Cold War IMPACT OF COLD WAR ON COUNTRIES OTHER THAN US & USSR + IMPACT on Cold War Social Germany Political Economic Brain drain due to the divide: Skilled workers left East Germany as refugees to West Germany (by 1961, the flow was 1,800 per day) Became a focus of the Cold War - conflict in Germany led to separate states until East/West Germany was reunited. The Berlin Wall: social split to occur between eastern and western germans these differences caused the East Germans to view their western relatives as pampered and privileges. Families were separated. People who tried to escape were killed (140 people were killed whilst escaping East Germany: political identity stripped. Anti-Communists purged, Soviets controlled East Germany The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine: - Policy of containment, 13 billion USD to rebuild Europe, West Germany received 1.5 billion USD - American company heads/economic advisors guided Western Germany Economy. Approximately 200 vocational centers opened. - East Germany: millions of POWs used as slaves, 30% of economic resources stripped from Germany. Mineral-rich land given to Poland. Industrial output dropped 13% West Germany: guided by Americans, but, still had parties of their own (SPD, CSU, CDU) who gave German people voice Improved Living Standards in West Germany: - Between 1950 and 1965, level of car ownership in West Germany increased by 6 times. - Plentiful supply of consumer goods and generally low inflation Living Standards in East Germany: - East Germany lacked national identity and was economically stagnant - People were constantly being spied on by the Stasi and by eachother (6 million East Germans were spies) Vietnam Bombing: Health issues, agricultural setbacks as a result of “Rolling Thunder” and “Agent Orange”. This destroyed Vietnam’s natural environment and led to widespread illnesses. - Biological Warfare: “Agent Orange“, one of major herbicides used, has left a serious ecological and human impact on Vietnamese people’s lives. Today there are still many children in Vietnam growing up with various diseases and disabilities affected by the harmful chemicals carried out in the war. Massively decreased quality of life: 3 million wounded, 2 million dead. Many children still growing up with diseases and disabilities from the chemical warfare. Refugees fled Vietnam (200,000-400,000 deaths at sea). Continued danger due to unexploded bombs and mines. Infrastructure and communications destroyed. Estimated 700,000 Vietnamese with some form of PTSD More Communist support - the French (initially) prevented an election from taking place before they left Vietnam because they knew the Communists would win Political turmoil for future leaders; next generation of Communist leaders in Vietnam had a weakened military, but still had to defend themselves against Khmer Rouge in Cambodia - Industrial output dropped by 50% as 70% of industrial sites were destroyed Transportation routes damaged - trade routes (by road) no longer used. Agricultural output decreased by almost 13% TWO COLD WAR LEADERS START OF COLD WAR Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the start of the Cold War. TRUMAN (1945-53) Main foreign policies related to the Cold War When Truman came to power as president he had limited FP experience. US came to realise that in order for European recovery, Germany had to be revitalised, and needed a working economy → sought to stimulate economic recovery Containment - 1946 Truman wrote to Secretary of State 1946: Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language another war is in the making - Saw communism as a threat to access to markets, and saw communism as a political threat - Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan STALIN (1929-53) Salami tactics & creation of buffer zone - Given that it took so long for European nations to start the second front with USSR (not until 1944), and Stalin saw Britain & France;s appeasement directly targeted at him, he mistrusted west and wanted a buffer zone for protection - Communists who were loyal to Stalin took leading positions in national parties, then joined coalitions with left wing parties so that they soon dominated provisional govt. By controlling judicial & repressive systems of state communists able to rig elections< Political opponents disappeared or harassed. - Between 1947-8, 6 states turned communist - Political system controlled, as well as economy, culture, land and media Stalin feared a German recovery → wanted to crush Germany Cold War Events 1945 - Potsdam Conference July 1945 - - 1946 1947 - - 1948 - Conference considered a failure in some regards, as there was heated debate over Stalin’s policies → some argued that this was Truman’s fault During conference Truman informed that A-bomb would work, but decided not to inform Stalin in spite of the facts that Soviets promised to help Americans in defeating Japan - Last attack of WW2 and first attack of Cold War Yalta February 1945 - Stalin committed himself to free elections in countries liberated from Nazi control - Declaration of Liberated Europe - USSR promised to join UN and help US defeat Japan - Zonal divisions of Germany agreed upon Potsdam Conference July 1945 - USSR accused of violating agreements made at Yalta by not allowing free elections → sharp exchanges over development in these countries February – Long telegram - Gave intellectual basis for containment September Stuttgart speech - Announced support for a revival of Germany Truman Doctrine - Signified shift away from isolationism and was replaced with an active world role - Gave right to intervene where, and US should aid all 'free people' being subjugated - Initially his request for money was only intended for Greece and Turkey, but soon expanded globally and would extend to Korea and Vietnam June Marshall Plan - Economic help offered to most european nations at first, including communist ones - Soon rejected by USSR and satellites - Marshall stated in speech: “Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty and desperation.” 1946 – March Churchill delivers Iron Curtain speech in Missouri - Stalin tightened grip on Eastern Europe - Created tensions between west and Stalin 1947 – Stalin saw Truman Doctrine and Marshall aid as economic imperialism - Eastern european countries forced to reject economic aid 1948 - - March US, Britain and France announced their willingness to establish a new currency in Western All eastern European states under USSR control except for Yugoslavia Could not allow for ‘national communism’ → withdrew military advisers and country expelled from Cominform (accused them of bourgeois nationalism) - Eastern European Bloc announced economic blockade and cut off diplomatic relations - US offered financial assistance - Became non-aligned, non-stalinist communist state Czechoslovakia – ruled by non communist coalition - After disputes non communists resigned - 1949 - 1950 - - Effect on the development of the Cold War zones, and to form a west germany government June Start of Berlin blockade - Operation vittles - US propaganda victory Federal Germany Republic proclaimed May NATO formed - Was set up in order to counter soviet aggression - Full military alliance 1949 1950 - National Security Report 68 (NSC-68) was a top secret policy paper presented to Truman in April - Recommended a substantial military build up to handle USSR - Outlined US policy - Truman initially against it but with outbreak of NK attacking SK, Truman implemented the plan - This included the decision to develop the hydrogen bomb - Truman signed it September 1950 NK attacked SK June - Truman appealed to UN the same day → they were able get UN support to fight as USSR - boycotted UNSC when decision taken US pushed forces back and proceeded to go past 18th parallel, once they reached the Yalu river China intervened and now both were involved in a direct conflict - Truman fought a limited war → containment not rollback - When elections held communists won 237 of 300 seats and soon other parties dissolved - Only eastern european bloc with multiparty system became single party state Berlin Blockade Both Czechoslovakia and Berlin Blockade seen as instances of Soviet aggression German Democratic Republic proclaimed October 1949 North Korea attacked South Korea - Kim Il-Sung pressed Stalin to finally approve invasion - Kim armed by USSR and when north attacked, it was a major escalation which Stalin with his support and foreknowledge was to some extent responsible for - Gromyko, FM, later admitted that the USSR boycott of UN was a trick to involve US in a war in Asia while USSR neutral Orthodox historian – Truman policies were an attempt to defend the world, and he was responding to soviet aggression. Orthodox historian – blaming Stalin and USSR, and that they were responsible for the outbreak of Cold Revisionist historian – US took advantage of their nuclear monopoly and soviet weakness, and used the Truman Doctrine and Marshall aid to establish economic dependence of various countries, which would ultimately lead to political control. Truman’s dollar-imperialism created Cold War. Europe had communist single-party systems by 1948. Impossible to cooperate over Germany, and Stalin War. Stalin had signed Declaration of Liberated Europe → which he then violated. All states in Eastern seen as aggressive in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Korea and Berlin. Revision historian – responsibility of the US. USSr devastated by war – 1700 cities destroyed, 60000 villages were in ruins and 25 million russians killed. US had increased industrial input by 90% and had a nuclear monopoly. Stalin’s desire to control Eastern Europe was entirely defensive (wanted to control eastern states as they had previously used as precursors prior to attacks on USSR). US issues Truman doctrine which gave them right to intervene anywhere, and Marshall aid seen as economic imperialism. This intimidated Stalin. TWO COLD WAR LEADERS DEVELOPMENT OF COLD WAR Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the development of the Cold War. EISENHOWER (1953-61) Main foreign policies related to the Cold War KHRUSHCHEV (1953-64) Eisenhower had even more aggressive stance against USSR than Truman. When Eisenhower won Khrushchev decided to reduce size of red army unilaterally. presidential elections by attacking Truman administration for being ‘soft on communism’ → containment no 1956 – Khrushchev gave secret speech - De-Stalinization process opened up for new opportunities longer enough, there should be a rollback of communism. He was seen as a Cold Warrior → strongly anticommunist New look - Peaceful co-existence with capitalist west → breaking from Stalin’s policies and vaguely insinuated a new relation could be established with satellites in Eastern Europe - Communism should still be contained Secretary of State Dulles expressed desire of ‘rollack’ of communist controlled areas - Support by Eisenhower but only through peaceful means Khrushchev travelled abroad, unlike Stalin, and participated in a number of summit meetings. - He met both Eisenhower and Kennedy - Left meeting in Paris when Eisenhower refused to apologise for U2 Incident Massive Retaliation - Nuclear weapons now regarded as weapons of first resort, not last resort - Less reliance on conventional forces, and stopping of fighting of limited wars - Nuclear weapons produced and US army reduced Cold War Events Year 1953 1954 1956 1960 US Army Size 1 534 000 1 405 000 1 026 000 871 000 Alliances against communism formed 1954 - Creation of SEATO by US, France, Britain, Australia, new Zealand, Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan, with the main aim of preventing communist expansion in SEA 1955 - Baghdad Pact formed between Britain, Iraq and later Iran and Pakistan with aim of excluding USS from Middle East. US did not join for tactical reasons but stood behind organisation - Germany offered full membership in NATO New foreign policy and rollback tested 1953 1956 Revolt in East Berlin against communist rule → no US support given - Hungary revolted against soviet control → US gave no support - During Suez Crisis 1956 US refused to support her allies Britain, France and Israel → stood on Positive changes related to Cold War: 1953 - Korean war armistice signed 1954 - Peace conference arranged at Geneva to deal with Indochina War, under the chairmanship of USSR and Britain 1955 - Great power summit Geneva between USSR, US, Britain and France → leaders met for first time since Potsdam. New positivity → ‘spirit of Geneva’ - Occupational forces of Austria decided to end the occupation and re-establish full independence of - the country → Not possible for Korea and Germany Soviet troops withdrawn from Finland - Khrushchev went to Yugoslavia to heal rift between two states and to show that USSR could accept existence of a communist regime not controlled by Moscow → break with Stalin’s policies same side as USSR 1958 - During second Berlin Crisis Eisenhower declared that he wanted to avoid war 1956 - Nevertheless involved in Cold War: 1954 - Coup d’etat in Guatemala → covert operation undertaken by CIA which deposed democratically 1956 1957 1961 - elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz whom the US considered to be leftist US committed to defend Taiwan during Taiwan Strait Crisis US supported Diem in Vietnam after France had left. In 1954 it was Eisenhower who articulated Domino Theory when looking at communism in SEA - Eisenhower authorised reconnaissance spy planes crossing RUssian territories Eisenhower Doctrine passed by Congress stating that US would defend with arms any state in middle east threatened by communist aggression Bay of pigs invasion 1958 - Poland announced reforms but Khrushchev was eager to secure that Poles didn’t go too far Hungary he couldn’t control developments and when Imre Nagy announced that free elections would be allowed and perhaps leave the Warsaw Pact, Red army invaded. Major consequences: - Strained China-uSSR relations - Brought an end to ‘spirit of Geneva’ - Eisenhower had talked about rollback of communism → words were empty - Damaged reputation of USSR internationally - Showed extent of the new relations that the USSR would allow During Suez Crisis 1956, Khrushchev given an opportunity to extend soviet influece to Middle East - Stalin had only armed or given support to countries bordering USSR - Khrushchev more adventurous and involved USSR in Middle East and Latin America - Departure from Stalin’s policies and escalation of Cold War - He put pressure on western powers to find solution to Berlin and German problems He gave a six month ultimatum to find a solution of Berlin to GDR (which wasn’t recognised by west) Second Berlin Crisis led nowhere when Khrushchev extended time limit Berlin wall finally erected 1961 and in the west it was a symbol of communist repression - But did stabilize German issue → now no need for German peace treaty 1962 – Cuban missile Crisis - Khrushchev secretly provided Cuba with nuclear weapons → brought world to brink of a nuclear - conflict between superpowers When Khrushchev finally agreed to withdraw missiles, US agreed not to invade Cuba and to secretly remove missiles from Turkey - This conflict had a sobering effect on the super powers → line between Kremlin and white house established, and 1963 Test Ban Treaty Signed Effect on the development of the Cold War During Eisenhower’s Farewell address to the Nation January 1961 said: “we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, byt the military-industrial complex. The potential for disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and, will persist. We must lenev let the weight of this combination endanger our liberties or democratic processes.” Khrushchev brought both detente and confrontations to the Cold war. He talked about creating “many vietnams” and addressed Western ambassadors at reception at Polish EMbassy in Moscow 1956 with “we will bury you.” On the other hand → introduced peaceful co-existence Khrushchev very impulsive. Both politicians contributed to confrontations and detente, while Stalin and Truman were more Cold War Warriors Khrushchev can be argued to be more unpredictable. TWO COLD WAR LEADERS END OF COLD WAR Compare and contrast the impact of two cold war leaders (and their policies/actions) on the end of the Cold War. REAGAN (1981-9) Main foreign policies related to the Cold War Reagan administration continued Carter’s tough stance, and Reagan had attacked Carter by saying that the USSR had manipulated the Detente period to pursue their own gains. Eventhough US was in a recession, 1982 military budget was increased by 13% Systematic challenge - New weapons to be developed which would be difficult challenge by USSR - New weapons would make USSR weapons obsolete which would put pressure on Soviet economy GORBACHEV (1985-91) Mikhail Gorbachev elected General Secretary of age of 54. He introduced a number of reforms – he was originally a leninist who made attempts to reform system to survive. Gorbachev’s plan for reconstruction contained two main points: - Cooperation of west to end the COld War in order to reduce cost of arms race - A reconstruction of the USSR. Key aspects: - Glasnost (openness) - Perestroika (restructuring) - Demokratizatsiya (democratisation) Reagan started largest peacetime military buildup in US history – between 1981-8 military spending went from $117 billion/year → $290 billion/year Cold War Events 1981 - Reagan comes to power 1983 - lowest point in second cold war - Western alliance starts deployment of Pershing 2 and Cruise missiles in Western Europe - 1977 USSR started to deploy SS-20 intermediate range weapons in Eastern Europe - Response to US and NATO - Nato responded by announcing deployment of missiles - Led to years of discussions and anti-war demonstrations - USSR responded by calling off Strategic Arms Reduction Talks - Reagan announced his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) – star wars project - Aim was to develop new and expensive technology – a shield protecting the US in space - Played a major role in arms talks and part of systematic challenge - October Reagan ordered US forces to invade Grenada where a 1979 coup had established a marxist-Leninist govt. - First military operation conducted by US forces since Vietnam war → results in US victory and 19 US soldiers killed and 116 wounded Raegan describes USSR as an ‘evil empire’ 1985 - 1986 - Gorbachev made his first visit to the west France as Soviet leader. he proposed that the superpowers should reduce their strategic weapons by 50%. Gorbachev and Reagan annually in four different Summits – the first summit Geneva 1985. - No major agreements were made except for the fact that they agreed to meet again there had been no summons for 5 years so meeting important in establishing personal relations 27th party congress – Gorbachev announced that he believes that far-reaching economic reforms when needed and that Afghan war was a bleeding wound second summit between Gorbachev and Reagan in Reykjavik 1987 - Washington treaty signed 1988 - Agreement between superpowers made at Geneva on the ending of Afghan war 1989 - Early 1989 talks in Poland lead to free elections being scheduled to June – first free elections in a communist state since 1940s. - Solidarity won 99 out of 100 seats in the Senate - 1981-5 Reagan’s first four years in office, problematic → Soviet leadership suffered from health problems. 1982-5 three General Secretaries passed away: Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko. This made constructive dialogue with summit meetings difficult to organise. Reagan’s first four years characterised as years of confrontations and no constructive talks. 1985 - - Opening in relations between superpowers when Gorbachev came to power. Gorbachev wanted constructive dialogue. Gorbachev wanted constructive dialogue because he realised USSR could not keep up with arms race. Reagan feared a nuclear showdown 1990 - 1986 - Second summit meeting between Gorbachev and Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland - Gorbachev announced that he was prepared to withdraw his SS-20 millies from Europe if US withdrew their Pershing and Cruise missiles - Acceptance of Reagan’s zero-option policy - Also proposed a 50% reduction of all long-range missiles, and in return US would call off SDI - Reagan refused - - 1987 - Gorbachev shocked americans by proposing the abolition of all nuclear weapons within 10 years → Raegan’s commitment to SDI couldn’t allow this - Meeting showed agreements could be made Became known that funds from arms deals with Iran had been secretly used to finance Contras in Nicaragua fighting the left wing govt. In country - Violated US laws and Reagan claimed he didn’t know - Scandal affected popularity or president Washington treaty (INF treaty) signed → all missiles based on lan in Europe and Asia with a range of 500-5500 km should be destroyed within 3 years - Dispute which had lasted over 10 years brought to an end 1988 - - - 1991 - - - Agreement between superpowers made at Geneva on the ending of Afghan war Gorbachev announced that soviet armed forces should be reduced to 500 000 soldiers (unilaterally) Announced gradual withdrawal of troops from GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary - Gorbachev announced that USSR would no longer interfere with affairs of satellites → Brezhnev - - Doctrine dead - - Reagan visits Moscow for fourth summit → said he didn’t think of USSR as an evil empire anymore - Effect on the development of the Cold War Reagan had resigned when communism collapsed in 1991. Many have argued that his policies, systematic challenge, led to fall of USSR. Yet USSR did not accelerate spending after Reagan’s buildup. Reagan who was a fierce communist must be credited for his open dialogue, Gorbachev and Reagan ended a conflict that had lasted for 40 years. Poland first country in eastern bloc to get a non communist Prime Minister Hungary announced that Iron Curtain would be opened Test of gorbachev's willingness to abandon Brezhnev Doctrine Communist rule brought to an end in satellites: Poland, Hungary. German Democratic Republic, Bulgaria, Romania Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan completed Cold war brought to an end Gorbachev elected to a new office president of USSR - Way of creating his own political platform independent of Communist Party March the Congress removed article 6 in constitution – Communist Party no longer had a political Monopoly Economy in critical situation GNP went down by 4% in 1990 and 15% in 1991 Severe shortages of basic food supplies, meat and sugar Communist hardliners criticise Gorbachev and nationalism in Baltic states, and Georgia posed an enormous problem to go Gorbachev who committed himself the democratic solutions In the Congress of people's deputies yeltsin had been offered a new platform criticising the president Gorbachev’s solution to the mounting nationalist problem was a union treaty giving the Republics within the Soviet Union more autonomy – didn't seem to satisfy some Republics and by the end of the year many hardliners were given key positions in the Soviet government - Foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze in resigned dramatically in December claiming that dictatorship is coming Two German states allowed to merge 1990 USSR accepted that West German state could also be a member of NATO USSR supported UN decision in the Gulf war supported Americans in the conflict showing cold war was over January local branches of KGB and armed forces work together to seize TV tower in Lithuania most likely without any for knowledge of Gorbachev - 14 civilians killed - Made new Union treaty even more important to Gorbachev Boris Yeltsin elected President of Russia June 1991 and question of Russia’s willingness to sign a new union treaty key question - without Russia membership in the USSR, would be dead August hardliners attempted coup before Union Treaty → Yeltsin took leadership - Coupe seen as collapse of old system - Yeltsin gained authority from coup while Gorbachev in hands of president December – leaders from Russia Ukraine and Belarus declared that the USSR no longer existed and founded the commonwealth of independent States Later 11 former Republics joined 25th of December Gorbachev had to resign - without Soviet Union Gorbachev had no political platform - 31st of December USSR cease to exist Gorbachev wanted to reform the Soviet system in order to make it survive. For different reasons this failed and the Empire collapsed. the war in Afghanistan was brought to an end. Soviet control of Eastern Europe ended and the USSR cease to exist. Cold War had been brought to an end. Gorbachev witnessed process without using violence probably the most important individual to bringing the end of the Cold War TWO COLD WAR CRISES Compare and contrast two Cold War crises from different regions. Causes Events Consequences Berlin Blockade (1948) SU felt threatened by Bizonia and establishment of West Ger. gvt, and Deutschmark introduction. Marshall aid seen as threat to USSR’s dominance in the region. USA worried about Domino Theory. USSR blocked water, road and railroad transport into West Berlin, hoping that East Berlin would turn to Soviet control Berlin Airlift: US air force transported 1.5 million tonnes of supplies into West Berlin, avg 13 k tons per day, for 323 days of airlift. Containment/propaganda success. Stalin looks bad. Formation of 2 governments. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) America had placed nuclear weapons in Turkey - very close to the USSR. USSR retaliated by placing weapons in Cuba. Tension between Cuba-America as USA tried to oust Castro through failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. Escalation of conflict, nuclear warfare seems imminent. Closed-doors meetings between USSR and USA. USSR forced to take blame (USA wins propaganda). The world is saved. Phone-line between USSR and USA is created. America wins Propaganda War (for CMC at least) Castro feels left out, but closer to USSR (vs USA). America’s tactic of Mutually Assured Destruction prevailed The Cuban missile crisis: Perspectives USA Causes ● ● ● Goals ● ● ● USSR Kennedy’s national security assistant, McGeorge Bundy took photos of Soviet U2 planes flying over Cuba ○ Showed Soviet soldiers setting up nuclear-armed missiles Berlin Blockade and Berlin Wall Soviet Union continued to build missile bases in Cuba despite objection from the US ● Protect the security of the western hemisphere Minimum action to protect the West Protect half a million of West-Berliners under Soviet threat behind the Berlin wall ● ● ● ● ● ● Actions ● ● ● ExComm and the secret tapes ○ Assembled a small group to discuss Cuba situation and nuclear exchange ○ Secretly taped meeting Quarantine ○ US announced that USSR had installed missiles in Cuba and requested to order a blockade ○ Demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles immediately Authorised day-time surveillance and continued U-2 flights ○ Also agreed to night-time coverage ○ Had US navy plans to stop Soviet submarine from crossing quarantine line ● ● ● ● Cuba USA had more than 250,000 nuclear missiles ○ USSR did not have half as much Believed that the US had no right to intervene in Soviet relations with Cuba ○ No right to impose quarantines ○ Believed that US were violating terms written in the UN Charter ● ● ● ● US tried to reverse revolution through covert means Diplomatically isolated Cuba Put military pressure on Cuba by training near them Attempted assassinations on Cuban leaders To prevent US invasion of Cuba. ○ Help Cuba’s self-defence ○ Solely for offensive purposes Believed that “It is high time that America learned what it feels like to have her own land and her own people threatened.” Wanted to improve image after Berlin Wall ‘Bargaining chip’ against US missiles in Europe Believed that US intervention was a threat to international trade and national sovereignty ● ● Prevent US invasion of Cuba. Ignored the US quarantine and sent ships to Cuba Later, 6 ships turned back Demanded that US agree not to invade Cuba in a telegram Later demanded that the US also remove missiles from Turkey ● Cuban militants lead by Raoul Castro shot down U-2 plane over Cuba without Soviet permission, escalating tensions. Wasn’t really included in any of the negotiations (so couldn’t take much action) ● ● Consequenc es ● Quarantine constituted as an ultimatum for Khrushchev felt threatened ○ US would air-attack Cuba in 1-2 days if Khrushchev did not take action Deteriorated relations with the USSR because Khrushchev felt that US actions were unnecessary ● ● ● Humiliation for Kruschev ○ Angry that he backed down ○ Military already angry about cuts ○ Managed to maintain and keep peace Had to rebuild relationship w Castro and Cuban regime and to prevent Sino-Cuban alliance Contributed to his fall from power in 1964 ● ● ● ● Angry at not being included in negotiations ○ Castro was not included Became determined not to be a ‘pawn’ in the East-West struggle and to have independent foreign policies Havana became a centre for revolutionary training for other countries Threatened to create Sino-Cuban alliance International Consequences: ● France left NATO after missiles in Turkey were removed, angry at lack of protection from USSR Why was Kennedy determined to stand against communism? ● Many countries turning to communism, communism spreads → domino theory, spreading in Southeast Asia, considered South/Latin America as their own backyard ● ● Monroe doctrine, 1880 US foreign policy to oppose European colonialism Young, first president to deal w Berlin, only verbally condemned (no military action) Had to deal with congress and the public ○ Did not want to start a war, though his advisors encouraged it to send a strong message ○ ● Did not want to appear weak in front of Soviets → did not want to show that Khrushchev could push him around Also criticised for the Bay of Pigs → perceived as a weak leader Compare and Contrast Cuba and Berlin Causes Similarities Both initiated by the West in order to strengthen their sphere of influence - BB: bizonia formed, Deutschmark implemented, to prevent the spread of communism - CMC: put missiles in Turkey, in striking-distance of Moscow, to expand sphere of influence USSR was humiliated (Stalin/Khrushchev backed down) - BB: Stalin took down the blockade when he realised it was insignificant, West placed embargoes on strategic exports from Eastern Germany - CMC: Khrushchev took down the missiles in Cuba (it wasn’t known that Turkey missiles were removed until 1996) USSR justification: taking defensive measures against the West, US, capitalism - BB: Felt that the economic security of East Germany was threatened, wanted to take West Berlin in order to strengthen it - Felt threatened by U.S. policy of containment (Truman doctrine, Marshall Ended peacefully, did not escalate into violence - BB: The Soviets did not disrupt the airlift for fear this might lead to open conflict, Stalin retreated in the end without conflict - CMC: No one died/no clashes except for that one U-2 pilot Differences Consequences/Significance Plan) and alliances with Britain and France (Bizonia → Trizonia) CMC: USSR felt they needed missiles similar to those in Turkey, and also wanted to defend Cuba Type of motivation: - BB: Economic, due to Deutschmark - CMC: Military, ICBMs Length of altercation - BB: 232 days - CMC: 13 days International involvement - BB: International aid sent to West Berlin, European leaders more involved - CMC: Only US, USSR and Cuba involved One had outcomes detrimental to relations, one had outcomes that were beneficial - BB: Separated Germany (East and West), formation of NATO - CMC: More negotiation, formation of the USSR US direct line of communication (Moscow-Washington hotline) TWO COLD WAR CONFLICTS Compare and contrast two Cold War conflicts from two different regions. Combatants/Allies 6-day War 1967 Egypt, Jordan, Syria VS Israel USSR/USA supported respective parties Causes - Change of Syrian Government in 1996 (Ba’thists were extremely hostile, Israel/Syria clashed in Sea of Galilee) Syrian & Egyptian Defence Pact 1996 Syrian & Israeli air clash in 1967 Egyptian President Nasser blockaded Straits of Tiran, led to hostilities between Israel and Arab world - Caused by South Korean President (Syungman Rhee) boasting he could destroy the North Korean army (led by Kim Il Sung). Previously, Stalin had split North Korea (Potsdam). Kim Il Sung retaliated, invaded South Korea. South Korea pleaded for America help (and Soviets helped the North). Started a war, USA disguised its military effort through a UN Peacekeeping Intervention. Pushed above 34th parallel, made it to China (who then felt threatened and pushed America back down to the 34th parallel). - - Korean War 1950-1953 PRC, North Korea, South Korea, USSR, USA Short-term impacts - Israel had control of Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, Sinai Peninsula Demonstrated power of Containment Estimated 20,000 deaths Long-term impacts - - - - - Estimated 2.5 million deaths, over 4 million wounded (American Policy of “Scorched Earth”) Affirmed America’s “Domino Effect” fear, showed the world it was ready to do anything to stop Communism Established China as a global superpower Increased American military expenditure by almost 300% during years of the war - start of “Massive Retaliation” policy to follow Soviets facing economic difficulties - war made this worse - - - USA saw Israel as a valuable asset in the Middle East, brought Israel/USA closer USSR’s prestige was damaged as they were supporting Arab Nations Increased tension between USSR/USA Opened the Cold War to the international stage as Vietnam War came next Heightened distrust between PRC/USSR (as USSR “loaned” Chinese equipment and supplies) Increased tension between USA and USSR USA increased support for CSK/KMT in Taiwan US LEADERS COLD WAR (POLICIES/BIG EVENTS) Truman (1945–1953) Policies ‘Iron fist’ Truman Doctrine Political, military, economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat. Marshall Plan American initiative to aid Europe (13$ billion to 17 countries) to rebuild economies after WW2. Leftist parties in Western Europe lost support Eisenhower (1953-1961) Kennedy (1961-1963) Eisenhower Doctrine 1957 policy that US would economically assist any Middle eastern country against communism ($200 million to Middle Eastern economies) ‘Flexible response’ Less conventional forces, more nuclear weapons. Expanding available means of fighting against it. Hard-line communist approach, especially in Asia Defend South Vietnam from Communist aggression. Led to: Brinkmanship Aggression from both parties to the threshold of confrontation to gain a more advantageous position over the other, to the edge of potential disaster. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Legal basis for Vietnam War Cuban missile crisis Brinkmanship in action Vietnam War New Look National security policy, stress weapons deterrence and prevent Soviet extension outside of established areas Johnson (1963-1969) Nixon (1969-1974) Ford (1974-1977) “Ping pong diplomacy” Normalisation of Sino-US relationship Continuation of Nixon’s Policies August 14 1974 Ford met with Soviet FM Anatoly Dobrynin and joint test flight of Continued friendly relations with USSR Negotiated the SALT II Treaty in 1978-9 and agreed on limited warheads. Helsinki Accords 1975 diplomatic agreement to reduce tension Tough-line with USSR Economic embargo against USSR (banned grain imports to the USSR) Public pressure to reduce risk of war after Vietnam led Nixon to begin Detente (Signed Salt I, European Security Conference) Carter (1977-1981) Continued Nixon’s policies in Asia Reagan (1981-1989) “Tear down this wall” 1987 West Berlin Continued tough-line stance esp in Asia Aimed to make the USSR’s nuclear missiles obsolete INF Treaty 1987 Intermediate- Range Nuclear Force Treaty (USSR abandoned their INF Forces) Anti-nuclearism Korean War Supported SK with economic & military aid, left SK by 1949 How put into practice Potsdam Went worse than Yalta where Roosevelt, friendly with Stalin, was in power (issues with German division, German reparations, Polish government) Berlin Airlift Lebanon Crisis 15,000 troops to Lebanon to quell a communist uprising. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Agreed with Khrushchev to limit nuclear testing to reduce environmental damage and health risks. Rolling Thunder Intensive aerial bombing campaign to weaken military potential of People’s Army of Vietnam Vietnam and China Began withdrawing troops from Vietnam, emphasised Vietnamisation. Vietnam Ended American involvement in Indochina. Vietcong succeeded in taking Saigon in 1975 Began to end involvement in Taiwan, ‘not a matter for US to decide’ Helsinki Accords Extended war to communist sanctuaries in Cambodia. eased tensions Vietnam War Helsinki with leaders → signed accords which Halted arms sales to Taiwan, established full diplomatic relations with PRC Chose not to ratify the SALT II Treaty due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan Increased military spending between 19811988 117 billion to 290 billion. USSR could not keep up with his spending, for USSR reforms. Hardline approach to USSR in Afghanistan difficult for USSR to continue war Fall of Southeast Asia: In the late 1975 Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam all fell to communism. SOVIET LEADERS COLD WAR (POLICIES/BIG EVENTS) Policie s Stalin (1923-1953) Khrushchev (1953-1964) Brezhnev (1964-1982) Gorbachev (1985-1991) Spread the world Revolution: Comintern (Communist International) Expansion of Marxist-Leninist ideology Secret Speech (beginning of Sino-Soviet Split) Brezhnev Doctrines: The actions of one socialist country were recognised as affecting all - collective action to deal with any threat to the socialist community was viewed as justified and necessary Perestroika: restructuring the economy - initiative that allowed limited market incentives to Soviet citizens. Satellite States Stalin’s foreign policy was based in the aim of taking Peaceful coexistence Idea of peaceful coexistence introduced Khrushchev in 1956: “You do not like communism. We do not like Capitalism. There is only one way out – peaceful Glasnost: openness - principle that the regime should be open to public scrutiny advantage of the military situation in Europe to strengthen Soviet influence and to prevent another invasion from the west. The west was afraid of a worldwide communist revolution However we know now that Russia just wanted a buffer zone, Saw the survival of his state much more important coexistence” USA and USSR systems might compete in the international market or for influence over other countries → but would avoid war with each other because it would mean the destruction De-stalinization Consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to power. De-Stalinization meant an end to the role of large-scale forced labour in the economy. USSR had the right to intervene in any communist state where the ‘Eastern bloc’ where ‘socialism’ was under threat. An attempt to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia Creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine not initially seen as threatening by the West → saw it was a policy behind the Iron Curtain, did not threaten the international balance of power Repression Brezhnev's stabilisation policy included ending the liberalising reforms of Khrushchev, and clamping down on cultural freedom. The trial of the writers Yuli Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966 — the first such public trials since Stalin's day — marked the reversion to a repressive cultural policy. Proposed the introduction of multi-party democracy Sinatra Doctrine In 1989, Gorbachev jokingly mentioned that he would let satellite states do things “their own way”. Foreign Policy - Based on cooperation not confrontation - Conciliatory - Withdraw USSR from Afghanistan - Signed INF treaty Nuclear Policy - Reduce weapons - End arms race - “Reasonable sufficiency” Détente Détente is the idea of releasing tension under political circumstances, the name was given to a period of improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that began around 1971. It took decisive form when President Nixon visited the Secretary General of the Soviet Communist Party, Leonid I. Brezhnev in Moscow, 1972. How it was put into practic e Salami Tactics: Provoking splits and divisions among coalition partners who were then accused of being antisoviet or fascists. Control was imposed on Eastern Europe countries such as Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia. Security in Europe through the establishment of satellite states → alarmed the US and led to the formation of the US policy of containment Cominform (The Communist Information Bureau): Countries of Eastern Europe were expected to fall into line behind Soviet foreign policy. It encouraged the adoption of the Soviet model of economic development, such as collectivisation in agriculture and nationalisation of industry, rejecting the idea that there could be alternative routes to “socialism”. Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): Founded in 1949 as a reaction to the Marshall Plan. It attempted to support collectivisation and development of heavy industry. However, in the early years the plan did not do much in terms of financial aid. Korean War 1950-3 June 25 1950 the war began when 75000 soldiers from NKPA invaded South Korea. By July American troops Peaceful coexistence: Designed to defuse the arms race with the USA, signifying a change in Soviet attitude. USSR and allied socialist states applied this to nations of the western world (NATO, Warsaw Pact). It was designed to reduce tension between the two superpowers in fear of nuclear war. He demonstrated it by attending peace conferences such as the Geneva summit as well as visiting abroad (Camp David in 1959). The World Peace Council was founded in 1949 was largely funded by the Soviet Union. - Geneva Summit The Warsaw Pact 1955 The pact was USSR’s response to the admittance of West Germany into NATO. It was a military alliance formed in 1955 coordinating defense of the Eastern Bloc. In reality the pact was dominated by the USSR. De-stalinization: Gave his de-Stalinization speech in Feb 1956 which led to challenges to Soviet control in the Eastern bloc.soc Invasion of Hungary (1956) After Imre Nagy rebelled against the communist government, won, and attempted to withdraw Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Khrushchev sent 1,000 Soviet tanks into Hungary, killed 4,000 Hungarians, executed Nagy and installed new government. Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) After increased liberalisation of Czechoslovakia, USSR sent in Warsaw Pact troops to ‘quell (non-existent) unrest’. Invasion of Afghanistan: In 1979, the Soviets invaded and occupied the country. Initially stationed 50,000 troops but results in >100,000 troops. SALT I - ABM Treaty - Interim Treaty - Basic Principles Agreement SALT II - Limit on the # of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles (ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers) - Ban on testing/deployment of new types of ICBMs, heavy mobile ICBMs, and rapid reload systems Moscow Treaty 1970: Signed by USSR, West Germany and Poland - Accepted border between East/West Germany - Formally accepted the post-World War Two border in the East with Poland The Final Quadripartite Protocol 1972: Agreed to the maintenance of the ‘status quo’ in Berlin Perestroika 1980s-91: Started with the overhaul of the top members of the communist party. Also replaced the centralised government planning with a greater reliance on market forces. Glasnost 1985-9: Eased strict social controls – gave greater freedom to the media and religious groups, while also allowing citizens to express divergent views. By 1988 Gorbachev had expanded his reforms to include democratisation, moving the USSR toward an elected form of government. Move away from Satellite States: Gorbachev refused to send military support to defend the previous satellite states of the USSR, greatly weakening their Communist regimes. Refusal to use Force: - Abandoned Brezhnev doctrine - Wanted to loosen grip on Eastern Europe December 1988 Gorbachev made a speech at the UN where he declared that all nations should be free to choose their course without interference. By the summer of 1989, Eastern Europeans were given more degrees of freedom. Gorbachev refused to use force to put down demonstrations. By November, the Berlin Wall was pierced. had entered the war – Americans saw it as fighting the force of communism. July 1953 Korean War came to an end. The Berlin Crisis 1961 By July 1961, 30000 East Germans were fleeing each month and nearly 3 million people had left from East Germany to the West. The country was experiencing brain drain and the survival of East Germany was threatened. As a response, Khrushchev ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 that stops East Germans from fleeing the country. It was a huge propaganda victory for the Western bloc as East Germany was depicted as a country whose population had to be penned in to stop them from escaping. - Confirmed that the West had a legal basis for its access routes to the city Gave West Berlin greater degree of security Basic Treaty 1972: Signed by East and West Germany - Accepting the existence of each other Helsinki Agreement 1973: - Recognised that Europe’s frontiers were ‘inviolable’ and cannot be altered by force - Called for closer ties and collaboration in economic/scientific fields - Signatories agreed to human rights/individual freedoms → conflicted with Soviet control - 3 Baskets → security, co-operation and human rights (respectively) Aggression in Africa: In Africa, USSR funded and supported revolutionary movements that looked to upset the balance of power in the region. In 1975, USSR massively increased its funding for Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) during the Angolan Civil War. - Looked as if USSR was seeking to increase its influence in Africa Repeated by the USSR in 1977 - Sent military supplies to Ethiopia during its invasion of Somalia - Seemed to confirm Soviet intentions in Africa 1989 Communist regimes fell in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. Reunification of Germany in October 1990. 1990 Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize. - Peaceful collapse Ending the Arms Race Gorbachev and Reagan took part in 5 summits between 1985 and 1988, which resulted in the signing of the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987. JAPAN ANNEXATION OF KOREA AND TAIWAN Causes Korea - Qing cession of Taiwan (Fermosa) and Korea following First Sino Japanese War Japanese wanted colonies for international prestige Japan wanted colonies for their resources (people and natural resources, especially food and labour) Results Elimination of Korean culture: - newspapers censored (only one allowed), korean not taught in classrooms, military police, 170k Japanese bought Korean land. Historical sites (Inner Court) destroyed. Japanese surnames had to be adopted by all Koreans Modernisation of korea: - Railways, foreign ministry, moved away from feudal system. Education. Productivity and output increased (Kabo Reforms enacted in 1894) Took advantage of Korea: - Comfort women, exploited resources (estimated 400 tons of natural resources taken every week), slaves (500 estimated) - Treaty of Kanghwa: Open Korea up to trade - Assassination of Queen Min (sent political leadership into disarray) Taiwan Rapid Economic Progression (Initial) for Taiwan: - Initially, railways, highways, electricity stations, were built - However, expansion of Pacific War halted progress as Taiwanese fought in Japanese Army (industrial output dropped 33% as a result of this) Democracy was protected, local officials were given power: - Taiwanese were “integrated” into Japanese culture (rewarded if they spoke Japanese, but not always forced) - A local parliament was established, with a Taiwanese Governor General - Laws were passed to strongly advocate for Japanese last names (but again, not forced) Deaths (killed early resistance to Japanese rule): - Estimated 1,500 natives killed/jailed following establishment of Japanese rule - Freedom of thought + right to protest were heavily suppressed (small militia forces continue to rally against Japanese, but they never really worked)
