real world
 Knowledge should improve the learners’
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Self-concept
-
awareness skills
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Sense of personal integrity
 Knowledge should comprise of many forms and methods
 Knowledge should prepare the individuals for the world of work
 Knowledge prepares individuals for the world of bureaucracy
 Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve information
 Knowledge acquisition should be a lifelong process
 Knowledge should be taught in context with values.
3.6 Professional Foundation of Curriculum
Focus: This unit focuses on:
 Professionals Role Models
 Role of Professionals
 Characteristics of Professionals
 Teaching Authority
 Teaching Profession and Efficiency
 Teacher as a Researcher
 Roles of a Teacher
 Methods of Teaching and Learning
 Some Selected Methods of Teaching
This Unit addresses various ways in which curriculum products are marketed through role models,
characterization, tripartition and sport-checks on research, teaching and publication. Professionals are
skilled specialists and experts in particular areas of curriculum subjects’ content: languages,
humanities, sciences, technology and mathematics.
Professionals Normally: Teach, research and publish materials through workshops, symposia,
seminars, conferences, projects, exchange programmes, excursions etc. Professionals also interpret
curriculum through design, development, implementation, evaluation and innovation.
They use curriculum documents such as the syllabi, circulars, legal acts, reports, journals, textbooks,
minutes, hansards, commission reports, schemes of work and archives among others.
 Characteristics of Professionals Include
Productive personality, critical attitude, measurable responsibility, accountability, transparency and
development conscience. In all, a professional must be balanced, mature and upright person. Such a
person reads widely and wisely. The person is mindful of others’ needs and maintains a guiding
personality to develop others for solving and not creating problems.
 The Teacher as Authority in the Profession:
Every time teacher steps into a classroom to teach, they are putting themselves on the “firing line”
and students either shoot at them down or claim them. Students continually assess their teachers
informally and the amount of confidence they have in them depends to a large extent on the
perceived level of competence in the subjects they teach. Students rate very highly their teachers who
“know their stuff”.
Studies have shown that in some cases, teachers fail to perform efficiently because of the following
reasons:
 Lack of adequate preparation
 Poor delivery techniques
 Pitching the lesson above or below academic level of the students
 Insensitivity to the expectations of the students
 Un-called for arrogance in the teacher’s personal qualities as a role model
 A failure in time-management in the teaching process
 Failure to adhere to professional ethics.
 Lack of research experience and interest.
In many instances, the ultimate goal of carrying-out research is to publish in learned documents.
Being published constitutes a vital criterion for promotion. Three indicators of a professional teacher
by efficiency are linked to: research, publication and promotion.
 A Professional Teacher is a consultant
Many members of the public and scholars look upon a professional teacher to:
 Give public lessons on academic topics
 Chair functions organized in the community
 Carry out research on relevant issues
 Participate in the local politics
 Act as role models
 Assist with extension work.
 Roles of a Teacher
Whether teachers are experienced or not, there is general agreement that using the right
methods to teach is important because teaching forms significant part of the noble
profession, so quality learning depends on the effectiveness of the approach used.
Teaching has become complex due to new variables and constraints involved in the
education options.
In a teaching and learning situation, the following areas receive unchallenged attention:
 Teaching environment
 Protracted teaching methods
 Objectives of learning
 Group size and anatomy of students
 Teachers’ like and dislikes in the teaching area.
List of some commonly used Methods of Teaching follow
 Lecture
 Laboratory work
 Tutorial
 Project
 Case study
 Problem-solving in groups
 Simulation
 Excursion.
It is important to note that the degree of student anatomy in learning is increasingly featuring in the
selection of methods for teaching. Full text of methodologies of teaching and learning are left to the
Curriculum Implementation section of this module.
Activity 13 Why are professionals role models? Which characteristics do professionals portray?
State some important roles of professionalism. What do you understand by the term: “teaching
authority?” How is efficiency in the professionals established? Why is a teacher a researcher? State
specific roles of a professional teacher. List some teaching methods and explain how they affect
learning