COMMUNITY TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, PERCEPTIONS AND RESPONSE TO FLOOD RISKS IN NYANDO BASIN, WESTERN KENYA NYAKUNDI HELLEN MWANGO (BA) REG NO: I57/5672/03 A THESIS SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN THE SCHOOL OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KENYATTA UNIVERSITY JUNE 2010 ii Declaration This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award. -----------------------------------Nyakundi Hellen Mwango (I57/5672/03) ----------------------Date We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision. -------------------------------------Dr. Isaac Mwanzo Department of Public Health, School of Health Sciences‟ Kenyatta University ---------------------Date -------------------------------Dr. Andre Yitambe Department of Public Health, School of Health Sciences, Kenyatta University ---------------------Date ` iii Dedication To my parents, Mrs. Eunice Nyakundi and Mr. Alphayo Nyakundi. This degree reflects their hard work just as much as it does mine. Without them I would not have been able to achieve this goal-thank you. ` iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank several people who have contributed to the successful completion of this work: First and foremost, grateful thanks are extended to my university supervisors, Dr Isaac Mwanzo, Dr Andre Yitambe and Mr. Steven Mogere, who guided me throughout the study. The criticism, comments and advice from other members of staff in the department and classmates at different stages of the thesis are also highly appreciated. Gratitude goes to the field assistants and all who took part in the field work. I would also like to show appreciation to the residents of Nyando District for their hospitality and willingness to participate in the study. Special thanks to my family: my mum and dad for providing me with everything I needed to maintain my direction and stay focused; my siblings: Rose, Ben, William and Ruth, for their encouragement; and my daughter Chudia, for being a constant source of joy and inspiration. This investigation received further financial support from the ProVention Consortium and I am very grateful for the scholarship. Above all, thanks to God for His grace, strength and sustenance. ` v Table of contents Declaration ......................................................................................................................ii Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv Table of contents ............................................................................................................. v List of tables .................................................................................................................viii List of figures ................................................................................................................. ix List of pictures ................................................................................................................ x Abbreviations and acronyms .......................................................................................... xi Abstract ......................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background information ............................................................................................ 1 1.2 The problem statement .............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Study objectives ........................................................................................................ 6 1.5 The Study was guided by the following research questions: ....................................... 7 1.6 Null Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 7 1.7 Significance of the study (rationale) ........................................................................... 7 1.8 Scope of study and limitations ................................................................................... 7 1.9 Assumptions .............................................................................................................. 8 1.10 Conceptual framework ............................................................................................. 8 1.11 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................... 10 1.12 Operational definition of terms .............................................................................. 13 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Nature of flood risks ................................................................................................ 16 2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health ................................................................. 18 2.4 Vulnerability to Flood Risks .................................................................................... 20 2.5 Behavioural response to flood risks ......................................................................... 21 2.5.1 Coping mechanism ............................................................................................... 22 ` vi 2.5.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and warning ...................................... 23 2.6 Attitude towards external support ............................................................................ 24 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 26 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 26 3.2 Location of study ..................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 27 3.5 Sampling techniques and sample size ...................................................................... 28 3.5.1 Sampling technique .............................................................................................. 28 3.5.2 Sample size determination .................................................................................... 30 3.6 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 32 3.7 Construction of research instruments ....................................................................... 33 3.7.1 Household questionnaire ....................................................................................... 33 3.7.2 Interview guide for key informants ....................................................................... 34 3.7.3 Focus group discussion ......................................................................................... 34 3.8 Pilot study ............................................................................................................... 34 3.8.1 Validity of instruments ......................................................................................... 35 3.8.2 Reliability of instruments ..................................................................................... 35 3.9 Data Collection Techniques ..................................................................................... 36 3.10 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................ 37 3.11 Data Analysis Methods .......................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................... 39 4.1 Results..................................................................................................................... 39 4.1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 39 4.1.2 Socio demographic characteristics, education and socio-economic status .............. 39 4.1.3 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 46 4.1.4 Existing perceived risk of flooding to public health............................................... 52 4.1.5 Behavior associated with flood risk management in Nyando District .................... 56 4.1.6 External support.................................................................................................... 71 4.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 76 4.2.1 Socio-demographic information ............................................................................ 76 4.2.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 78 ` vii 4.2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health .............................................................. 80 4.2.4 Behavior associated with flood management ......................................................... 84 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............. 92 5.1 Major findings of the study ...................................................................................... 92 5.1.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics ................................................. 92 5.1.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting .......................................................... 92 5.1.3 Existing perceptions of impact and management of flood risks ............................. 92 5.1.4 Response behavior towards health risks ................................................................ 93 5.1.5 Attitude towards external support ......................................................................... 94 5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 94 5.3 Recommendations for implementation ..................................................................... 96 5.5 Recommendations for further research: .................................................................... 98 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 99 APPENDIX I: MAP .................................................................................................... 110 APPENDIX 11: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................. 111 APPENDIX II: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE ........................................... 130 APPENDIX III: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR KEY INFORMANTS .................... 133 ` viii List of tables Table 2.1: Types of floods and their characteristic impacts…………………………….1 Table 3.1: Selection of study area using the Nyando District administrative ladder……30 Table 3.2: Summary of results of Stratified Proportional Sample……………...……….31 Table 4.1: Age, gender and marital status of respondents………………………………40 Table 4.2: Socio-economic characteristics of respondent in the study area…………….42 Table 4.3: Main source of water, wall structure and roof types of households…………45 Table 4.4: Length of residency of study population in Nyando District………………..46 Table 4.5: Local knowledge of flood forecasting and warning…………………………56 Table 4.6: Summary of traditional early warning flood indicators……………………..50 Table 4.7: Use of traditional knowledge in the study area………………………….…..51 Table 4.8: Perceived presence of health hazards as a result of flooding………….….....53 Table 4.9: Survival strategies to deal with damage to shelter adopted by residents before, during and after the flood season……………………...……………..57 Table 4.10: Reasons for staying in a flood prone area………….………………………59 Table 4.11: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of food in the study area……...…60 Table 4.12: Relationship between shortage of water and main water source…………...61 Table 4.13: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of water………………………… 62 Table 4.14: Summary of diseases suffered by respondents during the flood season……64 Table 4.15: Summary of deaths related to flooding……………………………………..66 Table 4.16: Coping strategies used to deal with loss of crop in study area……………..68 Table 4.17: Coping strategies to handle livestock during the flood season….………….69 ` ix List of figures Figure 2.1: A conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer and Penning-Roswell (1990) that elicits perception and the behavioural response to flood hazards………...………………………..9 Figure 4.1: A comparison of education levels between male and female respondents....41 Figure 4.2: A comparison of income levels of the male and female respondents…...….44 Figure 4.3: Sources of traditional flood information in the community……...…...……47 Figure 4.4: Perceptions on methods of flood prevention and control: Profile of mean scores: N=528…………………………….…………………..…………….55 Figure 4.5: Average percentage of health care services sourced by households during the flood season…………………...…………………....65 Figure 4.6: Effectiveness of coping strategies in study area……….………………..….70 Figure 4.7: Level of preparedness in the study area…………...………………………..71 Figure 4.8: Sources of support received during flood times in the study area……..…...72 Figure 4.9: Satisfaction levels with the amount relief aid received……………………..74 Figure 4.10: Perception of coping capabilities in the absence of external support…..…75 ` x List of pictures Photo 2.1: Showing the general state of roads at onset, during and soon after the flood season………………………………………………………...17 Photo 3.1: Selection of participants for FGD discussion (Chief‟s meeting)………...…..37 Photo 4.2: Picture showing a house with a raised floor and a boat on stand by for evacuation of people and property during extreme flood conditions…….58 Photo 4.3: Picture shows harvesting of rainwater into a water tank; a coping mechanism to address water problems ……………………….…………...62 Photo 4.4: A woman in Ayweyo receives 2 Kgs. of maize as an incentive for digging/clearing a water channel. This is a government initiative: The Food for Work Program……………………...………………………...73 ` xi Abbreviations and acronyms APFM - Associated Program on Flood Management APELL - Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level CHWs - Community Health Workers FGD - Focus Group Discussion GOK - Government of Kenya GWP - Global Water Partnership ICLR - Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IDNDR - International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction IRIN - Integrated Regional Information Network IRMED - Institute for Resource Management and Economic Development ISDR - International Strategy for Disaster Reduction IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature LVEMP - Lake Victoria Environnent Management Programme NGO - Non Governmental Organization SPSS - Statistical Package of Social Sciences TEK - Traditional Ecological Knowledge UNDP - United Nations Development Program UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program WHO - World Health Organization WMO - World Meteorological Organization ` xii Abstract Flooding is one of the most widespread of climatic hazards that continues to pose serious multiple threats to public health. Globally, efforts to combat it have shifted towards longterm commitment to capacity building and broad based community involvement in flood risk interventions. In Kenya, the ability of local people to resist the impact of disasters has not been given adequate attention. This was descriptive cross sectional study and the objectives were to explore existing traditional flood knowledge, perceptions and behavior associated with flood risks and attitude of community towards external support. Most prone and least prone areas were selected for comparative analysis between the two risk levels. Flood area residents and institutional representatives were sampled using simple random sampling and a total of 528 households, 7 FGDs and 11 key informants participated in the study. The results were derived from questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions and key informant interviews. Data were analyzed using the SPSS Program. Chi-square test was used to determine association and difference between two variables. Results demonstrated in the study show that traditional flood knowledge and coping mechanism exist in the study area (80%) and these strategies were used as a trusted source of information and importance to this community. The findings revealed significantly greater level of awareness of flood hazards in the high risk areas in comparison to the low risk areas (p=0.001). They also demonstrated significant clear spatial differences in the level of awareness and use of traditional flood knowledge between respondents living in high and low risk areas. These were significantly influenced by demographic variables such as age, occupation, education and length of residency (p=.0001). Perception of risk was influenced by several variables, most notably past experience and level of exposure to risk. The burden of diseases was significantly higher during the flood season but the advantages of living in the flood plains seemed to outweigh the health risks associated with flooding. The result is a combination of innovative adjustability and passive acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these indigenous actions were taken at the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. Aid dependency during flood disasters was found to have significantly contributed to decreased ability cope (high risk, p=0.026; low risk, p=0.003). This study concluded that there was a wealth of traditional flood knowledge which indicated some ability of the locals to be resilient. Higher perception of risk did not necessarily translate into better preparedness. Most indigenous coping actions were taken at the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. The dependency syndrome and its pitfalls for creating less resilient communities was evident in this community. This study recommends that programs promoting the use of traditional flood knowledge should be integrated into official flood warning methods to exploit the local ways of predicting and coping with floods. The community needs to embrace both structural and non-structural measures to achieve the greatest results. The Government, NGO‟s and CBO‟s dealing with flood disasters in Nyando should focus on preparedness by enhancing local coping capacities on protection measures in anticipation of future flood events. Flood warning activities tailored to local social contexts will be instrumental in reducing vulnerability and strengthening capacity of the affected communities to respond more effectively to flood emergencies. ` 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background information Flooding is one of the most widespread of all the hydro meteorological hazards causing huge annual losses in terms of damage and disruption to economic livelihoods, businesses, infrastructure, services and public health (Few et al., 2004). Table 2.1: Types of floods and their characteristic impacts Type Duration Characteristic impacts Predictable regular Up to 3 Blocks access. Damage and displacement of population flooding months often relatively low depending on levels of protection Increased size of Up to 6 Blocks access to many areas. Greater potential for regular flooding months infrastructure damage, livelihoods impacts, and large displacement of populations. Flash flooding A few days to weeks Rapid cresting often with little warning. High velocity flood flows can destroy infrastructure. Population displacement often localized. Urban flooding A few days Can be rapid-onset, often coming flash floods in urban to weeks rivers or from saturation or blockage of urban drainage systems. Potential for infrastructure damage affecting larger service area. Population displacement often localized. Coastal flooding A few days Often combined with wind damage from storms -. Damage and displacement along coastline with extent depending on storm size. Slow-onset from sustained rainfalls 3-6 months Bock access. Depending on season, damage to crops may be significant. Population displacement limited and may be dependent on food security. Adopted from McCluskey, 2001, cited in ProVention (2008) ` 2 Flood disasters are on the rise and in the past decade, on average more than 140 plus million people have been affected each year with annual mortality estimated at 25,000 (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2005). Of all natural disaster deaths, 97% occur in developing countries. Asia and Africa are the most affected continents with floods accounting for half of these disasters. Much of Africa is vulnerable to flooding with episodes of floods accounting for 26% of total disaster occurrences (Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR), 2004). In Kenya, many parts of the country experience unexpectedly heavy rainfall in mid-April which continues through the end of May and from September to November. The areas that are most prone to flood disasters are the Lake Victoria Basin, comprising of Nyando, Migori, Kisumu and Busia Districts; the Tana River plains and other parts of Eastern and Coastal provinces (Mungai, 2002). Floods in Nyando are caused by rivers overflowing their banks due to their carrying flows in excess of their carrying capacity within their banks. This generally happens during the long and short rains, especially after spells of intense and heavy rainfalls in the catchments of the rivers. The upper reaches of Nyando are in Kericho and Nandi Districts where annual rainfall is high and it is this rain that causes the most devastating of the floods in the basin. The flat terrain reduced vegetation cover and predominantly black cotton soils found in the water sheds do not allow quick infiltration thus increasing surface runoff which causes flash floods. The situation is aggravated by gulley formation due to soil erosion, poor land use and deforestation (Onyango, 2005). ` 3 Floods in the Kano Plains have become more severe and frequent and the rivers have gradually lost their ability to buffer environmental variability. The historical pattern in Nyando shows consistent deforestation and degradation over the last hundred years, punctuated by severe worsening of these problems during the heavy rains that accompanied El Nino events (Mungai, 2002). Flooding in the Nyando is a rapidly growing public health problem in the area. Floods have increased the incidence of a number of water associated diseases among people and animals, constrained crop and tree selection, made transportation more difficult, interrupted schooling and destroyed property and infrastructure (ibid). The magnitude of disaster is not determined by floodwater alone but also by the pattern of vulnerability in which people live. These people, often already vulnerable to other disasters and stresses such as HIV/AIDS, drought, food insecurity, and on-going conflict, are forced to live in hazardous places, building their homes and growing their food in flood plains (ProVention, 2008). Despite the risks, many communities continue to occupy flood plains due to economic advantages of fertile soils and availability of water supply (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1998). Full control of floods is not possible or economically feasible and complete abandonment of the flood prone areas may not be reasonable because it is not only a valuable resource but in many areas, the only means to support life (UNEP, 2008). The scale of damage by a flood event largely depends on the state of preparedness and response mechanisms employed by the communities affected to combat the negative ` 4 impact. Vulnerable people individually and collectively develop their own means, resources and strategies to cope with flooding. Social capital e.g. reciprocal support among neighbours, support from immediate family members and wider kinship networks is a vital safety net for people in coping with recurrent flooding. Shahaduzzaman, (1999) notes: “how people respond will be determined by their personal strengths, those of their families, friends and community, and the resources which they have or receive. The fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007 predicts that heavy precipitation events, which are likely to increase in frequency, will augment flood risks. These floods will affect lives and in human settlements in all areas, e.g. coastal zones, river deltas and mountains. With increasing climatic variability ensuring that water related disasters will not abate any time soon, actions designed to strengthen resilience of communities living in flood-prone locations will be increasingly important in reducing the human burden from flooding. In this context, a focus on the role of community perceptions and responses is crucial in developing a comprehensive understanding of societal vulnerability and how social processes play a decisive role in shaping coping capacities (Few et al,. 2004). 1.2 The problem statement Flooding is a recurrent phenomenon in Nyando District. Population pressure, climate variability, and environmental degradation on flood plain have grown and the risks that floods pose have become increasingly evident. As per the assessment made after recent floods, in the Kano plains, the average annual damage is about US$ 850,000 with annual ` 5 relief and rehabilitation measures costing US$ 600,000 (Associated Programme on Flood Management (APFM), 2004). In the study area, interventions to address the problem of flooding over the years have not produced desired results. This is partly because of the conventional conceptualization and analysis of the flood problem that has ignored local perceptions and experiences and historical processes that are the triggering factors of flood vulnerability. There has been relatively little scientific research characterizing health outcomes of flood hazards and similarly, little social science research targeting how vulnerable populations perceive, respond to flood risks. There is also a growing frequency of small and medium scale disasters related to patterns of human environmental intervention, indicating that disaster risk is accumulating. These disasters have a larger cumulative impact but are generally ignored by both national and international disaster management or development policies and represent a challenge for disaster risk reduction. 1.3 Purpose of the study A major part of improving the management of flood disasters is by gaining a more detailed understanding of the issues at hand. Research is a vital element in this process. Much of the existing literature on flood management in Nyando District has explored the physical aspects of their nature and occurrence (Mungai et. al., 2002; 2004; Walsh et al.,; 2004; the Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), 2005). However, there is also a growing literature that is examining the issue from a social perspective with calls in ` 6 particular for more research into the social responses to flood management, (Few, 2005; Pratt, 2002; Packham, 1992). Consequently, the present study shifts focus and instead chooses to understand constructs of flood risk and local coping strategies as important aspects of flood management in Nyando District. Perception and evaluation of risk has an influence on the costs paid after a disaster. Millions of shillings are spent on flood relief programs annually in the study area and that underscores the relevance of this study. Additionally, in order to develop effective information strategies and policies (risk communication), there is need for baseline data on community perceptions and response to flood risks. 1.4 Study objectives The main objective of this study was to investigate how communities in Nyando District perceive and respond to flood risks in order to develop effective flood warning activities that are tailored to local social contexts. The specific objectives were to: i. Explore traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early warning of flood risks. ii. Establish communities‟ perceptions of floods risks. iii. Identify behavior associated with flood risk management in the study area. iv. Assess attitude of the Nyando communities towards external support systems. ` 7 1.5 The Study was guided by the following research questions: i. What is the existing traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early warning of flood risks? ii. How do Nyando communities perceive flood risks? iii. What are the existing response mechanisms to flood risks? iv. What is the attitude of Nyando communities towards external support systems? 1.6 Null Hypothesis Level of exposure to risk does not influence awareness and use of traditional knowledge, perceptions of flood risks, response mechanisms and attitude towards external support of Nyando communities. 1.7 Significance of the study (rationale) The potential utility of the study is to reduce vulnerability; to strengthen capacity of the affected communities to respond more effectively to flood emergencies and to provide insights into possibility of a more integrated approach to flood prevention and coping with loss.. This study is envisaged to benefit the following groups of people: rural communities living in flood prone areas, disaster managers, policy makers, researchers and scholars, and funding agencies. 1.8 Scope of study and limitations i. Kenya has experienced several flood disasters that have occurred in different parts of the country but the present study concentrated on Nyando District with a ` 8 population of 332,137 (Kenya, 2002-2008). This was necessitated by the available resources and the time frame within which the project was to be completed. ii. The study was not connected to any concrete flood but to related flood experience/s by the respondents. iii. Conclusions are based on information elicited from the fieldwork. iv. Results obtained may not be generalized to other areas when assessing data and making interpretations that would be appropriate across broader scales. 1.9 Assumptions This study was based on the assumptions that: 1. The sample population was assumed to have similar characteristics with the rest of the population residing in Nyando District; therefore they were assumed to be a true representation of the Nyando District community. 2. Assumption was made on the information given by the respondents to be true. 1.10 Conceptual framework This study used a conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer and PenningRoswell, (1990). In this model, modifications were made to focus on the interrelationships between human responses to a natural hazard and how the perceived threat influences subsequent actions. This model helps to illustrate why people continue to live in risk-prone areas. How they assess risk is influenced by several factor; benefits of living in a flood plain, lack of ` 9 alternatives, the unpredictability and changing nature of the risk. Probability of a flood hazard Perception of risk Perceived probability of risk distorted by: Recognizable and tangible benefits of non-hazard experience Risk not acceptable -Social capital: Existence of friends, relatives and wider kinship networks Ignorance or non-comprehension of flood threats Risk acceptance Risk estimation and Evaluation Risk reducing measures: - Adaptation - Adjustment - External assistance --- Individual characteristics: Age, gender, education, income, length of residency and flood experience Resources Availability and Control (Human, economic, and organizational) Figure2.1: A conceptual model adapted and modified from Handmer and PenningRoswell, (1990) that elicits perception and the behavioural response to flood hazards. ` 10 The model further highlights important human attributes (some quantifiable and some non- quantifiable) affect how people perceive risk; socio-economic characteristics, peoples Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of the environment and experience of flood hazards. Coping is also highlighted in the model, which illustrates risk reducing measures to respond to unacceptable perceived threats and the role of external assistance. The underlying factors affect each other in a complex interrelationship. Whether strategies are effective is ultimately an outcome of resource availability and control. 1.11 Theoretical framework This study combined the cultural theory paradigm (Thompson et. al. 1990; Dake, 1991) and the Psychometric approach (Fischhoff et al., 1997; Slovic, 1987; 1992 cited in Plapp, 2006) to reveal the underlying cognitive structure of risk and the influences of social values. In addition to the cultural theory and psychometric approach, some further components were included in the research design to obtain a better overview on possible influences on risk perception and coping strategies. 1.11.1 Cultural Theory Paradigm The cultural approach perceives environment and risk as social constructs (Wildavsky, 1979 cited in Krimsky and Golding, 1992). It further assumes that cultural patterns structure the mind-set of individuals and social organizations to adopt certain values and ` 11 reject others. These selected values determine the perception of risks and benefits (Renn, 1992). According to cultural theory, risk management is the proximate stimulus rather than its outcome. In addition to being proactive, management strategies in cultural theory include various coping and adaptive behaviors that tend to be discounted in conventional approaches (Rayner, 1992). Risk communication in cultural theory emphasizes creation of shared meaning and trust over the transfer of quantitative information (Rayner, 1988 cited in cited in Krimsky and Golding, 1992). The cultural theory is fundamentally concerned first with relationships among human beings and second with societal relationships with nature. Methodological individualism that extrapolates from individual behavior to social action has no place in cultural analysis (Rayner, 1992). The cultural theory of risk is arguably the most eloquent and comprehensive framework, although it has been criticized for its lack of empirical evidence and apparent relativism (Krimsky and Golding, 1992). 1.11.2 The Cognitive /Psychometric Paradigm The psychometric paradigm encompasses a theoretical framework that assumes that risk is subjectively defined by individuals who may be influenced by a wide array of psychological, social, institutional and their interrelationships can be quantified and modeled in order to illuminate the responses of individuals and their societies to the hazards that confront them (Slovic, 1992). ` 12 The psychometric paradigm (Slovic, 2000) concentrates on various risk characteristics or risk dimensions to explain the sometimes „irrational‟ perceptions of „lay persons‟. This approach assesses the cognitive structure of risk - not actual behavior. This method uses questionnaires to ask people directly about their perceptions of risks and benefits and their „expressed preferences‟ for various kinds of risk /benefit trade-offs. The psychometric paradigm with its elicitation of perceptions and expressed preferences assumes that people can provide meaningful answers to difficult, if not impossible questions. The results are dependent upon the set of hazards studied, the questions asked about these hazards, the types of persons questioned and the data analysis methods. ` 13 1.12 Operational definition of terms Acceptable risk: The level of loss a community considers acceptable given existing social-economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental conditions Adaptation: Change in behavior and functioning of a system to reduce vulnerability. Attitude: Feelings, beliefs and behavior tendencies towards concepts related to flood risks and flood management. Catchment area: The area from which water runs off to a river. Cognition: The conscious or unconscious process of deriving meaning from sensory data. So „perceived risk‟ is termed cognated risk‟. Community: A process where the concerned communities function and Participation contribute to a cohesive group to perform an activity. Education: Highest level of education attained by the respondent. For example: primary, secondary and university Early warning: The provision of timely and effective information, that allows individuals exposed floods to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response. Flood: A temporary covering of land by water outside its normal confines. Flood control: Interventions to limit flooding. Flood damage: Damage to receptors (buildings, infrastructure, goods), production and intangibles (life, cultural and ecological assets) by a flood. Flood forecasting ` A system designed to forecast flood levels before they occur: 14 Flood disaster: A flood event that has the potential to cause harm with resulting damage or risk to health, life and livelihoods. Flood vulnerability: Measure of risk combined with the level of social and economic ability to cope with a flood event High risk areas: Areas highly prone to flooding. Household: A person or group of people who occupy the same dwelling as their primary residence. Low risk areas: Areas medium prone to flooding. Income: Amount of incoming money from various sources at the end of each month. Intervention: A planned activity designed to effect an improvement in an existing flood management system. Key informant: Participant who commands respect in the community either due to their profession or position of leadership. Perception of risk: The subjective assessment of flood risks based on experience and information acquired within the social, cultural and historical context of the study area. Preparedness: The ability to ensure effective response to flood impact. Resilience: The ability of a system/community/society/defense to react to and recover from the damaging effect of floods. Response: Activities that occur in the aftermath of a flood to assist victims and to rehabilitate or reconstruct the physical structures of the community. ` 15 Risk: The probability of harmful consequences to human population resulting from flooding. Risk perception: Risk perception is the view of risk held by a person or group and reflects cultural and personal values, as well as experience. Susceptibility: The propensity of an individual/household/community to experience harm. Traditional: The whole body of knowledge developed over time by knowledge communities to predict the coming of heavy rains and floods. Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of flood hazards. ` 16 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses literature related to the subject of the study. The literature was reviewed under various major headings which included: Nature of flood risks, vulnerability to flood risks, perception of flood risks, behavioral response to flood risks and attitude towards external support. 2.2 Nature of flood risks Natural hazards, otherwise known as environmental hazards, are generally defined as geophysical events that can potentially cause large-scale economic damage and physical injury or death (Johnson et al., 2000: 216). It is into this category that flood hazards fall. Floods can be predicted to a reasonable extent with the exception of flash flood, whose scale and nature are often less certain (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), 2005) When interaction with humans occurs, floods have the potential to exact a huge impact on the public health of human populations. Since 1900, for example, flood disasters alone have led to at least 6.8 million reported deaths and 1.3 million reported injuries (Few et al., 2004). Outbreaks of flood related diseases have been reported following major flood events. The immediate health impacts are increase in cases of diarrhoea, cholera, malaria, typhoid, skin diseases and mental problems (Few et al., 2005). ` 17 Access to food stuff may prove difficult or impossible when food distribution networks are unable to operate. The impact of inundation of crops and agricultural land affects not only the local community but even those who live further away but are reliant on food production from these lands (Badjeck, 2004). Floods destroy shelter, schools, hospitals, power lines, roads and are liable to result in population displacement. This displacement can result in individuals losing their homes, possessions and livelihoods (Few et al., 2005). The consequences of floods are by no means solely negative. Seasonal river floods in particular play a big role in supporting eco systems, renewing soil fertility in cultivated flood plains (Wisner et al., 2004). In regions such as the flood plains of Bangladesh, a „normal‟ level of seasonal flooding is therefore regarded as positive: it is only when a flood reaches an abnormal level that it is perceived negatively as a damaging effect (Parker, 2000, cited in Few, 2004). Photo 2.1: Showing the general state of roads at onset, during and soon after the flood season. ` 18 2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health Understanding how a community perceives health risks such as polluted water, inadequate drainage, or lack of garbage collection is essential to designing effective programs to address those problems. Individuals perceive risks to their health through a lens derived from their cultural, economic, societal, and educational backgrounds and respond accordingly. For example, a squatter in a slum in Calcutta, India, might happily boil water collected at a public tap rather than move to a house with piped water that was located far from job opportunities; a middle-class family in Los Angeles would probably make a very different choice (Messner, 2005). Until recently, these differences in how people view and respond to risks were not part of formal health risk analysis, which has traditionally relied on statistical correlations between exposure to risks and the incidence of various illnesses. Now, health planners are beginning to realize that using such objective measures of risk to design public health projects without accounting for how the affected community itself views the health risk being addressed is a recipe for failure. It is increasingly recognized that individual values, beliefs and behavior operate within a social context. There is growing consensus that local perceptions and indigenous knowledge should be important elements in the evaluation of programs aimed at improving health. Recent literature on health promotion has focused on the notion that individual values, beliefs and behavior operate within a social context. As reviewed recently in Health Promotion International by Whitelaw and colleagues (Whitelaw et al., ` 19 2001), and discussed at length by Poland et al., (2000), „settings‟-based activity has indeed become very popular, as it offers health promotion a conceptual base that allows a much broader multi-sectoral and trans-disciplinary approach to health promotion. Of the various models of settings-based approaches, a preferred approach is one that combines top level commitment and guidance with a high level of community and individual participation (Whitelaw et al, 2001). Perceived health risk is inherently multidimensional, with many characteristics other than the probability of harm affecting human judgment. How „risky‟ an exposure or behavior is perceived to be by a given individual depends on a long list of factors, including whether the risk is perceived to be voluntary, familiar, amenable to easy change, associated with benefits, and associated with immediate or short-term versus delayed or long-term impacts. While the relationship between changing health risk perceptions and changing health behaviors and health status is still quite unclear, understanding the factors, and in particular the social factors, that impact health risk perception is useful in designing mitigation strategies (Robert et al., 2003 cited in Messner, 2005). „Social construction of risk‟ refers to the notion that how a society collectively defines and responds to a given hazard is determined by social discourse, not merely by science or technological information (McDaniels, 1998). The use of „change in health risk perception‟ as an indicator of the impact of the intervention implicitly takes into consideration the influence of the social construction of risk. Thus, it is important to understand the very strong influence of social context in evaluating health promotion ` 20 initiatives in Kenya. In this social context is a component of monitoring changes in health risk perception, which is a particularly useful adjunct to other indicators of effectiveness of the intervention (Spiegel et al., 2001; Spiegel et al., 2003). According to various studies on the perception of technical and environmental risks, there are several factors which influence risk among which are: characteristic of the risk source, value attitudes, ethnic, cultural and socio economic background (Solvic, 1996, 2000 and Vaughan/Nordenstam, 1991; cited in Messner, 2005) and personal variables such as profession, individual‟s level of risk tolerance, knowledge, and communication of changing social views of risk (Barke et al., 1997; Smith, 2001: 59, cited in Messner, 2005). Therefore risk is regarded here as multidimensional concept that combines both the subjective (quantitative) assessments based on experience and information as well as the perceived or attributed risk characteristics within a certain context (Renn, 1989). 2.4 Vulnerability to Flood Risks Dow (1992) and Cutter (1996) have provided reviews of the development of the concept of vulnerability over the years. Despite differences in the definition of the term “vulnerability,” two main views have emerged (e.g. Adger et al., 2004 cited in Nethengwe, 2007). The first view treats vulnerability as a pre-existing condition and focuses on potential exposure to hazards (Cutter, 1996). The second major perspective on vulnerability suggests that not all individuals and groups exposed to a hazard are equally vulnerable; rather, people display patterns of differential vulnerability (Blaikie, 2004). This differential vulnerability depends on exposure and on the coping ability of those ` 21 affected and their resilience levels (Dow, 1992; Watts and Bohle, 1993; Cutter, 1996; Clark et al., 1998; cited in Nethengwe, 2007). Cutter (1996) asserts that a third major theme is emerging in vulnerability literature. The concept of vulnerability as a “hazard of place” combines elements of differential vulnerability and vulnerability as a pre-existing condition. This approach called the vulnerability of places framework by Nethengwe, (2007) treats vulnerability as both a biophysical risk and a social response within a specific geographic domain. Researchers such as Yarnal, (1994) and Clark et al., (1998) have employed this approach. Flood vulnerability is thus not merely proximity to flood zones, but it is the product of the flood as a physical, political and socio-economic phenomenon (Alexander, 1993; 1997). Generally, marginalized groups have less social powers and fewer economic resources and physical capacity to anticipate, survive and recover from the effects of massive floods (Few et al., 2003). Poverty is a major factor that increases vulnerability and impacts of floods are likely to persist longer among the poor. People in these areas have less possibility for evacuation from flood prone areas and are more vulnerable to flood related diseases which can prove fatal (Coutio, 2004). The elderly, the disabled and the children are particularly vulnerable, and gender -biased attitudes and stereotypes can complicate response and extend the time for recovery (Pilon, 1999). 2.5 Behavioural response to flood risks People take some positive action to reduce losses, and some preventive action much in advance of the hazard event, and others choose a large number of adjustments. The ` 22 reasons for diversity might be due to differences in what people know about hazardous events, how they perceive them, and the concepts they use to classify their experiences and make decisions accordingly (Eyob, 1999). Adjustments vary tremendously, by hazard and society, but are universally found (Kates, 1978). It has also been emphasized that for a number of African countries, adaptation is an option not by choice but by compulsion. 2.5.1 Coping mechanism Historically, all communities living in flood plains have always co-existed with floods and many studies identify such communities to have a traditional flood culture, characterized by adjustments to mitigate flood damage. Due to frequency of long history of flooding, it is possible to find collective action patterns and cognitive patterns which are adjusted to the hazard situation; through the elimination of doubt, thus making the situation predictable (Kates, 1978). Social capital e.g. reciprocal support among neighbours, support from immediate family members and wider kinship networks, is a vital safe net for people in coping with recurrent flooding (ProVention, 2008). The most basic coping mechanism is that of the family. Kinship is a strong bond and in times of need people will first look up to their families and relatives for support (Wijkman, 1984). Del Ninno et al., (2000) for example reports on how borrowing and selling belongings and reducing food consumption became short term economic coping mechanisms for poor families affected by the extreme Bangladesh flooding of 1998. ` 23 Community level action strongly suggests that response at this level may be of key importance in influencing public health. One crucial area in terms of public safety is warning and evacuation, for which community based activities, may provide the key to survival (Few et al., 2004). Religious/ social institutions help individuals to cope during emergency periods. They provide leadership, shelter, emotional support and help with burials. In some areas, churches are also called upon to ensure emergency aid is distributed equitably. Internal political/ economic organizations serve as point through which the government can provide assistance to the victims. Mutual aid groups such as agricultural cooperatives and labor unions provide leadership as well as some degree of financial support (Wijkman, 1984). Response to flood risks that involves a change in action or policy is referred to as adaptation, and the ability of people and systems to bring about such changes is referred to as adaptive capacity (Few et al., 2004). As with coping capacity adaptive capacity of people and systems is shaped by social, economic and political processes (Adger et al., 2003). 2.5.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and warning Flood forecasting and warning is one of the most important tools to reduce flood risks and minimize impact on life and property. At present many rural populations most in need of hydro-meteorological and environmental information are not able to access it and have to depend heavily on highly refined perception of nature through the interpretation of signs (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), 2005). ` 24 Communities have their own early warning systems woven into their culture. They observe nature and changes that take place in the flora, the behavior of animals, the rivers and clouds. These changes according to them provide signals for impending disasters (Sharma, 2002). This knowledge is the sum of facts that are known or learned from experience or acquired through observation and study and handed down from generation to generation. Communities identify themselves easily with indigenous knowledge systems which have enabled them to live in harmony with their environments for generations (UNEP, 2008). Indigenous knowledge gained international recognition after the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in June, 99 in Rio de Janeiro. Agenda one of the environmental agreements signed at UNCED emphasizes that governments and intergovernmental organizations should respect, record, and work toward incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into research and development programs for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainability of agricultural and natural resource management systems. Other international documents, such as the 1980 “World Conservation Strategy” by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), also paved the way for the recognition of the role played by indigenous knowledge in biodiversity and human development (UNEP, 2008). 2.6 Attitude towards external support The responsibility of providing relief during natural disasters falls mainly on the government, which is supposed to have proper machinery, logistics and resources. In ` 25 areas frequently visited by disasters of a kind, local and international NGOs are also known to provide relief and rehabilitation services (Sharma, 2002). In many emergency contexts, aid agencies hesitate to provide food and other aid for extended periods because of fears that this may create „dependency‟. Concerns about dependency can influence decisions about levels of assistance, and affect what type of assistance people receive, where and when Harvey (2005) argues that framing concerns in terms of dependency is unhelpful and can result in cutting back relief of people who may still be in desperate need. The focus should be not how to avoid dependency but how to provide sufficiently reliable and transparent assistance so that those most in need understand what they are entitled to and can rely on it as part of their own efforts to survive crisis. ` 26 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter presents the following: research design; variables; location of study; population and sample selection; sampling procedure and sample size; data collection instruments, data collection procedures; and data analysis. 3.2 Location of study The study was carried out in Nyando, one of the 12 districts in Nyanza province. It has 3 main topographical land formations namely the Nandi Hills, the Nyabondo Plateu and the Kano Plains which are sandwiched between the two hills. The district has a total land area of 1,168.42 km with a population of 332,137 (Kenya, 2002-2008). Nyando District is divided into five administrative divisions namely, Upper Nyakach, Lower Nyakach, Nyando, Miwani and Muhoroni. Nyando, Miwani and Lower Nyakach divisions have been conveniently selected as large parts of these areas fall in the Kano Plain which over the years has experienced the worst effects of flood hazards and people who continue to live there are still vulnerable to perennial flooding. Sondu Miriu, Nyando, Awach and Ombei rivers drain from the Nandi Hills where high rainfall is received to Lake Victoria through very large low lying plains which are also very heavily populated and are a major cause of persistent flooding along their banks as they approach the lake with devastating effects. The Kano plains feature very small ` 27 slopes/altitude/gradient, large swamps and comprise of predominantly black cotton soils with moderate fertility and poor drainage. Nyando River Basin covers an area of 3517 square kilometres of Western Kenya and has about 258738 (35%) persons from Nyando District residing within the Basin (Mungai, 2002). The lower reaches of Nyando lie between 1000 and 1300 meters above sea level. It is the hottest and the driest region of the basin with annual average rainfall ranging from 800mm to 1200 mm, the annual average maximum temperatures ranging from 29 0 0 31 c while the annual average minimum temperatures range from 12-16 c. The natural vegetation is open scrubland (Onyango et al., 2005). Dominant river action is deposition and the region is characterized by flooding as a result several rice irrigation schemes have been set up. Annual flooding near the delta leaves rich alluvial deposits that are cultivated and yield good harvests. The deposits also cause the river channel to shift. This has led to serious inter-clan conflict in the delta region because the river is used as a boundary and this boundary keeps shifting. The government is yet to find a lasting solution. The most valued fields are those found in the flood plains. 3.3 Research Design The study used the cross sectional descriptive survey design, as it sought to establish and describe a prevailing phenomenon. The design was suitable for this study given that extensive data on traditional knowledge, perceptions and coping strategies associated with flood risks was collected at one point in time. Apart from reporting the current ` 28 status, the collected data were used to determine whether and to what extent relationships exist between and among the variables considered in the study. 3.4 Study variables i. The dependent variable was: category of risk (high or low risk) ii. The independent variables were: Knowledge, attitude, awareness, perception, socio-demographic, socio-economic and socio cultural factors. iii. Preparedness for floods was measured in terms of measures taken before and after the flood events. iv. Emergency responses were measures taken during the flood events. v. Insufficient food supply was measured in terms of households having to survive on less than two meals a day. 3.5 Sampling techniques and sample size 3.5.1 Sampling technique Given the very large size of the District, areas of study were selected using a multi-stage sampling process. In view of the important role of institutional factors in influencing community responses, the administrative ladder of division and location and sub location was used for selection of study areas (Table 3.2). Based on meteorological information on the extent and frequency of flooding, 3 frequently flooded divisions, Nyando, Miwani and Lower Nyakach were selected out of the five divisions based on most-prone, medium-prone and least-prone categories, 3 most-prone locations and 3 medium-prone locations, one from each division were selected out of the total 17 locations. The most- ` 29 prone category consisted of areas that experience extensive high frequency of flooding; the middle-prone category consisted of areas that experience moderate flooding and the least-prone category consisted of areas that experience little or no flooding incidences. A list of most frequently flooded sub-locations having experienced floods in recent years was drawn from the 3 most-prone locations and two selected from each location. Following a similar approach, 6 medium-prone sub-locations, 2 from each medium-prone location were also selected. The reason for selecting high prone and medium prone (termed low for purposes of comparison) categories was to give a wider coverage to the sample and to see if there were any significant differences between the two risk levels. Identification and selection of respondents was divided into two groups; flood area residents, in order to analyze perceptions and response from the perspective of local citizens, and institutional representatives chosen in order to analyze perceptions and response from the perspective of decision makers and their respective institutions. Simple Random Sampling procedure was used to identify households selected to participate in the interview. ` 30 Table 3.2: Selection of study area using the Nyando District administrative ladder Administrative Location Division Nyando Miwani Sub-location Wawidhi/ Kakola Magina K. Ahero Kochogo Kochogo North Kochogo central Ahero Irrigation Scheme Kore Ombeyi N.East Kano Lower Nyakach North Nyakach N. East Nyakach Kabar West Ramulla Gem Nam Gem Rae Agoro West Agoro East Population (Division total) Households (Division total) 64,511 14,029 58,029 13,982 49,247 11,149 3.5.2 Sample size determination The river basins cover an area of 3517 square kilometres of Western Kenya and have about 258,738 (35%) persons from Nyando District residing within (Mungai, 2002). The sample size for all the sub-locations was computed using the fisher formula: n =Z2 pqD/d2 (Fishers et al, 1998) Where, N = the sample size Z = the standard normal deviate (1.96), which corresponds to 95% confidence interval. P = persons living in Nyando District at risk of flooding = 258,000 q = total population in Nyando District (332,137) – residents at risk of flooding ` 31 d = the degree of accuracy = 0.05 D = heterogeneous population (most prone and medium prone) = 2 Thus, N = (1.962*0.22*0.78)2/0.052 = 528 Stratified and Proportional Sampling Methods were used to identify individual study participants (Table 3.3). These techniques were used to assure representation on the relative size of the data. Table 3.3: Summary of results of Stratified and Proportional Sampling Stratum by Division Stratum by Sub-location Nyando (households) Most prone (High risk) Magina K. Ahero Medium prone (Low risk) Miwani Most prone Medium prone Lower Nyakach Most prone Medium prone Percentage in sample household population Sample size in sublocations (households) 18% 95 18% 95 18% 95 Kabar West Ramulla 18% 95 Gem Nam Gem Rae 14% 74 14% 74 100% 528 Kochogo North Kochogo central Ahero Irrigation Scheme Kore Agoro West Agoro East Households (Division total) 14,029 (36%) 13,982 (36%) 11,149 (28%) 39,160 ` 32 3.6 Study Population The study targets all rural populations at risk of flooding. The accessible population for this study was the Nyando District communities at risk of flooding. The sample population was composed of 528 households, 6 selected government officials, 5 project managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with disaster management in the area and 7 focus group discussions; 3 groups of women to accommodate the different age categories and socio-economic status, 2 groups of men to accommodate the different age categories and socio-economic status and 2 groups involving teaching staff of both primary and secondary schools. The main sampling unit was the household. 3.6.1 Inclusion criteria a) Adult residents in the selected divisions who were at risk of flooding b) Local government officials connected with and working on disaster management c) Project managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with flood management in the area. 3.6.2 Exclusion Criteria a) Residents in the selected divisions who were not at risk of flooding. b) Residents in the other divisions that were not in the sample population. c) Local government officials not connected with disaster management. d) Project managers of CBO‟S and NGO‟S that were not dealing with flood management in the area. ` 33 3.7 Construction of research instruments This research adopted both quantitative and qualitative techniques using pre-tested house hold questionnaires, desk reviews, focus group discussions and in-depth individual discussions. The advantage of using such an approach was that both forms of data collected complemented each other. For example, interviews could not be rigorously analysed as quantitative data. However, they offered possible interpretations to trends found within the numbers. Likewise, questionnaires provided a large amount of nominal data to highlight the major trends and empirical findings. However, they did not enable more abstract relationships to be interpreted, for which the qualitative dimension was more suited. Therefore, combining the two approaches gave a more realistic interpretation of people‟s knowledge, perceptions, behaviour and attitude to flood risks. Furthermore, it helped to minimise the limitations of each form of data collection. 3.7.1 Household questionnaire The questions were designed in such a way that it was able to capture both nominal and ordinal data. It was used to measure a number of variables including: traditional flood knowledge, risk perception, community social cohesion, coping action and attitude towards external support. The survey was designed to take no longer than 30 minutes to complete, in order to encourage as many people as possible to participate. The layout of the questions, which predominantly involved choosing from a list of options also made the questionnaire easy to respond to. Provision for additional responses was made where ` 34 appropriate so as not to restrict people‟s responses unduly. The identical survey was used in both high and low risk levels. . 3.7.2 Interview guide for key informants A total of 11 In-depth interviews were conducted. Arrangements were made to conduct the half-hour long semi-formal interviews at the respondents‟ homes and offices. The conversations were taped and brief notes were also taken (in case of technical failure). The interview schedule guided the conversation but where additional interesting and useful points emerged these were further pursued. In addition, several questions were tailored to each interviewee. Key informant discusions provided a cross sampling and triangulation of public views and concerns. 3.7.3 Focus group discussion A total of 7 focus group discussions were conducted. Arrangements were made to conduct the one and half hours long semi-formal discussions at the chiefs‟ camps, the DO‟s office and in classrooms at nearby local primary schools. The discussion schedule guided the moderator but where additional interesting and useful points emerged these were further pursued. The FGD‟s were conducted from the 19th to the 30th of May 2006. On average, there were 8 participants per FGD. 3.8 Pilot study Located 80 km from Kisumu City are Gem-Rae and Gem-Nam sub locations in Nyando District. These areas were purposively selected for the pilot study because they border ` 35 river Awach and are prone to frequent flash floods. The research instruments were pretested prior to the main study on 30 households of similar characteristics as the target population but which were not included in the final study. The main reasons for carrying out the pilot study were to test the instruments regarding ambiguity, sensitivity and appropriateness. Apart from providing accuracy to the tools, the preliminary study helped to estimate the time it would take to complete an interview session. 3.8.1 Validity of instruments Prior to taking the survey into the field, it was vetted by a number of sources. An informal pretest of the survey was carried out with 30 subjects and the data collection tools were structured around the responses derived from the pilot study. A professional translator used to translate the instruments from English to Dholuo before the interviews. Weaknesses detected in the instruments during the pre-testing were corrected in order to refine them so as to enhance validity. In cases of any flaws and bias, the instruments were modified for more clarity and accuracy. Validity was also enhanced through triangulation because of the use of multiple data collection methods. 3.8.2 Reliability of instruments To achieve standardization, four research assistants were trained to participate in the data collection of the study. They were given training on the objectives of the investigation, introduction to survey procedures and sampling procedures. They were also conversant in English, Kiswahili and Luo (the local language). In both risk levels, the direct contact with participants provided additional qualitative information that was useful in ` 36 understanding their responses. Field assistants worked in pairs for accuracy and the researcher (self) accompanied each group on alternate days Complementing the household survey, FGDs and Key informant interviews were undertaken with a range of representatives. These interviews were conducted in the local language and where difficulties, Kiswahili and English were used. All FGDs and in-depth individual interviews were audio recorded (to carry out an accurate content analysis of the verbal responses) and notes taken. All data collected was checked after completion of each interview to make sure that all questions were asked and the answers recorded clearly. The same information was counter checked by the researcher at the end of each day. All the survey data was entered into the statistical analysis program SPSS. Two identical files were created to guarantee separation of data for each risk level. Once all cases were entered, these files were then merged to allow for comparison. To avoid interpreter biases the researcher (self) entered all the data. After the first few cases were entered, a thorough review of the entry process was undertaken to check for accuracy and consistency. 3.9 Data Collection Techniques The questionnaires and FGDs involved selected community members. In-depth individual discussions included local government officials involved in flood management and project managers of CBOs and NGOs dealing with flood management in the area. Before conducting the interview the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the ` 37 respondents and assured them of confidentiality. The interviewer/moderator read out each question to the respondents/participants and checked the correct answer in the instrument for the close-ended items while for the open-ended, brief field notes were taken. Audio tapes were also used to record key informant and FGD discussions. Photo 3.1: Selection of participants for FGD discussion (Chief‟s camp) 3.10 Ethical considerations Permission to carry out the research was sought from the ethical board of Kenyatta University and relevant authorities of the Ministry of Education Science and Technology, the district and local government. Target respondents were given adequate explanation on the purpose of the research and thereafter given time any questions or seek clarification. ` 38 All respondents were taken through the required informed consent procedures. This was done at the point of recruitment and at the start of each interview/discussion. 3.11 Data Analysis Methods Three classes of data exist within the survey: data that categorizes and describes people, data that categorizes behavior of people and data that reveals perceptions, attitudes, opinions and beliefs. Typical topics used to address this data include: knowledge, perceptions, behavior, attitude and demographics. This data were analyzed using the computer package, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 11.5 and Excel spread sheets. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze continuous and categorical data. This was presented in form of frequencies and percentages. The Chi-square test was used to determine associations between the dependent and independent variables for categorical data. It was also used to establish differences between high risk and low risk groups. The level of significance was fixed at 0.05 (p=0.05). ` 39 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Results 4.1.1 Introduction This chapter contains detailed presentation and discussion of data analysis and the results of this study. The findings are presented under the following major headings: demographic and socio-economic characteristics; traditional knowledge; flood risk perception; coping mechanisms; and attitude towards external assistance. The main determining factor of response was the proneness of a particular place towards floods. 4.1.2 Socio demographic characteristics, education and socio-economic status 4.1.2.1 Age and sex of respondents Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented, with slightly larger numbers in the lowest age bracket 18-25 and 41-50 categories accounting for 117(22.1%) and 116(22%) of the respondents, respectively (Table 4.1). The oldest age bracket was 60 and above years which accounted for 71(13.5%) of the respondents. The proportion of ages of males to females was about 43.8% and 56.2% in all age groups. 4.1.2.2 Marital Status of respondents The findings of this study showed that majority the respondents 353(67.9%) were married and living with their spouses, Table 4.1. A further, 114(21.1%) were widowed, 56 (8.6%) were single, while 0.8(1%) were divorced. The age and gender distribution is summarized in Table 4.1. ` 40 Table 4.1: Age, gender and marital status of respondents Variable Age Total Gender Total Marital status Total Category 18-25 26-32 33-40 41-50 51-60 60+ Male Female Married Single Divorced Separated Widowed Low risk Frequency 65 33 39 56 38 33 264 102 162 264 174 34 1 1 54 264 High risk Percentage (%) 12.3 6.3 7.4 10.5 7.2 6.3 50% 19.3 30.7 50% 33 6.4 0.4 0.4 10.2 50% Total Frequency Percentage (%) 52 9.8 34 6.4 38 7.6 60 11.4 42 8.0 38 7.2 264 50% 129 24.4 135 25.6 264 50% 179 33.9 22 4.2 1 0.4 2 0.8 60 11.4 264 50% 4.1.2.3 Educational levels of the respondents Most studies indicate that there is a positive relationship between education and knowledge and practices of people. Educational levels of the respondents are presented in Figure 4.1. ` 41 Figure 4.1: A comparison of educational levels between male and female respondents In general, the findings showed that 99(18.8%) had not gone to school at all and an overwhelming 86(86.9%) were women. Only a quarter 129(24.5%) of the participants had gone beyond primary level and among these, 124(23.5%) had completed secondary education while 17(3.3%) had some post secondary education. The low levels of education could be attributed to high poverty levels and lack of motivation to pursue higher education. ` 42 4.1.2.4 Main source of income in household The survey indicates the main occupation of a majority 350(66.3%) to be subsistent farming. A larger proportion of the respondents in the high risk areas were farmers 201 (38.1) as compared to those in the low risk areas 164(31.1). A small proportion 73(13.9%) consisted of large scale farmers and business people. A mere 68(12.9%) were grouped under the unemployed category and these included the jobless, students and housewives. The remaining 37(6%) of the respondents grouped under professional workers included teachers, medical workers, owners and skilled artisan; carpenters, mechanics, fishermen, vegetable vendors etc Table 4.2). Table 4.2: Socio-economic characteristics of respondent in the study area Variable Category Main occupation Subsistence Farmer Large scale Farmer Business Housewife Student Professional Worker Skilled artisan Jobless Total Income Total ` <2500 2501-5000 5001-10000 10001-20000 20001-30000 30001-40000 40001+ Low risk Frequency Percent 162 2 35 15 8 13 16 13 264 202 36 11 9 3 1 2 264 30.7 0.4 6.6 2.8 1.5 2.5 3.0 2.5 50% 38.3 6.8 2.1 1.7 0.6 0.2 0.4 50% High risk Frequency Percent 188 13 23 11 9 6 2 12 264 178 46 22 9 5 3 1 264 35.6 2.5 4.4 2.1 1.7 1.1 0.4 2.3 50% 33.7 8.7 4.2 1.7 0.9 0.6 0.2 50% 43 4.1.2.5 Household family income The modal gross family income was below 2,500Kshs. which represents a huge proportion 380(72 %) of the households (less than a dollar a day putting them below the poverty line). A larger proportion of respondents in the low risk areas 202(38.3%) fell in this category as compared to those in the high risk areas 178 (33.7%) Nearly 115(21.8%) had a monthly income of between 2501Ksh and 10,000Ksh. while a mere 33(6.3%) earned above 10,000Ksh. During the flood season, income was supplemented in a small way through the sale of livestock, farm produce and fish. 4.1.2.6 Incomes of males Vs females In this study the incomes of the males were compared to those of the females. The study findings showed income levels to be rather low among the females as compared to their spouses. A majority of the females 232(78.1%) earned less than 2500 shillings per month compared to 148 (64.1%) of their male counterparts. The findings further indicate a significantly smaller proportion of women 50 (16.8%) compared to males 32(13.9%) and 8(2.7%) females to males25 (10.8%) in the 2501-5000 and 5,000-10,000 income categories respectively. A mere 7(2.3%) of the females were represented in the 10, 000+ categories which is less than one third of 26(11.2%) of their male counterparts. The results are summarized in Figure 4.2. ` 44 Figure 4.2: A comparison of income levels of the male and female respondents 4.1.2.8 House types It was observed that a high proportion 449(89.0%) of the wall structures were made of mud. Nearly 47(8.9%) of walls were made of stone or brick 8.4% while a smaller proportion 5(1%) were of timber. A mere 7(1.3%) of the walls were constructed with mats and reeds in the high risk areas. Results further indicate that a huge proportion 442(83.2.9%) of the house structures had iron sheet roofing whilst a mere 68(12.9%) and 17(3.2%) had their roofs thatched with grass and Makuti (reeds), respectively (Table 4.3). ` 45 Table 4.3: Wall structure and roof types of households Variable Category Household wall Mud structure Stone/Bricks Timber Mats/reeds Total Roof Types Iron sheets Grass Makuti (reeds) Total Low risk Frequency Percent (%) 224 42.4 36 4 0 264 218 34 11 264 6.8 0.8 0 50% 41.4 6.5 2.1 50% High risk Frequency Percent (%) 225 46.4 11 1 7 264 224 34 6 264 2.1 0.2 1.3 50% 42.5 6.5 1.1 50% 4.1.2.9 Length of residency Slightly over half 280(53%) of the respondents had been living in study area for more than 20 years in both high and low risk areas. Nearly 107(20.3 %) had residents for over 10years while a mere 58(11%), 37(7%) and 17(5%) had been residing in the area for 6-10 years, 4-6 years and 2-3 years respectively. The smallest fraction 19(3.6%) had been in Nyando District for less than a year. They were either newly married, or had recently relocated to the area due to business or employment (Table 4.4 shows details). ` 46 Table 4.4: Length of residency of study population in Nyando District Length of Residency 1yrs 2yrs 3yrs 4-6yrs 6-10yrs 10-20 yrs 20+yrs Total Low risk Frequency Percentage (%) 14 2.7 7 1.3 9 1.7 21 4.0 33 6.3 51 9.7 129 24.4 264 50 High risk Frequency Percentage (%) 5 0.9 6 1.1 5 0.9 16 3.0 25 4.7 56 10.6 151 28.6 264 50 4.1.3 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting Findings of the study revealed that a high proportion 252(95%) of respondents in the high risk areas had knowledge of traditional flood forecasting and warning. Correspondingly, huge majority of respondents in the low risk areas 230(87.1) also reported having some local knowledge on flood forecasting and warning. Results are summarized in Table 4.5. Table 4.5: Local knowledge of flood forecasting and warning Local knowledge of flood forecasting and warning 1 Yes 2 No Total ` Low risk Frequency percentage 230 87.1 34 12.9 264 100 High risk Frequency percentage 252 95.5 12 4.5 264 100.0 47 4.1.3.1 Main source of traditional flood information A huge proportion 357(73.8%) of the interviewees in the study reported getting flood information mainly through personal observation. They observed changes in weather pattern and river levels. A summary of these results are presented in Figure 4.3. 80 75.4 72.1 70 Percentage (%) 60 50 40.8 Low risk High risk 40 26.7 30 20 14.2 4.9 10 11.7 5.3 0 Personal Observation Old people Relatives Friends Source of flood information Figure 4.3: Sources of traditional flood information in the community Smaller proportions of the respondents 163(33.7%), 46(9.5%) and 41(8.5%) received this information from elderly residents, relatives and friends, respectively. 4.1.3.2 Traditional flood warning systems In order to implement some of the traditional flood mitigation practices based on the understanding of climatic changes as described above, the following early warning ` 48 indicators have been used by the Nyando communities in the study area (Table 4.6). Awareness of flood indicators was significantly higher in the high risk areas. 4.1.3.2.1 Behavior of human beings, animals and plants The physical appearance and behavior of both domestic and wild animals were considered important indications of future events. Table 4.5 shows respondents in both low risk 28(11.7%) and high risk areas 43(17.6%) having reported that when the elderly people experienced aches/pains in joints/bones (Del gi choke maremo)), it was an indication of approaching floods. Loud distraught noises from domestic animals, the siting of unusually large number of cow egrets (Okok), loud and persistent croaking of frogs (ogwal) and movement of ants (ochunglo) to higher ground were other signals of impending floods. 4.1.3.2.2 Knowledge of weather pattern When and when not to expect rains helped to reach conclusions on the probability of flooding and the subsequent course of action on the part of local community. This involved predicting probability of future flood events by watching for changes in the rain pattern. Heavy rain in the area accompanied by strong winds blowing from the river towards the hills (yamo makudho matek) was considered by half 242(50.5%) of the respondents in both risk areas to signal the approach of heavy rains. Heavy rains in Kericho and Nandi Hills was believed by nearly 201(38.1%) in both risk levels to be clear signs of impeding flash floods usually experienced as a result of the ensuing runoff. If heavy rain was accompanied by lightning and thunder on the river (mil gi mor mar ` 49 polo), it was a signal that it will definitely flood. High temperatures during the wet season were also mentioned as another sign of heavy rainfall. 4.1.3.2.3 Knowledge on nature of river Changes in the river constitution were considered important indicators of eminent flooding. Bursting of river banks due to heavy rain in the area or runoff from the Nandi Hills was reported as one of the main causes of flooding in the study area. As one respondent in the FGD put it; “When the amount of water flowing in the river increases alarmingly, we know there is a possibility that it will flooding and therefore take appropriate action”. Change in the color of the river water was another sign of approaching floods mentioned by the respondents. As described by one of the respondents; “When the river turns a dirty brown with a lot of debris (yugi), we know the floods are fast approaching from the Nandi Hills and will be here in less than 24 hours. These are the deadly flash floods that come without warning sweeping everything on their path including people, animals, crops, trees, furniture etc”. ` 50 Table 4.6: Summary of traditional early warning flood indicators (Multiple answer response) Traditional Knowledge Behavior of humans, plants and animals Indicators Low risk High risk Freq. % Freq. % Old peoples bones aching Large numbers of cow egrets sited Loud persistent croaking of frogs Domestic animals making loud distraught noises Movement of ants to higher ground 28 32 12.2 13.9 43 34 17.1 14.2 17 7.3 35 14.6 1 0.4 1 1.7 0 0 10 4 Heavy rains in the area for long periods of time Heavy rains in Nandi Hills Lightning and thunder on the river Temperatures higher than usual Strong winds blowing from river to the hills 109 45.6 133 54.5 87 30 35.7 12.3 114 42 47.7 17.6 29 11.9 31 13 20 8.2 30 12.6 Rising of the river Debris in the river Noise level of river increases River turns dirty brown 66 34 18 27 14.2 7.4 123 139 33 51.5 58 13.9 4 1.6 23 9.6 Knowledge of seasons Knowledge of flood cycles 0 0 0 0 5 4 2 1.5 Knowledge of weather pattern Knowledge on nature of river Knowledge of flood cycles ` 51 4.1.3.2.4 Knowledge of flood cycles Knowledge of flood cycles was the least common traditional early warning indicator mentioned by a mere 9(3.5) of mostly elderly respondents residing in the high risk areas (Table 4.5). Until very recently, multiyear cycles of drought and rain were regarded as a strong indication of the weather that might be expected in a given year. These were products of centuries of observations handed down through oral tradition. The most commonly cited indicator for floods by focus group discussion participants was the cycle of 5 years; i.e. 1992, 1997/98, 2002/3. During each of these cycles, floods were observed in these communities. These cycles represented longer-term weather patterns in the region as observed over past centuries. 4.1.3.3 Use of traditional knowledge The results show that for about half of the respondents in both risk levels, traditional knowledge remained the most trusted flood detection technique in the area, as summarized in Table 4.7. Table 4.7: Use of traditional knowledge in the study area How much do you rely on traditional flood information? 1 Very much 2 Somewhat 3 Not much 4 Not sure Total Low risk High risk Frequency percentage Frequency percentage 126 47.7 135 51.5 88 33.3 75 28.4 47 17.8 49 18.6 3 1.1 5 1.9 264 100 264 100 On the current flood warning systems, participants acknowledged that it was difficult to accurately predict flash floods using scientific methods and that is why the relied more on ` 52 traditional alerts; “What we consider official information is received from the local administrators at barazas organized by the chief or assistant chief. Most of this information is very general and just concentrates on flooding zones but not what to expect”. 4.1.4 Existing perceived risk of flooding to public health Respondents were asked to indicate their perceptions on 5 items associated with floodrelated risks to health. The resulting perceptions of risk have been classified into five areas: Social environment, threats to personal health, lifestyle choices, environmental sanitation and housing conditions. The results are summarized in Table 4.8. 4.1.4.1 Perception of risk to personal health The profile of perceived “high risk” to personal/community health varied from one risk level to the other. Table 4.8 shows that epidemics and casualties/death received higher risk evaluations in the high risk areas as compared to the low risk areas. 4.1.4.2 Perception of risk to food security There were high risk ratings for damage to crops in both high and low risk areas at 252(95.5%) and 244(92.4%) respectively. Flooding was associated with damage to livestock by a huge proportion 188(71.2) of respondents in high risk areas. Moderate and low risk evaluations were recorded for famine in the high and low risk areas, respectively. ` 53 Table 4.8: Perceived presence of health hazards as a result of flooding (Multiple answer response) Items of risk perception Personal/community health Epidemics Casualties/loss of life Food security Disruption of food supply Loss of livestock Famine Social environment Displacement/Homelessness Disruption of schooling Disruption of transport Disruption of communication Burying the dead made difficult Housing conditions Damage to shelter Wet/Damp floor Sweep away belongings Collapse of wells and toilets Cooking made difficult Environment/sanitation Contamination of water supply Land degradation/Soil erosion Low risk Frequency Percent 84 31.8 11 4.2 High risk Frequency Percent 117 48.3 61 23.1 244 119 67 92.4 45.1 25.5 252 188 110 95.5 71.2 41.7 5 24 25 16 0 1.9 9.1 9.5 6 0 174 65 65 24 8 65.9 24.6 24.6 9 3 196 24 15 21 5 74.2 9.1 5.7 8 1.9 250 83 71 44 23 94.7 31.4 27 16.7 8.7 86 7 32.6 2.7 123 36 46.6 13.6 4.1.4.3 Perception of risk to social conditions Considerable differences in perception of risk to health were found in the area of social environment. A majority 174(65.9%) associated homelessness with flooding compared to a mere 5(1.9%) in the low risk areas. In both high and low risk areas low risk ratings were recorded for disruption of transport, communication and delays in burying of the dead. ` 54 4.1.4.4 Perception of risk to housing conditions Floods were perceived by a high proportion 250(94.7%) of respondent in the high risk areas and a majority 196(74.2%) in the low risk areas to cause damage to shelter. Other risks to health associated with floods included sweeping away belongings, collapse of wells/boreholes and toilets, wet/damp floors and difficulties with cooking due to scarcity of firewood and charcoal. The risk ratings for these items were considerably higher in the high risk areas as compared to the low risk areas. 4.1.4.5 Perception of risk to environment/sanitation Nearly, 109(39.6%), an average of respondents in both risk levels perceived the quality of water to decrease during the flood season as a result of contamination. Land degradation due to soil erosion and gully formation was cited by a mere 43(8.2%). 4.1.4.6. Perceptions on ways of managing flood risks Respondents were presented with seven statements on management and control fo flood risks. The mean profile score is indicated in figure 4.4. It is noted that respondents in both high and low risk areas viewed flooding as more or less inevitable and the likelihood of controlling its occurrence low. Further analysis revealed that a huge proportion of the interviewees from both risk levels strongly agreed to the statements that flood preventive measures are better than relief aid 502(95.1%) and that in the event of a flood, they would like the establishment of a special fund to give them instantaneous emergency and relief 488(92%). ` 55 A high proportion 447(84.6%) of respondents in both high and low risk levels perceived modern technology to be the preferred solution to solve flood problems and this was perceived to require huge financial resources to implement. Further results indicate that a majority 399(76%) of respondents perceived floods to a natural phenomena as apposed to being divine punishment or „acts of God‟. Flooding is inevitable Flood hazard could be reduced by man-made structures Huge investments is needed for flood intervention Flood preventive measures are better than relief aid The state should establish financial reserves to help victims People are capable of controlling the occurrence of floods Modern technology is the best way to solve flooding problems Floods are natural phenomena 2 High Risk Low Risk 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 2-3.5: Disagree, 3.6 -5: Agree Figure 4.4: Perceptions on methods of flood prevention and control ` 4.5 56 4.1.5 Behavior associated with flood risk management in Nyando District 4.1.5.1 Coping with damage to shelter In the study, one of the most serious and direct effects of the flood was damage to shelter. A huge proportion 222(85.7%) of respondent in the high risk areas and slightly below half 115(46.7%) in the low risk areas experienced complete or partial damage to their homes. In addition, items such as utensils, furniture and food were washed away by fast flowing flood waters. The destruction of these houses resulted in many villagers being made homeless. To prevent flood waters entering their homes, it was observed that all homesteads 528(100%) had houses built on raised lands or earthen platforms. The walls and entrances were elevated so flood water could not reach the plinth, (Photo 4.1). To protect their homes and farms, a huge proportion 442(83.7%) of the households in both high and low risk areas dug trenches around the compound while nearly 101(41.6%) and a high proportion 203(76.9%) in low and high risk areas, respectively planted trees and sisal fences around their homesteads to break/reduce the flow of flood waters and to prevent erosion. During the floods, in homes that were still flooded but occupied, measures taken to protect property by a huge proportion 342(92.8%) of residents in both risk levels included, raising items that could be easily destroyed by water like clothes, firewood, children etc. to higher surfaces like tables and cupboards. During a female FGD discussion, two female participants gave the following comments: “During the flood ` 57 season, it is our responsibility to ensure that our children are safe. We make them play, eat, and sleep on raised surfaces like tables where they are safe from the flood water; we cook on top of tables or other raised surfaces; we store household items and food from our granaries on platforms in the main living room”. To protect the house collapsing from high volumes of waters, nearly 44(11.2%) of households drilled holes through the walls to allow flood water to flow through Table 4.9: Survival strategies to deal with damage to shelter adopted by residents before, during and after the flood season (Multiple answer response) Main coping strategies Preparation Built on raised land or earthen platforms Dug trenches around homestead Planted trees and sisal around homestead Piled mud around homestead During flooding Evacuated (Went to live with relatives, neighbors and friends; rented house) Raised furniture, firewood, food, etc. Drilled hole through wall After flooding Repaired damaged house Built temporary shelter Built afresh Low Risk High Risk Frequency Percent Frequency Percent 264 100 264 100 210 87.9 232 79.5 101 41.6 203 76.9 89 33.7 150 56.8 24 16.6 114 64.9 129 11 89.6 7.6 213 33 95.9 14.8 139 0 5 96.5 0 3.48 159 11 52 71.6 5% 23.7 The study found out that during extreme flooding, a majority 144(64.9%) of the families interviewed in low-lying areas (high risk) were forced to evacuate their homes and move to higher ground. Many of the families affected were those forced to build close to the ` 58 river banks due to land shortage as a result of increase in population. They used canoes and makeshift rafts to sail to safety people and property that had been marooned in the floods. The displaced households were accommodated by relatives and neighbors who live on higher ground while others sought refuge in temporary flood shelters put up by the government and NGO‟s at the government district offices, schools and churches. Others lived in lived in rented motels and apartments. Photo 4.1: Picture showing a house with a raised floor and a boat on stand by for evacuation of people and property during extreme flood conditions. Once the floods subsided the displaced households moved back to their damaged houses. “Once we move back, we then build a fire from cow dung around or in the front yard of the house. This helps to keep the ground dry after the flood recedes, providing us with dry ground where we can cook and keep dry.” Results further indicate that a huge proportion ` 59 298(84%), had to repair their homes an average from both risk levels and a quarter 52(23.3%) of household in the high risk areas were forced to build afresh. A mere 11(5%) in the high risk areas were still living in temporary shelters during the survey period. Additionally, of the households interviewed, 437(82 %) were reluctant to permanently move from the flood zones. Among the major reasons given were attachment to ancestral land, poverty, farms not severely affected and the fact that they had gotten used to living with the floods. The results are indicated in Table 4.10. Table 4.10: Reasons for staying in a flood prone area (Multiple answer response) Major reasons for staying in flood area Low Risk High Risk Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Ancestral home 152 59.8 172 70.5 Poverty 66 26 109 44.5 Farm not severely affected 70 27.6 7 2.9 Fear of social set up breaking 13 5.1 12 4.9 Used to living with floods 17 6.7 31 12.7 Accumulated property 7 2.8 18 7.3 Availability of water 3 1.2 8 3.3 4.1.5.2 Coping with food shortage A huge proportion 246(95%) reported food shortages in the high risk areas while a high proportion 79.5% were similarly affected in the lower risk areas. Table 4.11 indicates that ` 60 main survival strategy to deal with shortage of food was to buy food from the market. In an attempt to make food stocks last longer, households reduced food taken at meal times and skipped meals. Some household mentioned giving children priority over adults. When food stocks ran out households received food and monetary assistance from their relatives, the Government and the NGOs. Members of few households looked for alternative employment to supplement income but because the problem was widespread, opportunities were greatly reduced during the flood season. It was only in extreme conditions that a mere 2(0.8%) of household in the high risk areas ate carcasses of livestock that had drowned in the flood waters while a similar 2(0.8%) resorted to trading their assets for money and food. Table 4.11: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of food in the study area (Multiple answer response) Coping strategy Bought food ` Low risk Frequency Percent 163 83.2 High risk Frequency 205 Percent 80.4 Reduced food intake per meal 32 16.3 89 34.9 Skipped meals 29 14.8 55 21.6 Assisted by relatives 19 9.7 52 20.4 Children given priority 14 7.1 50 19.6 Looked for alternative employment 17 8.8 9 3.5 Government assistance 5 2.6 15 5.9 NGO assistance 2 1.0 4 1.5 Ate animals that drowned 0 0 2 0.8 Sold livestock and assets 0 0 2 0.8 61 4.1.5.3 Coping with clean water shortage Results indicate that only 142(26.9%) of the respondent interviewed had access to clean piped water. This access was however reduced during flooding due to contamination. Consequent shortage of clean water supply adversely affected about 70.3% and 47.1% of the households interviewed in the high risk areas and low risk areas respectively. Results further indicate that households that relied mainly on rivers/streams as their main source of water experienced the highest proportion 113(88.3%) of water shortage followed by slightly over half 129(54%) of households whose main water source was wells/boreholes. A young man explained that “Rivers and streams are also used by animals as their source of water which has sometimes led to their contamination.” Table 4.12: Relationship between shortage of water and main water source Main water source Communal tap Well/Borehole River/stream Total Household total Frequency 142 238 148 528 Percent 26.9 45.1 28 100.0 Shortage within water source Frequency 45 129 113 Percent 31.5 54.0 88.3 To deal with the water shortages, results in Table 4.13 indicate that about half 91(49.2%) of households in high risk areas and nearly 36(31.3) in the low risk areas boiled water. Other strategies included harvesting rain in water tanks, use of water purifying tablets and borrowing or buying tap water. ` 62 Table 4.13: Survival strategies to deal with shortage of water (Multiple answer response) Coping strategy Boiled drinking water Low risk area High risk area Frequency percentage Frequency percentage 36 31.3 91 49.2 Collected rain water 39 34.2 71 38.6 Used water purifying tablets 32 28.1 59 31.9 Used uncontaminated borehole water 32 28.1 31 16.8 Borrowed/ Bought tap water 15 13.3 37 20 Used flood water (without treating) 8 7.2 12 6.5 A community elder pointed out that in extreme conditions households 20(6.7%) were forced to drink flood water without boiling because the firewood was too wet to light; “this kind of water makes the population prone to the water borne diseases since they drink from the source directly without further treatment.” Photo 4.3: Picture shows harvesting of rainwater into a water tank; addresses problem of shortage of clean water and reduces incidences of waterborne disease. ` 63 4.1.5.4 Main source of water in household The study established that well/boreholes 238(45.1%) followed by rivers/streams 148 (28%) were the major sources of water both for drinking and domestic use. A significant 140(94.6%) of rivers/streams users lived in the high risk areas. Slightly below a quarter 142(24.2 %) had access to communal, piped tap water. Further discussions established that access to clean piped water was a major problem and further diminished during the flood season. Variable Category Main source of Communal tap water Well/Borehole River/Stream Low risk Frequency Percent (%) 85 13.4 171 8 32.4 1.5 High risk Frequency Percent (%) 57 10.8 67 140 12.7 26.5 4.1.5.5 Health morbidity patterns In the survey, an average 471(93.8%) of the respondents identified flooding with prevalence of disease and ill health in their households whilst the rest (6.2%) had no such incidence. The diseases that the respondents reported to have suffered from are presented in Table 4.14. Malaria was the single most widely recorded mosquito-borne disease mentioned by a huge proportion 434(91.1%), an average of the respondents in both high and low risk areas. Almost twice as many incidences of cholera, typhoid, dysentery and amoeba were reported in the high risk areas when compared to the low risk levels. Athlete foot was ` 64 mentioned by an average 40(8.5%) of the respondents in both risk levels. Pneumonia, vomiting and fever were independently reported by an average 70(14.8%), 52(11) and 84(17.8%) of the interviewees, respectively, from the two risk levels. Table 4.14: Summary of diseases suffered by respondents during the flood season (Multiple answer response) Disease Malaria Low risk area Frequency Percentage 198 90.8 High risk area Frequency Percentage 236 92.9 Typhoid 28 12.8 74 29.1 Cholera 29 13.2 64 25.2 Dysentery 33 15.1 54 21.3 Fever 22 10.1 62 24.4 Pneumonia 26 11.9 44 17.3 Vomiting 10 4.6 42 16.5 Athlete foot 11 5.0 29 11.4 Skin diseases (Others) 10 4.6 18 7.1 Bilharzia Amoeba 7 6 3.2 2.5 21 14 8.3 5.5 4.1.5.5.1 Treatment of flood related ailments A majority 291(62%) of respondents took their sick to government hospitals and health centres. A common practice noted amongst slightly less than a quarter 98(21%) of the respondents was self treatment. They acknowledged buying drugs from shops and drug stores to treat themselves without going to qualified medical officers for proper medical checkup. A mere 33(7%) were able to afford to take their patients to private hospitals ` 65 while 38(8.1%) made use of traditional medicine. A mere 10(2.1%) of the respondents mentioned getting treatment from community health care workers during the flood season. The findings are indicated represented in Figure 4.5. 7% 2% Government facilities Drug store Traditional medicine Private facilities CHW 8% 21% 62% Figure 4.5: Average percentage of health care services sourced by households during the flood season According to the District Health officer, the central and local governments had stocked the government health centers with anti malarial drugs which were being given free of charge to malaria patients, to complement the governments program of the fight against malaria. A health and hygiene promotion was being emphasized by Red Cross. The Red Cross worker informed us that they had just launched an initiative to train community health workers in avoidance and treatment of flood related ailments. Key information ` 66 elicited included use of clean water, food hygiene, safe sanitation and the use of mosquito nets to avoid mosquito bites. The Kenyan government, under the ministry of Health, has also carried out a massive campaign on the use of mosquito nets. However the nets are only distributed to pregnant women and children below 5 years of age. With a majority 67% of the population in Nyando District living below poverty levels, a large segment of the participants complained that they were not able to afford the nets valued at the market price of Kshs. 500. 4.1.5.6 Injuries and death Despite serious damage to housing and property, only 22(4.7%) households reported direct loss of human life. Many of the deaths reported were as a result of drowning 14(82%). The number of deaths reported in high risk areas was 13(93%) and 1(7%) in the low risk areas. A further 8 deaths were as a result of injuries resulting from walls, roof of houses and trees collapsing on victims. Interviewees from two households reported death of one member each as a result of snake bite and the other was killed by hippos. The results are indicated in Table 4.15. ` 67 Table 4.15: Summary of deaths related to flooding (Multiple answer response) Low risk area Cause of death High risk area Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Drowning 1 20 14 82 Wall collapsed on victim 0 0 2 12 Roof collapsed on victim 1 20 0 0 Trees fell on victim 1 20 1 6 Snake bite 1 20 0 0 Killed by hippo 1 20 0 0 Total 5 100% 17 100% 4.1.5.7 Impact on rural livelihoods 4.1.5.7.1 Agriculture Results from the analysis indicated that 246(95%) and 213(87%) of the respondents in high and low risk areas, respectively, had their crop submerged or swept away by floods. Table 4.14 indicates that the most common response to deal with loss of crop was to wait for the next season to plant. Replanting immediately would have required adjusting cropping seasons which depending on the time of the year would invite further damage from drought or pests. Households received seed donations from the government or borrowed seeds to plant from relatives, neighbors and friends. Nearly 33(13.2%) and 14(6.5%) of households from high and low risk areas, respectively, reduced the magnitude of loss in crops by planting first maturing crops. Some households switched from growing vegetables and ` 68 maize and instead resorted to planting rice, others opted to rent land on higher ground to avoid expected future loses while others resorted to other businesses to supplement income. A mere 2(1.2%) in the high risk areas sold livestock to buy seeds and only 1(1%) household in both risk levels reported having put aside seeds in anticipation of such a crisis. Table 4.16: Coping strategies used to deal with loss of crop in study area (Multiple answer response) Coping strategy Waited for next season to plant Low risk area Frequency Percent 161 74.2 High risk area Frequency Percent 187 74.8 Government donated seeds 26 12 72 28.8 Borrowed seeds to plant from relatives Resorted to other businesses 11 5.1 34 13.6 27 12.5 18 7.2 Planted short duration variety of crops Rent agricultural land on higher ground Switched to growing rice 14 6.5 33 13.2 6 2.8 17 6.8 6 2.8 17 6.8 Sold livestock to buy seeds 0 0 2 1.2 Relied on reserved seeds 1 0.5 1 0.5 4.1.5.7.2 Livestock rearing A high proportion (209(81%) of households interviewed experienced death of their poultry and livestock in the high risk areas compared to slightly below half 115(47.7%) of household in the low risk areas. To cope with loss of pasture the highest percentage of ` 69 households moved their livestock to higher ground while other traveled long distances to look for fodder for their animals. Other coping actions included replacing what had been lost, treating livestock and selling weak and vulnerable animals before the onset of floods. A summary of these results are presented in Table 4.17. Table 4.17: Coping strategies to handle livestock during the flood season (Multiple answer response) Coping strategy Moved livestock to higher ground. Low risk area Frequency Percent 50 43.3 High risk area Frequency Percent 116 55.4 Traveled long distances to look for fodder/pasture Bought and replaced what has been lost Spray and de-worm livestock 41 35.3 103 49.3 14 11.6 34 16 12 9.8 32 15 Sold weak and vulnerable livestock 0 0 6 2.8 4.1.5.8 Effectiveness of strategies used to cope with flood risks Respondents were requested to evaluate the effectiveness of their current coping strategies. Results from the study indicate that on a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being most effective and 4 not effective; a higher proportion 168(63.6%) of respondents in the low risk areas perceived their responses to be effective as compared to150(56.8)of respondents in low risk areas. Summary of the findings are indicated in Figure 4.6. ` 70 Figure 4.6: Effectiveness of coping strategies in study area 4.1.5.9 Preparedness to deal with future flood events The respondents were further asked whether they were prepared for the likelihood of a future flood event. Results from the study indicate that on a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being most very prepared and 4 not prepared at all; slightly less than half 121(45.9%) and 129(48.9%) of respondents in low and high risk areas, respectively, felt prepared to deal with future flood events. The results are summarized in figure 4.7. ` 71 Figure 4.7: Level of preparedness in the study area 4.1.6 External support The prevailing emergency relief policy guidelines of Kenyan Government require that local authority provide basic necessities such as food, shelter and medical care to disaster victims. In this study,166(62.9%) of respondents in the high risk areas received external support while a much smaller proportion 98(37.4%) received assistance in the low risk areas. Government disaster programs accounted for a huge proportion 448(85.2%) of the support received, while 115(28.1%) of the respondents received help from non ` 72 government organizations. A mere 35(6.7%) were assisted by relatives, friends, church organizations and private donations from well wishers (Figure 4.8). 100 90 80 Percentage (%) 70 Low risk 60 High risk 50 40 30 20 10 0 Government NGOs Local Agencies Relatives Private Donations Source of relief aid Figure 4.8: Sources of support received during flood times in the study area Discussions with key informants revealed that flood management initiatives at the district are coordinated by the District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC) that has incorporated all key government departments. The DDMC is represented at the location and sub location levels. These committees, together with the chiefs and sub chiefs organize, implement and oversee the food for work program introduced by the government to engage the community in managing floods. The community members ` 73 dig/clear trenches in exchange for food. Red Cross, VIRED, CREPP, World Vision and ADRA have been the major non governmental contributors during flood disasters. Photo 4.4: A woman in Ayweyo receives 2 Kgs. of maize as payment/incentive for digging/clearing a water channel. This is an initiative of the government, The Food for Work Program 4.1.6.1 Attitude towards relief aid Results presented in Figure 4.9 indicate that a high proportion 208(79.1) of the respondents in both high risk and low risk felt the assistance offered was completely inadequate ` 74 Figure 4.9: Satisfaction levels with the amount relief aid received 4.1.6.2 Attitude on coping without relief aid The respondents were further asked to what extent they could survive without external aid. On a Likert scale of 1-4, 1 being most sufficiently and 4 not survive at all. A larger proportion 162(61.6%) of respondents in the high risk areas felt they would not be able to survive without relief aid in the event of a flood disaster as compared to 98(37.1%) in the low risk areas. The responses are summarized in Figure 4.10. ` 75 Figure 4.10: Perception of coping capabilities in the absence of external support ` 76 4.2 Discussion 4.2.1 Socio-demographic information Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented, with slightly larger numbers in the lowest age bracket 18-25 and 41-50 categories accounting for 117(22.1%) and 116(22%) of the respondents, respectively. The oldest age bracket was 60 and above years which accounted for 71(13.5%) of the respondents. The number of males of males interviewed were fewer, 231 (43.8%) compared to females 297 (56.2%. This can be attributed to the fact that most male household members were engaged in out-door work during the survey period. The mechanism by which marital status affects coping mechanisms remains uncertain in this study. The findings of this study showed that most of the respondents 353(66.9%) were married and living with their spouses. Female headed households, widows/widowers and their children are generally perceived to be more vulnerable to floods as compared to their counterpart households with both spouses. This could be explained by the fact that households with both spouses are better financially and psychological placed and hence able respond to flood risks in a better mental and emotional state than their single counterparts (SERA Project, 2000; Yamano & Jayne 2002). However this is not necessarily true in all cases as shown by the losses experienced by majority of the households despite the fact that most of them had both spouses alive at the time of this study. The results are similar to a study done by Rayhan and Grote, (undated) in which gender of household head of flooded households in Bangladesh were found to have no significant effect on vulnerability to flood risks . Analysis revealed no ` 77 significant difference between marital categories and loss experienced in both high and low risk areas. The relationship between household resources and flood vulnerability is that coping with and recovery from flood impacts demands financial reserves that can buffer the household from negative flood impact (Nethengwe, 2007; SERA Project). The study findings indicate a high degree of poverty and low incomes reflected in the employment types where the majority of the people were in the informal sector. Most households were depending on their farms for a livelihood, which is fairly typical of the general population, as the area supports a large rural population. The modal gross family income was below 2,500Kshs which represents 380(70%) of the households. These findings are consistent with the national statistics that indicate high absolute poverty levels (67%) in Nyando District, based on the 1999 census (Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2002) The low-income levels among the study population and especially the females may be attributed to low levels of education with only 41(13.9%) having gone beyond primary level. Low education levels are associated with lack of well-remunerated employment and therefore less social powers and fewer economic resources and physical capacity to anticipate, survive and recover from the effects of massive floods. Higher family income is of relatively greater benefit and often accompanied by a rise in expenditure on preparation and protection strategies (Few et al., 2004). ` 78 A larger proportion 71(29%) of the women had no formal education as compared to 13(5%) of their male counterparts. Further results showed that 77.5% of female income per month fell in the <2500 category and they therefore had to depend on their spouses or relatives for a livelihood. These circumstances have been found to affect the women‟s ability to respond appropriately to flood hazards as well as their capacity to participate in flood management at both household and community levels (Wiest et al., 1994; Few et al., 2004; Bhatta, 2008). 4.2.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting and early flood disaster management had enabled communities, particularly those living in flood prone areas to adopt and live with extreme weather conditions for generations (UNEP, 2008). In the study, 482(83%) of the respondents were aware of local ways of knowing whether it would flood or not and 465(80%) of these respondents acknowledged the use of the traditional knowledge These results demonstrated that traditional strategies were considered a trusted source of information and importance to this community. Results from the study further indicated a significant difference between level of awareness of traditional knowledge in the high and low risk areas (χ2=; 11.526 df =1; p=.001) with a considerably larger proportion of respondents in the high risk areas being more aware of traditional flood knowledge than those residing in the low risk areas. The most likely explanation for the difference is flood experience. This supported ` 79 observations by Jinchi, (2003) who concluded that people‟s level of flood experience and their place of residence had an important impact on levels of flood awareness. Discussions from the focus groups further revealed that majority of the young people and those engaged in off-farm or non-farm activities did not feel confident about sharing traditional knowledge. The reasons given were that the opportunity to learn from the elderly was gradually becoming rare and they had not spent sufficient time in the field to develop accurate forecasts. Interestingly, this did not seem to bother them. These findings match those of study carried out by Eyob, (1999) in Eritrea in which most young respondents interviewed associated indigenous knowledge with low prestige rural life; believing it to be inferior. It is generally accepted that traditional flood knowledge is in many cases preserved as an oral tradition and is passed on by word of mouth (UN/ISDR, 2008). The study findings contradicted this as only 163(38%) of the respondents received this information from their elders. A huge proportion 357(73.8%) reported getting flood information mainly through personal observation. This might be attributed to the processes of urbanization, development and formal education contributing to the decreasing traditional practice of passing on of early warning strategies by word of mouth. 4.2.2.1 Influence of demographics on awareness and use of traditional knowledge The results in the study revealed the converge side to age and length of residency and that was the benefit of experience. The association between these two demographic variables ` 80 and awareness and use of traditional flood knowledge were found to be significant in both high and low risk areas. The highest proportion of respondents with traditional flood knowledge were in the 33 plus age groups and had lived in the area for more than 4 years This could derive from a life spent in flood prone areas and the greater chance that older people have more flood experience. The results are similar to those of a survey carried out on flood victims of the 2002 Melde Flood in Eilenburgh (Kuhlicke, 2002) in which respondents with extensive local flood knowledge were those who had lived in the area for a long time and had experienced major floods in 1954 and 1974. Occupation wise, farmers were more aware of traditional flood knowledge than the rest of the categories. The difference in awareness of the information within the occupation categories was found to be significant in both high (χ 2=; 47.309 df =21; p=.001) and low risk areas (χ2=; 40.866 df =21; p=.001). These results imply that people whose livelihoods are directly affected by flooding have more use for the local flood knowledge which they apply to minimize loss. These results concur with those of a study done on indigenous responses to flooding in Bangladesh (ITDG-B, 2001) in which a significant number of the responses related to agricultural coping measures. The majority of households engaged in crop production suffered loss of standing crops and loss of employment during the period. 4.2.3 Perception of flood risks to public health General findings from the study revealed that the degree of perceived risk of flood threats to health was significantly higher among the respondents living in the high risk areas ` 81 compared to those in the low risk areas. The demonstrated difference in perceptions is undoubtedly attributable to the level of awareness of risk and the degree of exposure to the health hazards. A similar perception of flooding described by Ockzyk (2004): flood plain inhabitants generally perceive a risk from flooding only to the extent or magnitude that they have previously experienced, thus leaving themselves vulnerable in the event of a larger flood. Slovic et al., (1979) concluded that the memorability of past events play an important role in the determination of how individuals will perceive and react to future flood. Results from this study also indicated that for this community, the advantages of their location--close to the river with easy access to fertile land, water, and strong community ties-far outweighed the health risks associated with flooding. Although flooding was viewed as a recurring problem, the fact that the study established that a large segment of the people interviewed 437(82.8%) were reluctant to permanently vacate their flood prone land reinforces the fact that flooding is not perceived as a serious threat in the area. These findings are similar to those of a study carried out in Tanzania (Gaston, unpublished) which revealed that pressure to live in flood-prone areas, which typically are surrounded by rich alluvial soils, abundant water supplies is on the increase as the country‟s population increases. Similarly, following the 2000 Mozambique floods, where livelihood of people depended on the flood plain, government action to relocate vulnerable populations was met with a lot of resistance as the affected population moved location but maintained temporary housing in the flood plains and eventually moved ` 82 back. The people feared leaving and potentially losing their possessions or their property claim. (Rojas, 1997; Few et al, 2004). This implies that for this community, health is a luxury they cannot afford because their immediate economic survival is at stake. The problem is often not simply a lack of awareness, but rather, assessments of local risk based on experience that underestimates the impact of accumulating risk (Few et al., 2005). 4.2.3.1 Perception on methods of managing flood risks Despite the recurrent nature of the hazard, results showed that flood events were perceived to be inevitable and fairly unpredictable especially in the high risk areas, limiting scope for action and response. This might indicate the nature of flash floods and lack of possibilities to prepare for the hazard. It could also point to increased vulnerability that could be attributed to climate change thereby reducing the community‟s ability to precisely predict and warn future flood events (Salick et al., 2007; Macchi et al., 2008). Historical trends have allowed for reasonable predications of future weather patterns. However, the increasing severity and frequency of floods over the last decade have rendered this latter form of forecasting less reliable than it has been in the past. In a number of studies conducted on climate change (Vordzorgbe, 2007; Few et al., 2007, IPCC, 2007; Macchi et al., 2008;) climate experts confirm that intensity of flood events has increased, especially around the Lake Victoria Region. ` 83 Regarding floods control measures, flood preventive measures were elected as a priority in both high and low risk areas. A relatively surprising outcome was the fact that in both surveyed areas flood risk was perceived to be controllable with structural measures. This was perceived to require huge investments to implement. When asked directly, most respondents mentioned the dyke currently under construction to be the main reason incidences of flooding had reduced in the area. These results displayed a growing belief and dependency on the technical approach. This was noteworthy as a number of studies on risk perception (Linnerooth-Bayer, 2002; Ikeda, 2003; APFM, (2006) had indicated that an excess of confidence on the structural alternative performance in reducing flood frequency may bias the decision-making process and eventually lead to an inadequate occupation of flood prone areas, increasing flooding potential impacts in case of structural failures. This suggested that it was not practical to reduce flood disasters only by structural measures under the concept of need to control, because it had physical and financial limitations. Despite these findings, the need to attribute disasters to some supernatural was obviously still felt by a substantial 129(24%). Bhutta (1999) and Bhatti, (2005) shed more light on these views by stating that there are multiple interpretations of risks and disasters, yet the divine element is dominant. People do recognize other tangible and structural factors involved in disaster and relating disaster to natural forces is not just a religious expression rather it reflects the social meanings of harm happening in certain time and space ` 84 4.2.3.2 Demographic influences on perception of flood risks Differences in occupation categories indicated that small and large scale farmers perceived significantly higher levels of threat than the other occupation categories. This could be as a result of huge losses being incurred directly affecting their livelihoods 4.2.4 Behavior associated with flood management A considerably high percentage of respondents reported damage to their shelter in both high and low risk areas. Traditionally, Luo houses are built from mud and thatch. These are susceptible to damage by heavy rain, wind and flooding. The respondents seemed to understand the dangers of using these housing materials but only few (considered rich) could afford to build concrete houses with cemented walls. To prevent flood waters entering their homes, it was observed that all homesteads had houses built on raised lands or earthen platforms. The walls and entrances were elevated so flood water could not reach the plinth. To protect their homes and farms, a huge majority dug trenches around their compounds and planted trees and sisal fences around the homesteads to break/reduce the flow of flood waters and to prevent erosion. These results depict other studies of a similar kind done in flood prone locations (Del Ninno et al., 2001; Few et al, 2005) in which housing techniques were adapted according to the risk posed by floods and erosion. Further findings showed that during extreme flood events, families affected vacated their homes and moved to camps or were accommodated by relatives and friends. The study ` 85 established that those who were accommodated in the temporary flood shelters put up by the government and NGO‟S got the most assistance whereas the majority of those accommodated by neighbors and relatives receive little assistance as coordinating widely scattered households is usually difficult. After a few days away from their flooded houses, displaced families always moved back to their homes. Gaston (unpublished) in his study on flood risk management in Tanzania reported that flood victims always moved back to their damaged houses and their safety remained a concern because the structural stability of the houses were unknown. There was also the likelihood of contracting diseases due to lingering stagnant water. Respondents reported food and water shortages during the flood season. The study indicated that the households had to borrow money and food in order to survive through the flood season. Most people borrowed money from informal sources like relatives, neighbors and friends. Quite a good number of households looked for alternative employment to substitute income. In extreme conditions some households traded their assets for money and food. Borrowing and selling of assets by families in distress are coping actions that have been mentioned in findings of other researches (Jahan, 2000; Few et al., 2004; Sharma, 2000). Specific health risks related to flooding were reported by a huge majority of respondents in both high and low risk areas. Malaria was the most commonly mentioned flood related disease. Even though it was endemic in the region it was reported to be more prevalent during and immediately after the flood season. The mosquito-borne disease could be ` 86 related to favorable breeding conditions for mosquito larvae created by stagnant flood waters. Interviewees strongly associated flooding with increased incidences of cholera, typhoid, dysentery, amoeba and fungal skin disease. The district public health officer claimed few cases of cholera had been reported in the district but in the study it was ranked second after malaria. It was observed that almost all households had shallow and temporary pit latrines that easily fill up during the rainy season. This is the most probable way the diarrheal diseases spread since the feces could easily have found their way in to water sources such as wells, unprotected springs and rivers. Fungal skin disease; in particular athlete foot could be associated with respondents being constantly in contact with flood waters when performing domestic chores. This results are similar to those of Mungai et al., (2004) in which Malaria epidemics was found to occur annually between May and July in Nandi and Kericho upper parts of Nyando river basin after long rains with the only exception being during the 1997/98 El Nino phenomenon which occurred during end of 1997 and early 1998, and was followed by malaria epidemic. An upsurge in water borne diseases like diarrhoea that normally coincides with flooding in the lower part of Nyando river basin was also noted. An issue that came up during the interview process was that conditions like vomiting and fever were independently reported. Discussions with the district public health officer confirmed to us that many people could not identify the difference between symptoms of common ailments. These results were similar to those of a study carried out by Few et. ` 87 al., (2005) in Vietnam in which respondents were not able to tell the difference between dengue fever and other common fevers. To deal with the diseases, respondents made use of both traditional and modern medicine. A good number of respondents acknowledged buying drugs from shops and drug stores to treat themselves without testing what they were suffering from. It was only when a member of the household was gravely ill that appropriate medical care was sought. This behavior is consistent with findings of Few et al., (2005) in Vietnam and can be attributed to low levels of education. Despite serious damage to housing and property, few households reported direct loss of human life. Many of the deaths reported were as a result of drowning and injuries resulting from walls, roof of houses and trees collapsing on the victims. Most of these deaths were blamed on flash floods. 4.2.4.1 Preparedness and effectiveness of coping action Generally speaking, neither respondents from the two risk levels displayed high levels of preparedness. There were several reasons why the respondents may have been unwilling to prepare for disasters. One reason was the dyke under construction. This was a highly visible measure that may have generated perceptions of a flood free area and may have largely contributed to reduced motivation to prepare. Another postulated reason was that an individual‟s expectation of damaging disaster does not necessarily lead to preparedness suggesting that the sense of being at risk does not in itself move people to ` 88 action (Turner et al.,1986). In a similar study, Kaiser et al., (2004) indicated that no correlation existed among personal experience and precautionary actions and that knowledge about the risk does not automatically imply knowledge about the consequences and precautionary actions as e.g. 90% of the persons estimated the probability of a storm flood as very high, had not taken any personal preventive measures. Vulnerable people individually and collectively develop their own means, resources and strategies to cope with flooding. All of these mechanisms, however, have financial, social and/or opportunity implications (ISDR, 2004). A review of a preparedness program in Bangladesh showed that vulnerable people had little or no surplus income to invest in the measures that could protect them from flooding although they knew what to do (Alam et al., 2007b cited in Pro Vention, 2008). To some extent results in Nyando followed the same trend with slightly higher percentage of respondents in the low risk areas reporting their coping actions to be more effective as compared to those in the high risk areas. Low income levels and repeated destruction of assets, which function as a buffer, may have compromised the ability to respond appropriately to subsequent floods. The frequency of climate shocks exacerbates the fragility of poor people‟s assets and thus further compromises recovery (Fuente, 2008). Findings from the study further indicated a highly significant association between preparedness and level of effectiveness of coping action in both low and high risk levels at (χ252.822; df =9; p= .0001) and (χ231.833; df =9; p=.0001), respectively. The practical ` 89 implication of these findings is that preparedness raises participant‟s levels of confidence in their ability to cope with flood risks. 4.2.4.2 Demographic influences on preparation and effectiveness of coping action It is generally accepted that there is a decreasing perception of hazard with age. The explanations for this are that older people may consider themselves less vulnerable due to their increased experience (Beringer, 2000). Alternatively, elderly residents are often more sceptical about the danger and thus more likely to discount the risk (Mileti et al, 1975). To a certain extent the results for Nyando District did follow this trend with respondents in the 40plus age categorise reporting significantly lower levels of preparedness as compared to the younger age groups. Additionally, the 60plus age group had the lowest percentage of those who felt their coping actions were effective. Gender wise, the women reported considerably lower levels of preparedness 119(40%) as compared to their male counterparts 127(55%). These findings are similar to those of a study carried out in Pine Lake, Alberta area, Ontario (Murphy et al. 2005) in which men appeared to dominate both outdoor and indoor preparedness. This could be attributed to low income and education levels that may have reduced the women‟s coping choices. The same would be implied for the income category in which respondents with incomes in the 10,000+ categories reported being better prepared and their coping actions more effective as compared to respondents in lower income levels. These results also confirm findings of other studies (UNDP, 2007; Mitchell et al., 2007) which indicate that although climate change affects everyone, it is not gender neutral. ` 90 Climate change magnifies existing inequalities, reinforcing the disparity between women and men in their vulnerability to and capability to cope with climate change. Studies by Enarson, (2000) and O’Brien, (2007) have highlighted the fact that natural disasters could also provide women with a unique opportunity to challenge and change their gendered status in society. Women have been willing and able to take an active role in what are traditionally considered ‘male’ tasks in responding to disasters, e.g. following Hurricane Mitch in Guatemala and Honduras in 1998 (Schrader and Delaney, 2000). It was interesting to note that respondents who had more education levels reported less effectiveness of their coping action as compared to people with less education levels. This could be due to lack of appreciation of local coping strategies. According to Faupel and Styles, (1993) an explanation for this could be that education raises participant‟s levels of expectations regarding what they should have been able to accomplish. 4.2.4 External Support Respondents living in the high risk areas received nearly twice as much external support compared to those living in the low risk areas. Despite receiving relief support majority of the respondents in both high and low risk areas felt the aid was insufficient and inappropriately (corruptly) handled and distributed. They were therefore forced to resort back to household level adjustments to compensate for damages caused by the floods. A study carried out in Krishna District West, Bengal by Nayak, 2007) described a similar circumstance in which people were anxious to get relief material but there were lots of complaints from the people that relief material had not so far reached them. In this ` 91 particular case, the media was at the same time giving reports on the malpractices in weighing the relief material, which was being supplied to the affected people. One of the major concerns was the extent to which respondents were able to cope without external aid. Findings from the study revealed that majority of the respondents living in the high risk areas felt they would not be able to cope with future floods in the absence of external support. Study findings further revealed that length of residency was the only demographic variable that was found to be highly significantly associated with attitude of the respondents towards external support in the high risk areas (χ2= 69.096; df =24; p=0.001). Confidence in ability to survive without external aid increased as the length of residency increased. A key issue emerging was the extent to which relief measures and programs were able to strengthen the resilience of the communities to floods. Findings from the study revealed that most relief agencies were offering emergency supplies, but were reluctant to invest in pre-disaster and post-disaster phases. The main explanation for this was lack of funding for long term projects. Key informants also felt the government sponsored food for work program was creating a dependency syndrome. Activities that were previously undertaken by community members on voluntarily basis were now being performed in exchange for food. When food supplies delayed or ran out, the people refused to continue working. Similar results were reported in a study carried out by Wilk and Kgathi, (2008) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana in which heavy reliance on government assistance increased especially among female-headed households and high-risk households in the face of recurring flood regimes ` 92 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Major findings of the study 5.1.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics Respondents of all ages (18 through to over 60) were represented in the survey. From the findings of the study, the main occupation of most households was subsistent farming. Incomes were generally low among the respondent as employment patterns among the respondents showed only a small minority of them as wage earners. These low-income could be attributed to low levels of education with only a quarter of the respondents having gone beyond primary level. 5.1.2 Traditional knowledge on flood forecasting Results of the study demonstrated that traditional flood knowledge does exist in the study area and these traditional strategies are a trusted source of information and importance to this community. Flood prediction was based on knowledge of weather pattern, observation of changes in animal and insect activities, changes in the weather pattern, river levels and flood cycles. Ancestral knowledge was regarded as playing a minimum role since most respondents claimed they acquired their knowledge within their lifetime. 5.1.3 Existing perceptions of impact and management of flood risks General findings from the study revealed that public health risks evoked significantly higher degrees of anxiety in the high risk areas compared to the low risk areas. This was attributed to the level of exposure to flood related health risks. Damage to shelter and food insecurity were perceived to be the greatest flood related health risks. This flood ` 93 related risks were perceived to be controllable with structural measures. This would require huge investments to implement. Despite the health risks, an overwhelming majority were still reluctant to permanently vacate the area because they predominantly felt that the advantages of living there outweighed the risks involved. To the area residents, health is a luxury they cannot afford because their immediate economic survival is at stake. This implies that for this community, the problem is often not simply a lack of awareness, but rather an assessment of risk is based on the experience of having survived previous flood disasters that underestimates future risks. 5.1.4 Response behavior towards health risks Local coping strategies had both dimensions: innovative adjustability and passive acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these indigenous actions were taken at the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. At the community level, technical and engineering preparedness such as construction of dykes were seen to dominate the mitigation approach. Given the financial limitations of the Kenyan Government in completing structural measures, focus was mainly on small scale mitigation efforts. It was noted that most local-level-collective response, even if classified as community effort was officially organized by the central government for example, digging and clearing of trenches and sandbagging weak points along the river banks. The current food for work initiative was put in place by the government to support these ventures. ` 94 In terms of assessing individual ability to control the hazardous situation, respondents from the two risk levels did not display high levels of preparedness. As a result, more respondents in the low risk areas reported their coping actions to be more effective as compared to those in the high risk areas. Women reported considerably lower levels of preparedness as compared to their male counterparts while low income earners, elderly respondents and those in the secondary-plus education categories reported less effectiveness of their coping action compared to the other categories. 5.1.5 Attitude towards external support Despite receiving some external support, respondents in both high risk and low risk felt the assistance offered was completely inadequate and most of the community members had to resort back to household level adjustments to compensate for damages caused by the floods. Respondents who received relief aid indicated significantly higher levels of dependency on external support compared to those who did not receive external assistance. The dependency syndrome was seen to be created by relief agencies which were offering emergency supplies, but were reluctant to invest in pre-disaster and postdisaster phases. Key informants felt the government sponsored food for work program was also responsible for creating the dependency syndrome. 5.2 Conclusion From the above summary, the following can be concluded from this study: Significant distinctions could be drawn between the high and low risk areas. Residents in the high risk areas had significantly higher levels of awareness and ` 95 use of traditional knowledge. They were more aware of the nature of flood related health risks they were exposed to and appeared better prepared for future flood risk but were more dependent on external aid. On the other hand residents living in the low risk area reported better success with their response mechanisms. The demonstrated differences were undoubtedly attributable the degree of exposure to the health hazards and socio demographic influences. The burden of diseases was significantly higher during the flood season but the advantages of living in a flood plain seem to outweigh the health risks associated with flooding. The result is a combination of innovative adjustability and passive acceptability of potential hazards. Most of these indigenous actions were taken at the household level to adapt to the health risks posed by floods. Perception of risk was based on the experience of having survived previous flood disasters an excess of confidence on structural measures thereby underestimating the impact of accumulating risk. This appeared to bias the decision-making process. Based on these findings, the study failed to accept the null hypothesis that the level of exposure to risk does not influence traditional knowledge, perceptions of flood risks, response mechanisms and attitude towards external support of Nyando communities. There was evidence from these results to conclude that level of exposure to risk does have an influence on awareness and use of traditional knowledge, perceptions of flood risks, response mechanisms and attitude towards external support of the Nyando communities. This study was envisaged to benefit the following groups of people: rural communities living in flood prone areas, disaster managers, policy makers, ` 96 researchers and scholars, and funding agencies. The potential utility of the project was to reduce vulnerability; to strengthen capacity of the affected communities to respond more effectively to flood emergencies and to provide insights into possibility of a more integrated approach to flood prevention and coping with loss. 5.3 Recommendations for implementation The following are recommendations for future planning and implementation: Existing traditional knowledge is largely underutilized in the current flood management strategies. The Kenya Government Disaster Management Unit should promote the use of traditional flood knowledge to boost preparedness at the local levels. It should also be noted that traditional knowledge on flood forecasting cannot function independently; it needs to be supported by official flood warning methods and a wider range of support and flood risk management measures. The Nyando community needs to shift from the current perceptions and preference for 'hard' defenses that are costly to implement. They should also embrace non-structural measures that are low cost, have low maintenance requirements and are ultimately more sustainable i.e Flood warnings should include more information about possible protection measures. In addition, different information leaflets could be distributed with flood mitigation options for specific groups of people, e.g. elderly people or households with children. This, however, does not necessarily diminish the importance of structural ` 97 measures; rather it points to the necessity of combining structural and nonstructural measures in a way that minimizes loss and achieves the best results. There is need to Strengthen the capacity of extension services like Community Health Workers (CHWs) who can be easily accessed by the community during the flood season. The Ministry of Health should train CHW‟s on environmental sanitation. During the flood season, they should be supplied with enough medicine for flood-related illness and water treatment products. The Ministry of Water should extend clean water and sanitation services to all households and to ensure a constant supply of clean water during the flood season. Alongside these services, the Ministry should also educate the community members on the key importance of good environmental health. This will help keep to a minimum outbreak of waterborne diseases. The Government, NGO‟s and CBO‟s in dealing with disaster management in Nyando District are currently focused on either emergency health preparedness or post emergency relief. There is need for them to shift their mindsets from reaction and charity to anticipation and preemption. The study highlights social differentiation in perception of risks and socio-cultural and economic factors as barriers to effective coping and take-up of interventions. This draws attention to the need for flood warning activities to be tailored to local social contexts. Potential for climate change to intensify or alter flood patterns means that it is likely to become a major additional driver of future health risk from flooding in Nyando District. There is need for the Government Disaster Management Unit, ` 98 NGO‟s, and CBO‟S managing flood disasters to educate the Nyando communities on the global climate trends and see how local coping capacities can be improved to prepare the communities for future flood events. 5.5 Recommendations for further research: Gender dimensions of vulnerability to flood hazards in areas severely affected by HIV/AIDS. ` Community insurance to and property security in flood prone areas. Community –based risk communication and advocacy strategies. 99 REFERENCES Adger, W. N., Brooks, N., Bentham, G., Agnew, M. & Eriksen, S. (2004). New indicators of vulnerability and adaptive capacity. Tyndall Centre Technical Report 7, Tyndall Centre or Climate Change Research Norwich, UK. 128 p. Available at: http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/tech_reports/tech_reports.shtml Adger, W. N., S. Huq, K. Brown, D. Conway, and M. Hulme. (2003). Adaptation to climate change in the developing world. 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After completing the interview, thank the interviewee once again for cooperating and for taking time to respond. IDENTIFICATION SUB-LOCATION: __________________________________________ DATE OF INTERVIEW __________________________________________ TIME OF INTERVIEW: START AT _______________ END AT _____________ Introduction My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student at Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along the Nyando River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project to meet academic requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions and response to this perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of community flood hazard/risk management strategies. Your household has been randomly selected to participate in this confidential survey and your name and address will not be disclosed. Your response to this survey is very important, as it will provide valuable information about flooding in your community. I will request 30 minutes of your time to ask you a few questions to enable me complete the questionnaire. I want to assure you that your answers and opinions will be treated in the strictest of confidence. Would you like to participate? Yes………….. > Continue No…………... > Terminate and thank respondent ` 112 1) Questionnaire identification number (For official use only) 001 I Demographics (Please complete this part fully) 002 Age 003 Gender 004 Marital status 005 Main occupation 006 Classification of earning per month a. b. c. d. e. f. 26-32 33-40 40-50 50-60 60 –above 18-25 Female a. Male b. a. Married b. Single c. Divorced d. Separated e. Widow Other (specify f. Farmer (large scale) Business person House wife Student Professional worker Skilled artisan Jobless a. Farmer (subsistence) b. c. d. e. f. g. h. ______________ 007 Level of education 008 House hold 009 Roof type wall structure a. No formal education b. Primary incomplete c. Primary complete d. Secondary incomplete e. Secondary complete f. Post secondary incomplete g. Post secondary complete ` 0010 Main water source 1. Mud 1. Iron sheets 1. tap 2 .Timber 2. Grass 2. communal tap 3. well/borehole 3. Cement/t/ /bricks/stone 4. Other (specify) 3. Thatched/Makuti a. Less than 2,500 b. 2,501-5,000 c. 5,001-10,000 d. 10,001-20,000 e. 20,000-30,000 f. 30,001-40,000 g. 40,001 and above 0011 Length of residency a. 1 yrs b. 2 yrs c. 3 yrs d. 4-6 yrs e. 6-10 yrs 4. Tiles/Asbestos 5. Other (specify) 4. river/stream 5. other (specify) f. 10-20 yrs g. 20-above 113 1. How often do you think about floods? a. Always b. Often c. Not often d. Never 0012 2 What are the effects of flooding? ` a. Damage of physical structures b. Damage to crops and food supplies c. Damage to livestock d. Contamination of water supplies e. Causalities and Loss of life f. Epidemics g. Famine h. Disruption of schooling i. Transport disrupted j. Communication is disrupted k. Other 0013 114 3 What are the factors that contribute to these flood disasters in your area? a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. 0014 Transition in cultural practices Rapid urbanization Poverty Population growth Environmental degradation Location of settlement on flood plain Non resistant buildings and foundation Unprotected food stocks, standing crops and livestock. Other Lack of awareness and information What are the most common ways of avoiding negative effects flood risks? 4 0015 (Preparation) a. Dig/ clear trenches b. Raise floor of houses c. Pile mud around homestead d. Seal lower door entrance with mud e. Build dykes f. Plant trees/sisal g. Other ` 115 5 What are the most common ways of dealing with floods? a. Evacuate to higher ground b. Dig trenches c. Rely on Government/NGO aid d. Raise what can be destroyed e. Buy food from the market f. Wait for another season to plant g. Remove excess water from the house h. Treat/Boil drinking water i. Rebuild/buy what has been destroyed j. Other 0016 6 Please rate the following assumed flood characteristics on a scale rate of 1-4 (1. Low 2. Medium 3. High 4. Not sure) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ` Low threat Certain not fatal Old risk Evokes no anxiety Influence possible Happens seldom Predictable Decrease in future 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 high threat very fatal new risk evokes anxiety influence impossible happens often not predictable increase in future 0017 116 7 I am now going to read out the following statements and would like you to tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with them. 0018 1. Strongly agree, 2. Agree, 3. Not sure, 4. Disagree, 5. Strongly disagree a. Flooding is inevitable and cannot be prevented b. Flood hazard could be reduced by man-made structures c. Huge investments is needed to reduce flood hazards d. Flood preventive measures are more important than emergency relief and rehabilitation work. e. The state should establish financial reserves to help victims f. People are capable of controlling the occurrence of floods g. Modern technology is the best way to solve flooding problems. h. floods are a natural phenomena or „acts of God HOUSEHOLD BEHAVIOR DURING THE MOST RECENT FLOODS Have you experienced floods in your life time? 8 a. Yes b. No 0019 (if yes, proceed to question below) (if no, proceed to question?) 9 Which year did you experience the most recent floods? ` 0020 117 10 Did your family experience any damage to shelter a. b. No 0021 Yes (if yes, proceed to question below) 11 How did you deal with the damage? a. Build afresh b. Compact soft parts with mud c. Evacuate to higher ground d. Build temporary shelters e. Other 0022 Did your family experience loss of crops in the field? a. Yes b. No 12 ` (if yes, proceed to question below) 0023 118 13 0024 How did you cope with the loss? a. Waited for next season to plant b. Rented land on higher ground c. Started growing rice d. Planted fast maturing crops (which one) indigenous crop? e. Bought food from the market f. Sought assistance from relatives g. Relied on Government/NGO aid h. Resorted to other businesses i. Other 14 Did your family experience loss of livestock? a. Yes b. No 0025 What type of livestock did you loose? Animal b. Goats c. Sheep d. Poultry e. Pigs f. Donkeys g. Other ` (if yes, proceed to question below) 15 a. Cows Number Lost (indicate) 0026 119 16 How did you cope with the loss? a. Bought and replaced what has been lost b. Reported loss to the chief c. Sold vulnerable stock before floods d. Treated livestock-sprayed and de-wormed e. No action taken f. Other 0027 17 Did your family experience any shortage of food during the floods? a. Yes b. No c. 0028 If yes, how did you deal with the shortage? a. Bought food from the market b. Reduced intake of food c. Skipped meals d. Was assisted by relatives e. Children given priority ` Other (if yes, proceed to question below) 18 f. 0029 120 19 Did your family experience shortage of clean water during the 0030 floods? a. Yes b. No (if yes, proceed to question below) 20 If yes, how did you deal with the shortage? a. Boil drinking water b. Collected rain water c. Used tap water d. Started using chlorine and water guard e. Used borehole water f. Other 0031 21 Did your family experience any diseases that were more prevalent during the flood times? a. Yes b. No ` (if yes, proceed to question below) 0032 121 22 0033 If yes, what diseases? a. Cholera c. Typhoid e. Athlete foot g. Bilharzia i. Fever k. Amoeba b. Malaria d. Dysentery f. Vomiting h. Foot and mouth disease j. Pneumonia l. Other 23 0034 How did you deal with the diseases? a. Took the sick to Government dispensaries/hospitals b. Took the sick to private clinics/ hospitals c. Bought drugs from the store d. Used traditional medicine e. Used mosquito nets f. ` Other 122 24 Was there any death in the family that can be attributed to the floods? a. Yes b. No 0035 (if yes, proceed to question below) 25 If yes, what caused the death and how many members of the 0036 family did you loose? a. One member b. Two members c. Three members d. Other Cause of death --------------------------- 26 Was schooling interrupted during the floods? a. Yes b. No 0037 (if yes, proceed to question below) 27 How did you deal with the situation? a. Schools were closed b. Children stayed at home c. Children went to school during holidays d. Bought gumboots for children e. Community cleared the path off debris f. ` Other 0038 123 28 Generally, how effective is your household response in dealing with 0039 negative flood effects a. Very effective b. Somewhat effective c. Not effective d. Don‟t now/Not sure 29 0040 How can your responses be improved? a. Government assistance b. Community education on how to live with floods c. Work harder to replace what is lost d. Government dispensaries to be improved e. Introduction of mobile clinics f. Store food reserves g. More community initiatives h. Plant trees i. Plant more crops j. Other 30 Do you expect that you will experience flooding this year? ` a. Extremely likely b. Very likely c. Neutral (50/50) d. Extremely unlikely 0041 124 31 Are you prepared for the likelihood of a future flood? a. Very prepared b. Somewhat prepared c. Not very prepared d. Not prepared at all 0042 32 What plans do you have to deal with future floods? a. Evacuate when floods come b. Relocate to different area c. Rent land on higher ground d. Dig trenches e. Pile mud around the homestead f. Raise foundation of the house g. Digging dykes h. Store food i. Plant more rice j. Plant trees k. Other 0043 How likely is it that you will continue staying in this area in the next 5 years? Probably stay Definitely not stay Don‟t know b. c. d. ` 33 a. Definitely stay 0044 125 34 0045 If yes, why would you continue to live in flood prone area? a. Poverty b. Accumulated property c. Farm not severely affected d. Ancestral home e. Fear of social set up breaking f. Availability of water g. Used to living with floods h. Other TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND FORECASTING 35 When do you first become aware of the possibility of flooding? a. Official flood warning b. Unofficial or informal flood detection and warning process c. Form own judgment d. Don‟t know/not sure e. Other 0046 36 Do you have local ways of knowing whether or not it will flood? No a. Yes b. ` (if yes, proceed to question below) 0047 126 37 Which traditional knowledge do you have that warns you of the 0048 likelihood of flooding? When the river levels start increasing Heavy rains in Kericho and the Nandi Hills Strong winds blowing from the river towards the Hills When it shines for long& temperatures are higher than normal Certain movement and chirping of the cow egret Heavy rainfall in the area over long period of time Thunder and lightning on the river Certain way the frogs croak When noise level of the river increases When river water turns dirty brown Other a. When the old people bone‟s start to ache b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. 38 Where does the above information come from? a. From old people b. Relatives c. Friends d. Own judgement e. Observing the rain pattern f. Observing river level g. Don‟t know h. Other ` 0049 127 39 Would you please rate how the following are useful as sources of information? 0050 Most useful Adequate Inadequate Not useful a. Friends/family b. Neighbour c. Radio stations d. Other (specify) 40 How much do you rely on traditional flood information? a. Very much b. Somewhat c. Not much d. Don‟t know 0051 41 How much do you rely on official flood information? a. Very much b. To some extent c. Not much d. Don‟t know 0052 EXTERNAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS 42 Did your household receive any help during the flood times? No a. Yes b. ` (if yes , proceed to question below) 0053 128 43 Where did the help come from? a. Relatives/families b. Local agencies c. Government d. NGO e. Other(Specify) 0054 44 What kind of external assistance did you receive? a. Food b. Temporary shelter/Tents c. Mattress d. Blankets e. Clothes f. Money g. Mosquito nets h. Medicine 45 i. Structural measures j. Other 0055 it will meet? b. Sufficient c. In sufficient d. Not useful ` To what extent does the assistance meet the need you hope a. Most sufficiently 0056 129 46 To what extent can you cope without external assistance? a. Fully cope b. To a large extent c. To a small extent d. Not at all THE END ` 0057 130 APPENDIX II: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE I. INTRODUCTION My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student at Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along the Nyando River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project to meet academic requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions and response to this perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of community‟s perceptions and response in flood hazard/risk management strategies. I am talking to women and men living in Nyando District. The opinions and information that you provide today will be helpful to us in planning a fresh approach to dealing with floods in Nyando. Everything discussed here today will be confidential. The FGD will last approximately 1:30 hours. Other study notes – explain: That there feedback is important No „right‟ or „wrong‟ answers All views are valued and that they should speak their minds They should not worry if their views differ from other people present in the session Mobile phones turned off ( if applicable) II. WARM UP Let‟s start by going around the circle and having each person introduce herself/himself. If you like, you can tell the group your first name an d how many children you have III. HISTORY OF FLOODS 1. Describe the pattern of flooding in this area. (Probe: timing, level and reason) 2. Tell us about how floods have affected you? – (Probe: What property or business has been affected by the floods-at house hold and community levels) 3. Has the pattern changed in your life time? (Probe: how) ` 131 IV. RISK PERCEPTION 1. What risks in general do you think result from flooding? (Probe: How they occur, the most serious risks) 2. What health risks do you think result from flooding? (Probe: How they occur, the most serious risks) 3. Who is most vulnerable to the floods? Why? V. ACTIONS AND EFFECTIVENESS OF RESPONSES 1. How do individual families (households) respond when faced with a flood emergency? 2. How does the community respond when faced with a flood emergency? (Probe: How efforts can be improved) 3. On average, how long after the rains start do men and women wait before taking action? 4. What are some of the reasons that would make people choose a particular response 5. How do women/men respond when faced with a flood emergency? (Probe: How could these efforts be improved?) 6. How do women/men decide on the appropriate response to use? VI. EARLY WARNING INFORMATION 1. How do you get most of your information about flood issues 2. Where could a man or woman go to get any information on imminent floods? (probe for accessibility) 3. What type of information do you get from these sources? ` 132 4. What do you think about this information (probe: adequate, reliable, timely, and helpful?) 5. What sort of flood information would you like to receive? 6. How would you like to receive this information? VII. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT 1. How do you believe flood decisions are made? Who is involved? 2. What are the factors that have influenced the present decisions made on flood management? 3. How does the community influence flood decisions? 4. Do you feel the community‟s views have been given equal weight? 5. In your opinion, who are the key players in the decision making process? 6. Who do you think should be involved in the decision making process? 7. Are women involved in making flood decisions? 8. What is your understanding of the purpose of various local committees that deal with flooding? 9. Which plan of action do you think will best reduce the flooding problem? Thank you for participating in this FGD ` 133 APPENDIX III: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR KEY INFORMANTS I. Introduction My name is Hellen Nyakundi. I am a Master of Public Health and Epidemiology student at Kenyatta University currently conducting research on the above topic. Flooding along the Nyando River affects many people in Nyando District and as part of a thesis project to meet academic requirements I am researching Nyando District residents‟ perceptions and response to this perennial hazard. This study seeks to understand the strengths of community flood hazard/risk management strategies. I am talking to local officials who are connected with and working on disaster management. Your opinion and information that you provide today will be helpful providing data that assist in planning a fresh approach to dealing with floods in Nyando. I assure you that your answers and opinions will be treated in the strictest confidence and that in the analysis; the result of this interview will be combined with the result of interviews with other people, so that no individual can be identified. The interview will last approximately 45 minutes. II. WARM UP 1. I would like to ask you some general questions about yourself. Firstly, could you please tell me your name and age? 2. Could you please tell me in which GOK department or organization are you working in? 3. What is your official designation in your department or organization? 4. How long have you been in this position? 5. What is the highest level of education you have completed? 6. How many different training courses have you attended on disaster management( start with the most recent) III. GENERAL FLOOD HISTORY 1. Tell me the history of flooding in Nyando district and the effects on the economy and development 2. How have you been involved in the management of floods? (Probe: how local authority respond to floods) ` 134 3. What organizations are you involved in that deal with flood management? Probe: At what level, what role the organizations play in flood management) PARTICIPATION IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT 1. What has been the local authority‟s involvement in planning flood emergency response? 2. How do you get most of your information about flood issues?(Probe: information about impending floods, other flood issues and flood control proposals) 3. How do you believe flood decisions are made? Who is involved? 4. How does the community influence flood decisions? 5. What do you believe are the short term and long term goals for flood management in Nyando? 6. How could these efforts be improved? PERCEPTION OF CURRENT FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES 1. What are the factors that have influenced the present decisions made on flood management? 2. In your opinion, who are the key players in the decision making process? 3. Who do you think should be involved in the decision making process? 4. Do you feel the community‟s views have been given equal weight in influencing flood decisions? Why? 5. What is your understanding of the purpose of various local committees that deal with flooding? 6. What do you think would be the most important way to get better protection from flood risks? Thank you for participating in this interview `