The use of remittances
and financial inclusion
A report by the International Fund for Agricultural
Development and the World Bank Group to the
G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion
September 2015
The Use of Remittances and Financial Inclusion
A report prepared by the International Fund for Agricultural Development and the World Bank Group to
the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion.
September 2015
The opinions expressed in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those
of IFAD and its Board Members, and the views of the Executive Directors of the World Bank Group or
the governments they represent. IFAD and the World Bank Group do not guarantee the accuracy of
the data included in this report. The designations ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries are intended
for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage of development
reached by a particular country or area.
This publication or any part thereof may be reproduced without prior permission from the Global
Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI), IFAD or the World Bank Group, provided that the publication
or extract therefrom reproduced give full attribution to this work.
ISBN 978-92-9072-611-1
IFAD, September 2015
© 2015 by the International Fund for Agricultural Development
The use of remittances
and financial inclusion
A report by the International Fund for Agricultural
Development and the World Bank Group to the
G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion
September 2015
Table of contents
List of abbreviations and acronyms
5
Glossary
6
Executive Summary
8
1 Introduction
1.1 Objective of the report
1.2 Remittances and development
1.2.1 Effects of remittances at the national level
11
1.2.2 Effects of remittances at the community level
11
1.2.3 Effects of remittances at the household level
1.3 Remittances as a catalyst for financial inclusion and development
2 General trends
2.1 General trends in remittances and opportunities to increase financial inclusion
11
12
14
14
2.1.1 Impact of remittances and quantification of remittance senders and recipients
14
2.1.2 Migrant workers: profile and financial inclusion needs
16
2.1.3 Remittance recipients: profile and financial inclusion needs
2.2 Opportunities for financial service providers to meet remittance users’ needs
19
21
3 Financial needs of remittance senders and recipients, and barriers
to financial inclusion
3.1 Financial needs of migrant workers and barriers to financial inclusion
3.2 Policies and interventions to remove barriers and improve migrant capabilities
3.3 Financial needs of remittance recipients and barriers to financial inclusion
23
23
24
27
4 The supply side and market competition: players and opportunities
to meet the needs of remittance users
4.1 Transaction-based RSPs
4.2 Financial intermediaries
30
30
35
5 The regulatory framework and remittance market environment
5.1 Supply and demand-side constraints that hinder financial inclusion
among remittance senders and recipients
5.2 Proposed approaches
2
10
10
10
39
39
40
5.2.1 Promote competition in the remittance market
40
5.2.2 Facilitate and encourage innovation
45
5.2.3 Promote transparency and ensure adequate consumer protection and
good governance of RSPs
46
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
6 Beyond basic financial services: mobilizing migrant investment back home
48
7 Principles for policy guidelines and recommendations
7.1 Develop public goods to understand remittances and related financial
inclusion issues
7.2 Develop financial education campaigns to improve financial literacy, and
ensure proper consumer protection for remittance senders and recipients
7.3 Support innovative models to deliver remittance services and
complementary products
7.4 Promote legal and regulatory frameworks
7.5 Support research, advocacy and dialogue at international and bilateral levels
7.6 Create incentives for migrant workers to be agents of change
52
8 Bibliography
55
9 Practical resources and toolkits
58
52
52
53
53
53
54
Case studies
Case Study 1:
Case Study 2:
Case Study 3:
Case Study 4:
Case Study 5:
Case Study 6:
Case Study 7:
Case Study 8:
Case Study 9:
Case Study 10:
Case
Case
Case
Case
Case
Study
Study
Study
Study
Study
11:
12:
13:
14:
15:
Case Study 16:
Case Study 17:
Financial education to boost small and microenterprise development
Financial education for Mexican immigrants in the United States
and Canada
Project Greenback 2.0: financial literacy programme targeting
migrant workers
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
project on financial education for migrant families in Eastern Europe
and the Near East
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) financial education programme
for migrant workers abroad and their families in the Philippines
Leveraging online and mobile payment infrastructure to improve
access to low-cost remittances: WorldRemit Ltd
Emerging models for regional cross-border remittances with
mobile money at both sending and receiving ends
Improving access and use of remittances and basic financial
services in rural areas: Asociación Mexicana de Uniones de Crédito
del Sector Social (AMUCSS)
Eliminating exclusivity agreements
Facilitating access to the national payment system for
non-bank RSPs
Functional rather than institutional regulation for remittances
Proportional approaches to KYC regulation
Regulatory approaches to facilitate financial sector innovation
Promoting transparency through remittance price databases
Atikha’s catalytic programme to leverage Filipino migrant workers’
savings for investment in agri-based cooperatives
Enhancing food security in the Horn of Africa through the
Diaspora Investment in Agriculture initiative
Promoting diaspora investment in emerging markets’ SMEs:
Homestrings Diaspora Bond – SEAF Macedonia II
25
25
26
28
29
31
31
35
41
41
43
44
45
47
49
50
50
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
3
Figures
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
1:
2:
3:
4:
Top 10 receiving countries (USD billion)
Remittance-reliant countries by importance of remittance-to-GDP
Importance of people concerned by international remittances
Received remittances, stock of international and internal migrants,
rural population in main developing regions
Figure 5: Average annual amount remitted: breakdown by main destination
regions/countries ratios
Figure 6: Migrants’ financial needs and behaviour: settlement migration
Figure 7: Migrants’ financial needs and behaviour: circular migration
Figure 8: Proportion of remittance recipients saving within the financial sector
and in alternative ways
Figure 9: Account ownership for remittance recipients and non-recipients;
usage of accounts to receive remittances
Figure 10: Remittance impact according to household income level
Figure 11: Potential of different RSP business models to improve access
to remittances and use of complementary financial services
14
15
16
16
16
17
18
19
20
20
22
Tables
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
4
Financial services demanded by migrants and barriers to access
Interventions to remove barriers and improve migrants’
financial capabilities
Financial services demanded by remittance recipients and
barriers to access
Interventions to remove barriers and improve remittance recipients’
financial capabilities
Supply and demand-side constraints limiting financial inclusion
among remittance senders and receivers
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
23
24
27
27
39
List of abbreviations and acronyms
ADB
Asian Development Bank
AML/CFT
Anti-Money Laundering/Combating the Financing of Terrorism
AMUCSS Asociación Mexicana de Uniones de Crédito del Sector Social
BSP Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas
CGAP
Consultative Group to Assist the Poor
CMF Centre for Micro Finance
CPSS
Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems
DCA
Development Credit Authority
DMA Developing Markets Associates
EFLP Economic and Financial Learning Program
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FFR
Financing Facility for Remittances
FinCEN
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
FOMIN
Fondo Multilateral de Inversiones
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GIZ
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GPFI
Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion
IAD Inter-American Dialogue
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
KYC
Know Your Customer
MFI
Microfinance Institution
MNO Mobile Network Operator
MTO Money Transfer Operator
MSME
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise
NPS
National Payment System
ODA
Official Development Assistance
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PSA Payment Services Act
PSD
Payment Services Directive
RCB Rural and Community Bank
RER Rural Enterprise and Remittance Programme
RSP Remittance Service Provider
SEAF Small Enterprise Assistance Funds
SIDC Sorosoro Ibaba Development Cooperative
SME
Small and Medium-sized Enterprise
UNDESA
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
5
Glossary
The following terms are used in this paper. The definitions are those accepted by the
Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI), the World Bank, and the International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
Account-to-account transfer: Sometimes abbreviated A2A, this is movement of
money from one privately held bank account to another, typically electronically.
The accounts may be held by the same owner or separate owners.
AML/CFT: An acronym for anti-money laundering/combating the financing of
terrorism; it refers to policies and procedures used to detect and reduce money
laundering and terrorism financing.
Circular migration: Circular migration or repeat migration is the temporary and
repetitive movement of a migrant worker between home and host areas, typically
for the purpose of seasonal employment, or for longer stays of several years before
returning back. It can be cross-border or rural-urban within the same country.
De-risking attitude: The phenomenon of financial institutions terminating or
restricting business relationships with clients or categories of clients to avoid, rather
than manage, risk.
Financial inclusion: For the purposes of this report, financial inclusion is defined as
the effective access to basic financial services, such as payments, savings (including
current accounts), credit and insurance provided by regulated financial institutions for
all working-age adults. Effective access is defined as a “convenient and responsible
service delivery, at a cost affordable to the customer and sustainable for the provider,
with the result that financially excluded customers use financial services rather than
existing alternative, unregulated options” (GPFI, CGAP 2011).
Migrant worker: A person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged
in a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a national (United
Nations, 1990).
Mobile Network Operator (MNO): A provider of wireless communication services
that can also play a role in the delivery of electronic payments, including the transfer
of remittances.
Money Transfer Operator (MTO): A payment service provider that sends payment in
cash or through other payment instruments and receives fees from the sender for
each transfer without requiring the sender to open an account.
6
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Online service: Method to remit money using the Internet or the telephone network
as access channels; bank account or credit/debit/prepaid cards as funding sources;
and computers, phone, smart phones or tablets as access devices. Online services
replace physical and in-cash interactions by remote electronic transactions.
Payment institution: a specific category of non-bank institutions permitted to handle
payment operations including remittances.
Payment system: A specific set of instruments, banking procedures and interbank
funds transfer (e.g. clearing and settlement) systems that ensure the circulation
of money.
Postal networks: Association between postal banks and postal organizations to use
post office networks as a delivery channel for postal or money transfer operator (MTO)
remittance products.
Remittances: Cross-border, person-to-person payments of a relatively low value.
The transfers are typically recurrent payments by migrant workers to their relatives in
their home countries. Remittances are – first and foremost – a private flow of funds
between family members.
Remittance Service Provider (RSP): An entity operating as a business that provides
remittance services for a fee to end-users, either directly or through agents, and
generally making use of agents such as stores, post offices or banks to collect the
money to be sent. On the receiving side, the money is picked up by the recipient
at a bank, post office, microfinance institution (MFI), or other payout location. RSPs
encompass a wide array of financial institutions (bank and non-bank) and nonfinancial institutions. Institutions such as banks, postal networks and MNOs, can be
agents that co-brand and sell the products of others, especially major MTOs. Some
RSPs brand and sell their own remittance products.
Specialized banks: Banks that have developed specialized business lines for migrant
workers including low-cost remittances as a flagship product.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
7
Executive Summary
There is a direct correlation between financial
exclusion and poverty. An estimated two billion
or 38 per cent of working-age adults globally
have no access to financial services delivered by
regulated financial institutions, with 73 per cent
of poor people unbanked. Among the financially
excluded are migrant workers and their families
in their home countries. In 2015, it is expected
that these workers will send USD500 billion
home, representing a key international flow of
funds. However, the economic potential of these
funds is largely untapped due to the inadequate
engagement of the financial sector to the specific
needs of migrants and their families.
Through a better understanding of this group
and their needs, remittance flows could be
leveraged to pull people out of poverty, to develop
home countries’ economic infrastructure and
to provide additional revenue streams for the
financial sector. Whether through remittances,
savings or investment, migrant workers possess
a powerful set of instruments to change their
own lives and the lives of those back home. With
the recognition of the impact that remittances
have on development, and the role of financial
inclusion through remittances, it is incumbent
on governments and the private sector to explore
ways to maximize this impact by scaling up
successful policies and models. Through considered
intervention and policy changes, individuals can be
8
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
brought into the financial system to achieve their
personal financial goals. Regions, especially rural
areas, can build their financial infrastructure to lift
entire communities out of poverty.
This report provides an overview of the
relevant general trends in leveraging remittances
as a means to enhance financial inclusion, and
it underscores the importance of maximizing
the economic impact of remittances towards
sustainable development.
It also describes different migration patterns
(domestic vs. international; circular settlement),
the segmentation of migrants according to region
of destination or origin, and the related behaviors
in the utilization of remittance services.
The report also defines an analytical framework
for understanding the instrumental role of
remittances as a means to foster financial inclusion.
The main issues, policies, and interventions are
presented from three perspectives:
• A client centric perspective, which explains
the specific financial needs of senders and
recipients and the constraints they face to
access and use financial services.
• A supply side and market competition
perspective, which highlights the inclusive
outreach of different types of remittance
service providers (RSPs) in terms of access
to remittance and complementary financial
services for remittance senders and recipients.
• The regulatory framework and market
environment, examining the key domain
of regulations that affect the provision of
remittances by a variety of providers, focusing
on the interdependence between domestic
payment systems and international remittances.
Finally, there are public-private partnership
approaches that facilitate migrant resources
mobilization and the willingness of migrants to
invest in their home countries; because these go
beyond traditional financial schemes, they also
address financial inclusion. The report concludes
with general recommendations for stakeholders
involved in this field from the public and
private sectors.
Case studies illustrate these perspectives,
spotlighting progressive approaches in harnessing
remittance flows. These studies include examples
of financial education (both in specific
environments and as a general approach); online,
mutualized and mobile payment systems that
improve access in rural areas and reduce costs;
improved regulatory approaches that promote
transparency, eliminate exclusive agreements and
facilitate non-bank remittance service providers;
and specific migrant workers investments
that improve socio-economic circumstances in
countries of origin.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
9
1 Introduction
Over the past 15 years, as reporting has improved,
remittances have emerged as a key item in the global
development agenda. With over USD500 billion
expected to be sent by migrant workers to their
home countries in 2015, remittances represent a
key flow of foreign currency. The impact on local
communities is tremendous, as remittances bring in
large amounts of funds that help sustain millions
of families. Officially introduced for discussion in
2004 at the Sea Island Group of Eight (G8) meetings,
the topic has since been recognized and included
as a key developmental theme on the agendas of
governments, international organizations and NGOs.
1.1
Objective of the report
This report provides an overview of the nexus
between remittances and financial inclusion. It
aims to provide GPFI members and the G20 and
developing countries with a better understanding
of remittance market policies and interventions,
both at country and global levels, that can
further promote financial inclusion as a result
of remittance mobilization.
1.2
Remittances and development
Remittances are defined as cross-border, person-toperson payments of relatively low value. Migrants
send on average USD200, typically but not always
on a monthly basis. While this amount may
appear small, it is often 50 per cent or more of
their family’s income back home. In fact, it is on
the receiving end that remittances are perceived
as anything but ‘relatively low value’. These
flows constitute a critical lifeline for millions of
individual households, helping families raise their
living standards above subsistence and vulnerability
10
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
levels. Moreover, these remittances lead to
improved health, education, housing and levels of
entrepreneurship. Remittances are often the first
experience of a financial service for recipients, and
they can lead to further financial inclusion.
Governments, the development community,
the private sector (full-service banks, MFIs,
postal networks, and mobile phone companies,
among others) and the civil society have the
dual challenge of expanding access to financial
services (particularly in rural areas where the
majority of the financially excluded reside) and of
broadening the range of financial products offered
to remittance senders and recipients.
Financially excluded populations actively make
use of unregulated financial services, because
financial institutions are either unwilling or
unable to provide the services that suit their needs.
However, since migrants already use and rely on
remittances, and the financial sector provides
efficient money transfer services, remittances can
be the link between the needs of the financially
excluded class and the interests of the financial
sector. Remittances are a gateway to financial
citizenship; they create a starting point on which
to build other inclusive and sustainable financial
services. A transaction or deposit account can
lead to a broader range of responsible financial
services provided through stronger and more
diverse financial institutions. When remittances are
received through regulated financial intermediaries,
savings can occur and can be reinvested in the local
community; they can act as an engine for local
development; and they can function as a buffer
against instability at the macroeconomic level. To
understand just how important remittances are, it
is essential to understand their effects at national,
community and household levels.
1.2.1 Effects of remittances at the
national level
Aggregated at the macroeconomic level, remittances
can be a potent force. Approximately 25 countries
receive 10 per cent or more of their GDP from
remittances. In countries such as Tajikistan,
remittances account for 42 per cent of GDP, and
this figure is even higher for Somalia, where
estimates are close to 50 per cent.
The impact of such a large inflow of cash is
monumental in its own right, but there are further
effects as well. Remittances act as a safety net,
lifting families out of poverty and reducing the
demand on public social programmes. Remittances
provide recipient countries with a source of hard
currency, making it easier for governments to
borrow money at a lower cost. During times of
political instability, economic strife or natural
disaster, remittances tend to increase as the
increased needs of family members cause migrants
to send more money home. This contribution
provides an important economic buffer during
periods when foreign investors are likely to
withdraw their funds.
Naturally, there are also negative externalities.
As is the case with exports, large volumes of
remittances tend to increase the value of a country’s
currency, which renders the country’s products and
services more expensive on world markets (the
Dutch disease effect).
1.2.2 Effects of remittances at the
community level
The effects of remittances at the community level
receive little attention from policymakers, but they
provide an infusion of cash into local commerce,
and they help develop financial infrastructure
and financial intermediation. While the extra
demand for products and services helps develop
local markets and supports businesses, expanding
financial infrastructure provides access to services
that are often not available in more remote urban
or rural areas.
Migrants also invest in and donate funds to
their local communities. These investments help
create local jobs so that others do not need to
migrate. Furthermore, migrant philanthropy can
play an important role in helping communities
supplement their locally available social services
through the building of schools, community
centres, medical facilities, religious buildings and
infrastructure. These investments inherently have
a long-term impact on the community, but are
nevertheless some of the more underappreciated
aspects of the willingness of migrants to remit
money home.
1.2.3 Effects of remittances at the
household level
Remittances have been called the world’s largest
poverty reduction programme.
Amounting to as much as 40 per cent of family
income, remittances are mostly spent on basic
necessities such as food, clothing and shelter; but
once these are covered, the remainder is invested in
human capital, health and education, or housing.
Although referred to as a ‘non-productive’ use
of assets, these funds are vital in lifting millions
of families out of poverty. Moreover, remittances
provide regular inflows into household budgets
that are subject to income volatility and seasonality
in rural areas; and they are reliable and timely
in times of crisis. This unique source of income
allows receiving households to face unpredictable
problems, to save residually from amounts
received in good months, to affect monthly loan
repayments, or to support investment in productive
assets. It is estimated that, over time, between 20 to
30 per cent of the remittances received can be used
for savings and investment.
1.3
Remittances as a catalyst for
financial inclusion and development
An estimated 2 billion or 38 per cent of workingage adults globally have no access to the types of
financial services delivered by regulated financial
institutions, and 73 per cent of poor people are
unbanked. This amounts to more than half of
adults in the poorest 40 per cent of households in
developing countries.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
11
There is a direct correlation between this
financial exclusion and poverty. Without access to
financial services, savings cannot accrue interest
in deposit accounts, they cannot be lent out
to be reinvested in the local economy, and no
credit history can be built to judge a person’s
creditworthiness. In many communities, this
exclusion means that people are only able to
save informally (through the purchase of land
or durable goods, or money saved ‘under the
mattress’); and they must rely on relatives or
local lenders for borrowing, typically with severe
limitations in terms of amounts, availability
and costs.
In contrast, those who do have access to a
combination of regulated financial services can
have significant benefits such as: mitigation of
unforeseen expenses risk, smoothed consumption,
increased productive investment, elevated
productivity and income, and greater expenditures
on education and preventive health. Moreover,
these benefits create a virtuous cycle, with greater
financial access leading to greater ability to invest
in local communities and financial intermediation,
and thus extending financial opportunities to other
impoverished individuals.
Among the financially excluded are migrant
workers and their families back home. While it is
impressive that this group represents an industry
worth USD430 billion a year in remittances from
host countries to home countries, this economic
engine is largely untapped because the financial
sector fails to understand and/or is unwilling
to adapt to the specific needs of migrants and
their families.
Through a better understanding of this
population such remittance flows could be
leveraged to pull people out of poverty, to develop
home countries’ economic infrastructure and to
profit the financial sector.
With the recognition of the impact that
remittances have on development and financial
inclusion, it is imperative that governments and
the private sector to explore ways to maximize
this impact by scaling up successful policies and
12
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
models. Through considered intervention and
policy changes, individuals can be brought into
the financial system to achieve their personal
financial goals. Regions, especially rural areas, can
build their financial infrastructure to lift entire
communities out of poverty.
1.4
Structure of the Report
This report is an overview of the relevant general
trends, introducing remittances as a means to
enhance financial inclusion of both senders and
recipients; and it underscores the importance of
maximizing the economic impact of remittances
towards sustainable development. It also
describes different migration patterns (domestic
vs. international; circular vs. settlement), the
segmentation of migrants according to region of
destination or origin, and the related behaviour for
sending money home.
The report also defines the analytical framework
used to understand the instrumental role of
remittances as a means to foster financial inclusion.
The main issues, policies and interventions, as
well as selected case studies, are presented from
three perspectives. Section 3 provides a clientcentric perspective, which explains the specific
financial needs of senders and recipients and the
constraints they face to access and use financial
services. Section 4 presents the supply side and
market competition, which highlights the inclusive
outreach of different types of RSPs in terms of
access to remittance and complementary financial
services for remittance senders and recipients.
Section 5 discusses the regulatory framework
and market environment, clustering the key
domains of regulations that affect the provision of
remittances by a variety of providers, focusing on
the interdependence between domestic payment
systems and international remittances.
Finally, this report describes specific publicprivate-partnership approaches to facilitate migrant
resource mobilization and willingness to invest
back home beyond just traditional financial
schemes, thus addressing financial inclusion. It
concludes with general recommendations for
stakeholders involved in this field from the public
and private sectors.
Case studies illustrate these perspectives,
spotlighting progressive approaches in harnessing
remittance flows. These studies include examples of
financial education (both in specific environments
and as a general approach); online, mutualized
and mobile payment systems that improve
access in rural areas and reduce costs; improved
regulatory approaches that promote transparency,
eliminate exclusive agreements and facilitate nonbank remittance service providers; and specific
migrant workers investments that improve socioeconomic circumstances in countries of origin.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
13
2 General trends
2.1
General trends in remittances and
opportunities to increase financial
inclusion
This section provides data supporting the
importance of remittances for receiving countries.
It highlights the nexus between remittances
and financial inclusion describing the financial
behaviour of remittance senders (migrant workers/
the diaspora) and recipients and the opportunities
these individuals represent as clients of RSPs and
financial institutions.
Figure 1: Top 10 receiving countries
(USD billion)
India
China
Philippines
Mexico
Nigeria
Egypt
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Viet Nam
Indonesia
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Source: The World Bank 2014.
70
80
2.1.1 Impact of remittances and quantification
of remittance senders and recipients
At a macro level, international remittances have
a number of positive effects on both economic
and poverty alleviation indicators, which can be
leveraged further by promoting financial inclusion.1
The scale of impact in a given country can
be assessed by the gross volume of remittance
inflows and the remittance-to-GDP ratio, which in
turn measures the economy’s reliance on foreign
remittances. Some studies suggest that a 10 per cent
increase in the share of remittances in a country’s GDP
can lead to a decrease in the proportion of people
in poverty of 1.6 to 3.5 per cent (UNCTAD, 2011).
In certain countries (e.g. Armenia, Haiti, Liberia,
Nepal and Tajikistan) remittance-to-GDP ratio
can reach 20 per cent or more. Figure 2 places
countries in three groups according to the level of
reliance: above 20 per cent, between 10 per cent
and 20 per cent, and between 3 per cent and
10 per cent. There are currently 24 countries that
have a remittance-to-GDP ratio above 10 per cent.
A significant number of small islands and
countries with small populations and economies are
particularly reliant on remittances. Such is the case
in Cape Verde, Comoros, Montenegro and Tonga.
Beyond their impact on socio-economic
indicators at the macro level, international
remittances reach a substantial part of the
population of developing countries. In 2014,
there were over 232 million migrants worldwide
(164 million of which originated from developing
countries). In 2013, women comprised 48 per cent
of the estimated 200 million international migrants
worldwide. However, there were considerable
1 Remittances have a positive impact on balance of payments as a countercyclical source of currencies, overtaking
ODA and FDI in developing countries, and counter-balancing both economic cycles and national disasters. However,
remittances can negatively impact the effective exchange rate, thus decreasing competitiveness of the receiving
countries (the Dutch disease effect) while exchange rate fluctuations can sharply affect the amount received in local
currencies. Remittances (international and national) have a positive effect on poverty both quantitatively, by reducing
the number of households below the poverty line, and qualitatively, by reducing the severity of poverty (the proportion
and the degree of poverty of people below the poverty line). (ADB 2014, IFAD 2013, Ratha 2013, Pozo 2006).
14
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Figure 2: Remittance-reliant countries by importance of remittance-to-GDP
Receiving region and countries
Remittances/
GDP
20%+
Africa %
Asia %
Liberia 26
Tajikistan 42
Lesotho 22
Kyrgyzstan 30
Latin America %
and the
Caribbean
Europe %
Haiti 22
Near East %
Population %
< 1 million
/ Islands
Armenia 20
Tonga 26
Nepal 30
Honduras 17
Comoros 19
El Salvador 17
10%+
Senegal 11
Philippines 10
Lebanon 19
Samoa 18
Guatemala 10
Kosovo 17
Georgia 12
Guyana 11
Nicaragua 10
Bosnia 11
Herzegovina
Jordan 10
Cape Verde 10
Montenegro 10
Mali 8
Togo 8
Sri Lanka 9
Albania 8
Sao Tome
and Principe
9
Egypt 7
Uzbekistan 9
Dominican 7
Republic
Serbia 8
Kiribati
8
Morocco 7
Bangladesh 9
Bolivia 4
Ukraine 6
Saint Kitts
and Nevis
6
Guinea-Bissau 5
Pakistan 7
Ecuador 3
Lithuania 5
Fiji
5
Madagascar 4
India 3
Hungary 3
Saint Vincent
and the
Grenadines
4
Uganda 4
Afghanistan 3
Bulgaria 3
Dominica
4
Nigeria 4
Timor-Leste 3
Croatia 3
Grenada
3
Azerbaijan 3
3%+
Sources: World Bank Bilateral Remittance Matrix 2014. World Bank, World Development Indicators, GDP, 2015.
differences across regions. In developed countries,
women constituted 52 per cent of all migrants,
while in developing countries, they accounted for
43 per cent (UNDESA 2013). Those considered
migrant workers sent more than USD430 billion
to their relatives in their countries of origin,
benefiting 500 million people in developing
countries.2 However, a large portion of these
remittance receivers remain unbanked or poorly
served by regulated financial institutions,
particularly in rural areas, which receive 40 per cent
of total remittances.3 In addition, migrant workers
also face difficulties in using financial services
adequate to their needs.4
2 This figure is based on a conservative assumption that each migrant worker from a developing country sends
remittances to three people on average in his/her home country. Recipient household surveys undertaken by IDB
in LAC (2001-2008) and IFAD in Africa (2009) and Asia (2012, 2013) report that the number of people benefiting
from one remittance sender are between three and five in developing countries.
3 There is no specific marker for remittance receivers in worldwide surveys such as Findex that would allow
comparing international remittance receivers’ financial inclusion (account ownership and other behaviour) to
other groups of adults/households. Specific information is limited to the use of accounts (bank or mobile) to
send/receive domestic remittances in the 2014 survey and for international remittances in the 2011 survey.
Surveys from different developing regions indicate that international remittance-receiving households belong
to low-income segments of the population. As a result, a proxy to assess financial inclusion among remittance
receivers can be proportionate to poor adults in developing countries holding an account. The 2014 Findex
survey estimates that 46 per cent of adults living in 40 per cent of the poorest households in developing
countries have an account.
4 Surveys indicate the following realities:
––Prominent unregulated channels to send money, particularly to rural areas, represent 42% of remittance flows
to Mali (BCEAO 2013), 35% to Nepal (NIDS-IFAD 2013) and 43% to Kosovo (UNDP 2012). In these countries
rural migration is significant.
––Migrant workers have limited access to bank accounts in host countries as compared with account ownership
of nationals. For example, surveys indicate the following significant differences: in the United States, 55%
(Chiswick 2014) versus 94% (Findex 2015); in Italy, 61% (CESPI 2012) versus 94% (Findex 2015); and in
France, 85% (Greenback 2.0 survey Montreuil 2015) versus 97% (Findex 2015).
––Lack of access to and quality of products that meet the financial needs of diasporas in the host country,
leading to unregulated savings and borrowing practices.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
15
Domestic remittances reach an even larger
number of households in developing countries,
with 500 million people living outside their place
of origin (UNDESA 2013). A large percentage of
these people are also unbanked.
Remittances are of concern for a large
population base of migrant workers and recipients
(roughly more than one out of ten persons in
the world) with the potential to access regulated
financial institutions to send/receive remittances
and use complementary services.
Figure 3: Importance of people concerned
by international remittances
Figure 4: Received remittances, stock of
international and internal migrants, rural
population in main developing regions
Africa
Asia
Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
Received remittances
(USD billion) (i)
64
285
65
Migrants abroad (million) (ii)
31
93
37
Internal migrants (million) (iii)
114
282
100
59
52
20
Percentage of rural
population (iv)
Source: i. Adapted from World Bank Bilateral Matrix 2014;
based on UNDESA regional countries classification.
ii. iii. iv. UNDESA, Population Division (2012, 2013).
Figure 5: Average annual amount remitted:
breakdown by main destination regions/
countries ratios
Originating country
OECD
5 000
Russia, Gulf countries
2 500
Regional remittance: South America,
West Africa, Central Asia
Domestic remittance: Africa
16
Average annual
amounts
remitted (USD)
< 1 000
< 500
Source: IFAD 2015.
Source: Orozco 2013, World Bank 2012.
At the household level, the impact of
remittances depends upon their frequency, the
amount received and the characteristics of
the household (mainly its economic activity,
which determines incomes levels and regularity).
International remittances sent from OECD
countries are usually more frequent (11 times a
year on average) and for larger amounts (USD200
to USD300 per transaction on average) as
compared with those sent from developing regions
(USD150 per transaction on average on an
irregular basis). Domestic remittances are generally
less frequent and of lower values (below USD50).
Figure 5 shows average annual remittances
received by region and highlights the differences
between amounts sent by regions.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
2.1.2 Migrant workers: profile and financial
inclusion needs
The most important and identified demand
migrant workers voice is remitting money to
their families in a secure manner, quickly and at
Figure 6: Migrants’ financial needs and behaviour: settlement migration
Arrival
Working
and legal
status
stabilization
Family
settlement
Retirement
Financial needs related to home
country and products used
Sending money home
Using accounts to save money home for
personal purposes
Financing land purchase, house improvement/
acquisition with savings or mortgages loans
Long term savings plan, mutual funds, life
insurance, RRSPs (in the country of work)
Business financing in the home country
(for complementary earnings or reinstallation)
Source: IFAD 2015.
affordable costs. Nonetheless, migrant workers
often require additional financial services such
as savings, insurance and housing loans in order
to cover personal needs in the home country
and to finance family needs and entrepreneurial
endeavours or established businesses back
home.5 In fact, it is estimated that between
1 to 5 per cent of migrant workers – those with
entrepreneurial profiles – are currently able to
invest their capital/savings in their countries of
origin. However, investments often require not
only financial but also non-financial support in
order to reach long-term sustainability.
Beyond some common characteristics, financial
needs and behaviours vary widely among migrant
workers, depending on their migration patterns.
Migrant workers’ financial goals evolve over
time, since their financial needs are determined
according to their migration cycle. In addition,
regions/countries of destination and the skills
and level of education of migrant workers also
determine their level of earnings, their ability to
save and remit money home and their demand
for specific financial products and services. For
example, affordable remittance transfer services
and a safe place to store money are essential for
the lowest-income segments; but higher-income
segments demand products such as remote
bill payment and savings systems, or more
sophisticated products such as housing loans and
retirement saving schemes, long-term savings,
entrepreneurship loans and insurance products.
For migrants settled in a host country on a longterm basis, needs evolve from remitting money
home to family to building savings for household
expenses, to more sophisticated projects and
products such as financing housing, retirement,
or businesses and insurances for body repatriation
and family health (Figure 6).
5 Migrant workers also have financial needs in the host countries. However, such needs are similar to those of
non-migrants with equivalent levels of income. For the purpose of this report, the focus is on specific constraints
for migrants to access regulated financial institutions in host and home countries, and to products addressing
needs in their home countries for which the supply is particularly limited.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
17
Figure 7: Migrants’ financial needs and behaviour: circular migration
Savings brought
back home
Low level of earnings
Saving informally
try
oun
Remitting to family
c
tion
tina
Des
Current expenditures
ntry
Working and investment
capital for small businesses
ou
ec
Hom
Housing
Financing migration
travel costs
Long-term savings
(retirement)
Insurance
Source: IFAD 2015.
In the case of circular migration patterns,
remittances are initially used to repay migration
loans. Consumption is limited to the strict
minimum to remit money for essential family
needs and the rest is kept aside (outside the
banking system) and brought back home. The
accumulated capital is dedicated to different
consumption and investment purposes and to
prepare the next migration cycle. Over time, such
savings reach higher levels than remittances sent
home (Figure 7).
In order to cater to their clients’ evolving needs,
financial service providers should be able to offer
an array of suitable products – ideally accessible
both in host and home countries.
Although migrant workers could potentially
use financial products to meet their transnational
needs, financial exclusion still hampers achieving
their financial and migration goals:
• A large percentage of migrants (in fact up
to 30 per cent for migrants originating from
rural areas) still use unregulated methods to
send and save money, incurring the risks of
carrying money or loss without claim recourse
in the case of embezzlement or robbery. This
also prevents the development of relationships
with regulated financial institutions. Preference
18
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
for cash-to-cash remittances still prevails,
even though regulations are more stringent
for in-cash operations, resulting in financial
institutions, especially banks, being ever more
reluctant to manage in-cash transactions. The
use of an account-based method to remit and
save money home is becoming a critical issue,
especially for migrant workers in developed
countries, as there is a significant opportunity
cost for using cash (through greater fees,
transaction time and risk, for instance).
• Migrants try to monitor family expenses,
eventually organizing the purchase of goods,
which are typically paid for remotely and
distributed locally through networks such
as local small retailers and village-based
cooperatives. These transnational transactions
could be better served through the use of
online platforms that combine cash remittance
and direct remote payments for a growing array
of items such as food, bills and school fees.
• Migrants insure their families against
numerous risks, including those related to
health, life events, natural disasters, and price
variations. They also organize themselves to
cover funerals and deceased repatriation fees
to their communities of origin.
• Most migrants rely on their own resources to
finance housing and businesses. In the absence
of appropriately adapted housing products or
mortgage loans, migrants are often forced to
construct in sequential phases, depending on
the availability of funding and on their presence
on site during vacation, which results in
increased costs and duration of housing projects.
• Without appropriate sources of funding and
support, migrants cannot effectively leverage
their financial and human capital acquired
abroad and optimize their chance to succeed
in launching a business or developing an
existing one.
• In the absence of long-term savings plans or
business financing and support opportunities
during their economically active life, some
elder migrant workers still depend on their
children for help in financing retirement once
back home.
• Even the most educated and wealthiest
migrant workers are obliged to engage in
business with multiple financial institutions
to find an often sub-optimal combination
of products fitting their needs, both in their
host and home countries. Often, they use
consumption loans contracted with host
country banks to finance housing projects
in their countries of origin; they send
remittances home through MTOs or even
unregulated channels; and they cannot build
credit and savings history in both host and
home countries at the same time, which
limits their overall creditworthiness.
2.1.3 Remittance recipients: profile and
financial inclusion needs
Remittances increase the disposable income of
recipients, especially when the amounts remitted
are significant and frequent. In most cases,
remittance inflows represent an additional source
of income, and in the case of families receiving
international transfers, these represent on average
up to 40 per cent of household income.
In addition, surveys show that remittancereceiving households tend to have a relative higher
propensity to save than non-receiving households –
and higher amounts of savings in absolute value.
Based on financial education surveys carried out
in 2013 by the Inter-American Dialogue (IAD),
Figure 8: Proportion of remittance recipients within the financial sector and in alternative ways
Region
Caucasus
Central Asia
Africa
Latin America and
the Caribbean
Country
People who save (%)
Saving in financial institutions (%)
Receiving head of
households
Total adults
Receiving head
of households
Total adults
Armenia
47
21
17
2
Azerbaijan
80
40
23
5
Georgia
48
13
7
1
Moldova
72
44
19
7
Tajikistan
33
31
32
2
Kyrgyzstan
38
36
14
5
Uzbekistan
42
44
31
2
Morocco
66
30
21
12
Senegal
53
59
3
7
Guatemala
69
56
40
15
Jamaica
79
74
65
30
Mexico
59
58
12
15
Nicaragua
43
51
17
8
Paraguay
63
18
19
10
Average
57
41
23
9
Source: Receiving households: IAD 2015; Total adults: Findex 2014, Findex 2011 for Morocco and Paraguay.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
19
on average 57 per cent of receiving households in
several developing countries from different regions
save a portion of their remittances compared
with only 41 per cent for all adults (Findex,
2014) in the same countries (Figure 8). A much
smaller portion, only 23 per cent of remittancereceiving households on average, saves in financial
institutions. This rate is still more than double
the rate for the wider population, which was just
9 per cent for all adults in the same countries.
Related to savings is the issue of the effective
use of accounts. According to a World Bank study
conducted in four African countries in which there
was a higher percentage of remittance recipients
with bank accounts as compared with nonrecipients, using accounts to receive remittances
remains uncommon (Figure 9). Also, although
more than half of the recipients tend to save, only
23 per cent used financial institutions. A similar
trend is shown in Figure 8 for other regions.
Although increased income and savings can
potentially strengthen the relationship with
regulated financial institutions, the effective use of
financial products for services other than savings
remains rather low. This pattern is found to be
similar in non-receiving households.
Figure 9: Account ownership for remittance
recipients and non-recipients; usage of
accounts to receive remittances
60
50
40
Account
ownership
remittance
receivers
30
20
Account
ownership
all adults
10
Account
used to
receive
remittance
0
Kenya
Senegal Burkina
Faso
Nigeria
Source: World Bank 2014.
The impact of remittances on receiving
households differs according to income levels
(Figure 10). So it is reasonable to assume that
financial inclusion leveraging factors may also vary.
Figure 10: Remittance impact according to household income level
Target population
Remittance impact
Financial inclusion levers
Poor households
Resilient households
x x x
Remittances as a lifeline,
reducing poverty
Remittances as a safety
net, reducing vulnerability
Remittances as an
investment resource
Up to 80 per cent of the
amount of international
remittances – and more
for domestic remittances –
is allocated to purchase
basic goods like food
and to cover health-care
expenses.
Low-income households
are characterized by
irregular income flows.
External shocks can impact
a household’s wealth and
draw it below the poverty
line. Remittance inflows
increase income and help
households cope with
unforeseen expenses, thus
reducing vulnerability.
Less vulnerable households
use a variable share of
remittances to invest in
human (education, health)
and social (marriage) capital,
and physical (livestock,
housing, equipment) and
financial assets. A tiny
share is invested in small
businesses or farming
activities.
Access to low-cost
formal, reliable and timely
remittance services is
essential to cover basic
expenditures.
Remittance services help
to cope with risks and
channel a complementary
source of income that can
be transformed into savings
when incomes overtake
expenditures.
Remittance services
associated with other
financial products (loans,
savings) and non-financial
services help households to
develop income-generating
and farming activities.
Source: IFAD 2015.
20
Vulnerable households
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
2.2
Opportunities for financial service
providers to meet remittance
users’ needs
Remittances offer the prospect of bringing together
the commercial interests of financial institutions
and the needs of senders and receivers. In fact,
remittances can provide inclusive and sustainable
financial services to migrants and their families,
as follows:
• Given frequent interactions between
remittance senders, recipients and the financial
system, remittances could be used to serve as
the on-ramp for a long-term relationship with
financial institutions.
• Remittance-receiving families are more
likely to save than are other categories
of low-income clients, and the recurrent
remittance flow can provide a transactional
track record that can be leveraged to assess
creditworthiness.
• Financial needs for migrant workers evolve
along their life cycle. Besides sending money
home, migrant workers require products that
could finance short-term goals (satisfying
their needs in home and host countries) and
long-term goals (enabling them eventually to
return home).
RSPs encompass a variety of financial service
providers, including financial intermediaries (such
as banks and MFIs) that also offer remittance
services among others, and non-bank financial
institutions (such as payment agencies, MTOs,
Mobile Network Operators (MNOs)6) that provide
mainly payment services, including remittances.
For financial intermediaries, besides income
generated by transaction fees, the remittance
market enables additional opportunities and
revenue streams from savings mobilization and the
cross-selling of other financial services to migrants
and their families. With a basket of suitable
products (e.g. low-cost remittances, transactional
accounts, tailored marketing approaches), some
home-country banks are able to attract migrants’
savings in their countries of origin.7 Conversely,
host-country banks with foreign affiliates
established in countries of origin (or by specifically
targeting significant diaspora groups) can develop
niche-market strategies. Some MFIs have also
developed cross-selling strategies for remittance
recipients by leveraging migrants’ resources
to finance their loan portfolio. For financial
intermediation business models, remittances are
a flagship product, attracting and incentivizing a
wider consumer base to use other financial services.
For transaction-based business models,
remittances support the development of sustainable
payment networks and the use of electronic
payments and instruments, which increases the
scale of operations and the experience of regulated
financial services. For MNOs that have developed
digital financial services, remittances are one of the
core products besides airtime top-up that supports
market differentiation and client retention.
Transaction-based business models can
improve access to remittance services (among
other payment services) through the development
of access points (both virtual and physical) and
cost reduction mechanisms, while financial
intermediation business models can increase
access to remittance services and other products
and they can promote the effective use of basic
or more sophisticated products.
In developed mobile banking markets, new
partnerships use both types of business models
involving banks, insurance brokers and MNOs,
thereby enabling remittance users to access other
microfinance products from their mobile wallet
and enlarging the possibilities to financially
include low-income segments of customers.
6 MNOs can play different roles in the supply chain of payments and remittances depending on the regulatory
environment, partnership opportunities and market competition in airtime and retail payment markets. An MNO
can act as the payment service provider, the agent network manager or the communications channel (IFC 2014).
7 For instance, in countries that depend on remittances like Cape Verde and Morocco, migrants’ deposits
represent more than 20 per cent of private savings.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
21
Figure 11: Potential of different RSP business models to improve access to remittances
and use of complementary financial services
Access
First/last mile
Lower cost
MNOs
Online
MTOs
Postal
networks
Business model
Transaction-based
MFIs
Financial intermediary
Banks
Use
Complementary financial services
Source: IFAD 2015.
Figure 11 highlights the typical potential of
different RSP business models to improve
access to remittances and use of complementary
financial services.
RSPs with business models that are transactionbased are particularly effective at improving access.
Notably, MNOs and online platforms have the
potential to reduce both distance to access points
and cost issues by building on a high number of
low-value/low-fee transactions serviced through a
large number of close access points (or accessible
remotely through the Internet or mobile networks).
Financial intermediary RSPs focus more
on engaging clients and providing them with
complementary services, thus generating sources of
income beyond transaction fees. Although banks
have the largest array of services, access is limited
by their concentration in urban centres, costly
services and documentation requirements.8 MFIs
have more decentralized branch networks and an
array of basic services (savings, microloans and
sometimes insurance) adapted to low-income
populations that can support both better access
and use.
8 Documentation requirements are usually inappropriate as there are lower risks associated with this segment
of the population.
22
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
3 Financial needs of remittance senders and
recipients, and barriers to financial inclusion
3.1
Financial needs of migrant workers
and barriers to financial inclusion
This section addresses the financial inclusion issues
migrant workers typically face, and it highlights
the mismatch between the demand for financial
services and the existing supply of services offered
Table 1: Financial services demanded by migrants and barriers to access
Services demanded by
migrant workers
Regulated financial services and
products that cover these needs
Barriers to access or use of regulated services
Basic remittance transfer:
Send money home quickly,
securely, at affordable costs
and conveniently (in terms of
proximity to access points,
no administrative burdens,
convenient schedules and
customer service).
• Cash-to-cash remittance
• Card/Internet/mobile-tocash/mobile
• Direct payment for specific
expenditures (airtime, food,
education) – Conditioned
Remittance
• Widespread use and preference for unregulated
transfer services. Although less secure, unregulated
remittance transfers can be more convenient
for migrants, and they are sometimes the only
alternative, thus making it difficult to change habits
• Inconvenience and high costs of MTOs:
identification requirements; distance to the point
of service
• Lack of transparent information with clear cost
structure
• Lack of familiarity with mobile or Internet-based
transfer methods: contactless experience,
new processes and new players in the market
are often mistrusted
• Lack of integration between payment and
remittance platforms
Remittance transfer to a
transactional account in
country of origin.
This service may have
different purposes:
• remit funds to family
• save
• enable remote payments
• withdraw money once
back home
• repay a loan
• Account/cash-to-account
transfer
• Current/savings account in
host country
• Current/savings account in
country of origin (in local or
foreign currency)
• Payment instruments and
networks
• Bank transfers are often expensive
• Limited outreach of specialized banks offering
low-cost account-to-account transfers to migrants
• Undocumented migrants cannot open accounts in
most host countries
• High maintenance cost of accounts and lack of
transparency on banking conditions
• Lack of remote facilities accessible for transfers
or payments
• Network of cash-out points: available merchant or
agent points are concentrated in urban centres
Save money in the country
of origin for specific projects
or emergencies, or to ensure
a financially viable return
• Deposit/interest-bearing
accounts
• Senders and receivers mistrust local banks in the
country of origin
• Lack of mechanisms to check account balances
remotely
Mortgage or housing
construction/renovation
loans
• Mortgage loans, savings
plan, housing loans
• Migrant workers are not creditworthy for financial
institutions in the host country or in the home
country
• Limited supply of loan products and adapted
methodologies
Complement own capital to SME financing supported by non- • Missing sources of financing and information about
finance a small business back financial services
local opportunities and support
home or managed by relatives
• Lack of availability of adapted services back home,
particularly in rural areas
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
23
by regulated financial institutions. Table 1 describes
services demanded and barriers limiting access to
such services.
3.2
Policies and interventions to
remove barriers and improve
migrant capabilities
In order to remove barriers affecting the
financial goals of migrant workers, policies and
interventions may directly address either demand
or supply side (the market imperfections and the
regulatory environment). This section focuses on
interventions that are aimed at improving migrant
capacities to use regulated financial services.
Policies and interventions addressing supply side
and regulatory environment barriers are discussed
in section 4.
The core set of interventions can apply both in
the countries of origin or in host countries. In both
cases, financial literacy programmes are needed as
they aim at increasing migrant workers’ capacity
to choose the best-suited financial service among
available options. Therefore, financial education
is a fundamental step in empowering remittance
senders and recipients to make the most of hardearned funds. Financial education can help migrant
workers plan and save, but it can also help them
identify new services that meet their specific needs.
It can help provide migrant workers with riskmitigation strategies – from setting aside funds
in an emergency account to the use of insurance
products that can help minimize the detrimental
impact of unforeseen events.
Financial education programmes directed
to migrant workers in the country of origin
during pre-departure orientation seminars have
had a positive effect on saving patterns. These
programmes equip migrants with basic knowledge
to look for appropriate financial services for their
needs before they leave helping them understand
how to best manage their funds.
Thus, financial education must remain a
central pillar of every project dealing with the
provision of financial services, especially as
regards migrant workers and their families.
Table 2: Interventions to remove barriers and improve migrants’ financial capabilities
24
Problems to be addressed
Policies and interventions
Players involved
• Lack of information on transfer
services offered (costs and other
characteristics of traditional MTOs,
specialized banks and new RSPs’
attractive and innovative products)
• Lack of financial literacy of migrants
and their families
Financial education programmes
for migrants in the country of origin/
destination to improve:
• Information on costs and conditions
of remittance services (through webbased comparing sites)
• Knowledge of existing financial
products matching financial needs
• Resource management capabilities
• Raise awareness about unregulated
remittance transfer risks and
alternative solutions
• Public authorities in country of
destination
• Authorities from countries of
origin who can support initiatives
through their representations in
host countries and with specific
information during pre-departure
campaigns
• Diaspora representatives
• Private sector (banks, MFIs)
• Civil society (NGOs, diaspora
organizations)
• Social media
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Case Study 1
Financial education to boost small and microenterprise
development
Financial literacy training proved to be central to the success of the project undertaken
by Centre for Micro Finance (CMF) in Nepal. The project offered training to local migrant
families and migrant returnees, as well as a capacity-building programme that helped
local MFIs improve the quality of the financial services they offered. CMF held more than
50 financial and business literacy classes, attended by 1,000 migrant returnees and family
members. A further 250 were trained in enterprise development.
The approach adopted by CMF increased the number of migrant workers obtaining loans
by more than 200 per cent, and the number of enterprise loans doubled. By project end,
more than 900 jobs were created through new investments in local cooperatives.
The CMF project was a precursor of a larger 2015 IFAD initiative in Nepal: Rural Enterprise
and Remittance (RER) Programme, which has benefited from the lessons learned and best
practices of previous pilot initiatives like that of CMF. RER aims at promoting the financial
inclusion of migrants and remittance-recipient households through financial instruments
that: (a) harness the development potential of remittances; and (b) address migrants’
specific financial needs in setting up sustainable enterprises. This new project already
incorporates the concept of financial education during pre-departure orientation for Nepali
migrant workers.
Financial education may also target migrant
workers and their families in destination countries.
Case Study 2 and Case Study 3 showcase the
models that are applicable and may be further
disseminated as best practices.
Case Study 2
Financial education for Mexican immigrants in the United
States and Canada
In its National Development Plan 2013-2018, the Mexican government established as the
fifth national goal (Mexico with Global Responsibility) to implement strategies and actions
for social integration and financial education for Mexican nationals living abroad. This is
a mandate of the Institute for Mexicans Abroad (IME), an organism of the Secretary of
Foreign Affairs.
The IME has implemented four priorities:
• Promotion of social inclusion and financial education
• Dissemination of programmes that promote low-cost remittance mobilization
• Programmes to channel remittances to strategic projects
• Programmes to channel the contributions of highly qualified immigrants to socioeconomic projects.
Within the promotion of inclusion and financial education priority, the IME has implemented
the following projects:
Financial Education Week: this project is aimed at more than 11.8 million Mexicans
living in the United States and Canada to allow them to make better decisions in terms
of planning and managing their resources. This event is coordinated by the IME, with the
support of the Embassy of Mexico in the United States, the 50 Mexican consulates in the
United States and the 6 Mexican consulates in Canada. Since 2012, this event has served
over 240,000 Mexican immigrants who received advice from more than 560 local partners
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
25
and 11 Mexican institutions about the American and Canadian financial systems and their
advantages. Seminars, conferences, fairs, workshops and videos on financial education
are offered to migrants in the consulates’ waiting rooms.
• Bank-Consulate Agreements offering banks and credit unions that accept the
Mexican consular ID as an official document to open bank accounts and to provide
basic financial information inside Mexican consulates. Currently, more than 400 financial
institutions in the United States accept the “Matrícula Consular” as official identification.
163 agreements have been signed in 39 consulates in the United States.
• The “Mexicans Abroad” weblet: in 2015, the CONDUSEF (National Commission for
Financial Services Consumer’s Protection) in association with the Secretary of Foreign
Affairs presented the “Mexicans Abroad” weblet. This new tool allows the user to
access the Bureau of Financial Entities, which provides information about the credibility
of financial institutions in Mexico; the Afore search engine, which locates money saved
in Mexico while working abroad; and the Financial Mailbox for Mexicans Abroad, which
responds to written questions on remittances, on how to review bank accounts and
resolve problems with banks and other financial institutions, within 24 hours.
Case Study 3
Project Greenback 2.0: financial literacy programme
targeting migrant workers
The World Bank’s Project Greenback 2.0 aims at increasing efficiency in the market for
remittances through an innovative approach: promote change inspired by the real needs
of the ultimate beneficiaries of international money transfers: the migrants and their families
back home.
In Project Greenback 2.0, Remittance Champion Cities are selected. The project
implements initiatives aimed at increasing transparency and efficiency in the market for
remittance services, focusing on migrants and their needs. Cooperation between migrants,
remittance service providers and public authorities is instrumental for the achievement
of the project’s objectives. Project Greenback 2.0 is presently active in Turin (Italy) and
Montreuil (France).
In Turin, the World Bank is working in partnership with the City of Turin (city government)
and Banca d’Italia and with the endorsement of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In
Montreuil the World Bank is working with the Mairie de Montreuil (city government) and
the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In both Champion Cities, the first phase of the
project was a survey to collect data on the most representative migrant communities
and the largest in terms of remittances sent to the country of origin. The surveys were
aimed at describing the economic and financial inclusion profile of migrants, as well as
their remittance behaviour. The research findings have been the starting point for Project
Greenback 2.0 activities aimed at promoting transparency and information in the market
for remittances. Thus far, the activities have included:
• Financial education focused on remittance services
• Monitoring of the remittances market
• Supporting projects of migrant associations in order to promote information,
awareness, education and implementation of best practices on remittance behaviour
• Facilitating and keeping an active dialogue between migrant citizens and market
players, encouraging them to develop new services or new approaches that are better
suited to migrant needs.
26
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
3.3
Financial needs of remittance
recipients and barriers to financial
inclusion
Financial access is a prevalent issue for low-income
populations, particularly in rural areas, whether
they receive remittances or not. However, there is
a greater potential for remittance recipients to be
financially included, but they face several barriers
that limit this potential. Such barriers are common
not only during the remittance transfer process, but
also in the use of these funds.
As in the case of migrant workers, policies and
interventions specifically targeting remittance
recipients to remove barriers and improve the
capabilities of the recipients mainly rely on
financial literacy programmes.
Table 3: Financial services demanded by remittance recipients and barriers to access
Services demanded by remittance
recipients
Regulated financial services that
cover these needs
Barriers to access or use of
financial services
Basic remittance reception:
Receive money securely, timely and
closer to home
• Cash-to-cash transfers
• Mobile wallet
• Deposit account
• Distance to the access point, costs,
risk and available schedules to pick
up the money
• Lack of liquidity at the access point
• Lack of ID
• High cost to maintain bank accounts
Contingencies and investments:
Use diverse financial options for
contingency situations
•
•
•
•
• Limited knowledge about financial
services and lack of experience and
access to digital financial services,
particularly in rural areas
• Lack of availability of basic and
integrated products accessible in
remote areas
Savings
Payment
Loans
Insurance
Table 4: Interventions to remove barriers and improve remittance
recipients’ financial capabilities
Problem to be addressed
Possible policies and interventions
Players involved
Lack of financial capabilities to
manage money as disposable income
increases with remittances, and poor
knowledge of regulated financial
options
Financial literacy programmes specific
to remittance recipients aimed at
improving:
• Income management and financial
planning
• Awareness about existing financial
products that match their needs
• Public authorities of the country of
origin (central banks, Ministry of
Finance, local development offices)
• Private sector (banks, MFIs, MNOs)
• Civil society (diaspora groups,
NGOs)
• Public media
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
27
Case Study 4
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(EBRD) project on financial education for migrant families in
Eastern Europe and the Near East
Based on national surveys on financial education and behaviour of remittance recipients
in Eastern Europe and the Near East remittance-reliant countries, the EBRD rolled out a
series of projects from 2010 to 2014 to convert remittance recipients into bank clients.
The programme used banks and MFIs involved in the remittance market, NGOs
and consulting firms as implementing agencies, mainly the Inter-American Dialogue,
Microfinance Centre Poland and Developing Market Associates.
After undertaking market surveys to analyze recipient behaviour and financial skills,
a group of educators were trained to offer on-the-spot individualized quick financial
education sessions in bank branches. One-on-one 30-minute interviews were conducted
with clients, covering the topics of finance/budgeting and personal day-to-day finance.
After this, clients were invited to take action (e.g. opening an account with the bank).
The projects achieved impressive results, both in terms of recipient clients’ coverage and
conversion within a short implementation period (less than one year) and with a limited
budget (less than €100,000 per country).
Georgia
Azerbaijan
Tajikistan
Kyrgyz
Republic
Armenia
18 800
12 500
43 800
25 800
27 000
On-the-spot conversion rate %
12
19
6
9
42
Deposits collected (USD million)
5
2
5.1
1.9
4.6
People educated
Banks were very supportive, and some of them changed their marketing approach
by removing fees on deposit accounts, including financial education in their customer
relations, and often hiring educators as marketing agents.
28
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Case Study 5
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) financial education
programme for migrant workers abroad and their families in
the Philippines
Launched in 2010, the Economic and Financial Learning Program (EFLP) brings together
under one flagship programme BSP’s key learning activities, particularly those pertaining
to economic information and financial education, which is targeted to the general public
(particularly the unbanked, including remittance recipients), sectorial representatives and
specialized stakeholders. A major component of EFLP is the Financial Learning Campaign
for overseas Filipinos and their beneficiaries, which is targeted to remittance recipients.
By highlighting the importance of using remittances to build savings and directing them
to productive investments in financial instruments and business ventures, the campaign
aims to reinforce the positive and beneficial effects of remittances for the socio-economic
well-being of overseas Filipinos and their families.
Main outcomes:
• EFLP has benefited around 41,000 participants in the Philippines
• Financial education sessions have been conducted in countries with a large
concentration of overseas Filipinos, such as Bahrain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea and the United Kingdom
• Under EFLP, BSP developed a module on savings and productive investment used in
the pre-departure orientation seminars required for all departing overseas Filipinos
• Learning materials and modules being used to conduct the campaign were distributed
to 94 embassies/consulates of the Philippines abroad, to be used in conducting
financial learning activities for overseas Filipinos
• The estimated number of Filipino households that save money has quadrupled in the
past five years
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
29
4 The supply side and market competition:
players and opportunities to meet the
needs of remittance users
There is a commonly held misconception
that low-income people, and rural people in
particular, do not save and do not make use of
financial services. The reality is that financial
services are essential to everyone, and even
those living on two dollars a day make use
of financial services, albeit often outside the
regulated financial system.
This misconception is a serious challenge
for an industry that has not traditionally
considered remittance senders and recipients as
a client base. While people actively make use
of unregulated financial services, traditional
financial institutions are either unwilling or
unable to provide those services that suit the
needs of remittance senders.
This section presents the different types of
institutions involved in the remittance market
and the additional financial services they provide
to remittance senders and receivers. It highlights
the potential for each type of institution to
increase financial inclusion by providing better
access to and use of financial services. These
services refer to the financial needs of migrant
workers in their home countries and their
remittance-receiving families.
4.1
Transaction-based RSPs
The transaction-based RSP business model relies
on processing a high number of small-value
transactions. Initially, RSPs offered a cashbased product that covered the basic and most
universal need of sending and receiving money.
The spread of mobile phones and electronic
payment applications has allowed this type of
RSP to deliver a wider array of payment features,
increasing convenience and budget control for
the senders. It has opened up the possibility of
receiving remittances on an electronic account or
a mobile wallet, enabling recipients to store low
amounts of money and possibly take advantage of
other financial products.
Due to extensive agent networks, traditional
MTOs still lead the remittance market with cash-tocash transfer services, have contributed to absorb
flows generated by unregulated and illegal providers,
and are still developing new corridors. However,
in-cash global transactions remain globally
expensive, and exclusivity clauses in MTOs’ agent
model agreements limit competition.
Online platforms offer the option to eliminate
cash at the sending end, where migrant workers
are equipped with payment cards and are familiar
with online payments. This facility can offer lower
operational costs in environments where costs
for in-cash transactions are getting higher due to
operational and compliance reasons that are typical
of G20 sending countries. At the receiving end, in
developed mobile money markets like those in
Eastern and West African countries, online platforms
provide the option to receive payments through
MNOs’ e-wallets and networks. Such MNOs, in
search of economies of scope9 for the core domestic
mobile money business, are keen to compete
strongly on pricing against the MTOs and to
develop partnerships with financial intermediaries
to offer more financial services so as to retain their
customer base. However, mobile-enabled crossborder remittances still remain at a nascent stage as
a result of interoperability challenges and differing
regulations between countries or regions.
Case Study 6 provides an example of an
online platform combining innovative patterns
9 Whereas economies of scale for a firm involve reductions in the average cost (cost per unit) arising from
increasing the scale of production for a single product type, economies of scope involve lowering average cost
by providing an increased variety of products.
30
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Case Study 6
Leveraging online and mobile payment infrastructure to
improve access to low-cost remittances: WorldRemit Ltd
WorldRemit is a mobile-centric money transfer company making use of new technologies
to provide a convenient, low-cost alternative to traditional in-cash money transfer options.
Money transfers can only be sent online using a payment card through computers and
mobile apps. Backed by card payment infrastructure, the identification and registration
processes are simple and can be assimilated to basic sign-up registration and online
payment transaction (up to a limited threshold of money sent) at the user’s end.
Senders are given the option to send money into bank accounts, cash pick-up points, or
into mobile wallets for cash-out and airtime top-ups depending on countries.
WorldRemit Ltd has set payment arrangements to connect senders from 50 countries
to payment networks and banks in 110 countries. In Africa, a recent partnership
with the African carrier MTN, which accounts for 22.6 million mobile money service
users throughout 16 countries, illustrates how WorldRemit can develop scale and
access, leveraging existing MNO payment infrastructures. By mid-2015, 50 per cent
of transactions paid through WorldRemit in Africa were received on mobile phones in
10 countries.
to send and receive money for the benefit of
remittance users in terms of access, affordability
and convenience. Case Study 7 highlights the
emergence of regional cross-border mobile money
models in West Africa and enabling factors.
In many countries, postal networks mobilize
their existing large decentralized infrastructure
and recognized brand to sell proprietary or
co-branding remittances products. In certain
countries, they extend the outreach of financial
intermediaries and the spread of available
financial services for customers as agents of
banks and MFIs. Postal networks also sometimes
develop low-cost basic current and savings
Case Study 7
Emerging models for regional cross-border remittances
with mobile money at both sending and receiving ends
Two early examples in the West African Economic Monetary Union (WAEMU) illustrate
emerging models for cross-border remittances with mobile money at both sending and
receiving ends, enabling receivers to cash out or to use their balance for other digital
transactions.
Orange Money International Transfer, which links up Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Senegal.
This is the first example of mobile money transfers across three countries, enabling six
distinct remittance corridors, including one of the largest flows in sub-Saharan Africa: Côte
d’Ivoire to Mali. It is also an example of an ‘intra-group’, in-house implementation. A year
and a half after launch, by the second half of 2014, the value of cross-border remittances
accounted for an impressive 24.7 per cent of all remittances estimated by the World Bank
between these three markets.
MTN Mobile Money in Côte d’Ivoire to Airtel Money in Burkina Faso. This is the first
case of two operators from separate groups agreeing to interoperate their mobile money
services to facilitate cross-border transfers involving an intermediary hub, HomeSend.
Both operators were searching to address the most important regional corridor in WAEMU
and leverage their respective presence at the ends of the corridors. The uptake
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
31
was very fast, and the last quarter of the year launch flows valued for 9 per cent of
the whole year estimated flows (USD9 million in three months of a USD100 million
yearly corridor).
Terra, a new global payments network, envisions enabling subscribers to
“Send Money to Any Mobile.” Terra brings mobile wallet systems mainstream, by
interconnecting them to existing financial institutions, payment systems and networks
such as banks, switches and association card rails. Participants retain complete control
over customers while Terra assumes complete responsibility for securing regulatory
compliance as well as transaction processing, foreign exchange conversions, reporting
and settlements. The model offers the following advantages:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Quick service scaling
Effective funds utilization
Lowered operating expense
Improved affordability and access
Ability to address long-tail corridors
Fool proof security
Better Effective Forex Rates
Incremental Revenues from New Services
This rapid uptake can be explained by a combination of enabling factors:
• Addressable corridors: Tight socio-economic integration among WAEMU markets
provided strong remittance corridors between countries using the same currency.
• Strong mobile money foundations in both sending and receiving markets. In
both cases, hundreds of thousands, or even millions of customers on each end of
the remittance corridor were already educated about mobile money and made regular
domestic P2P transfers, and broad, well-managed, liquid agent networks were in place.
For instance, in Côte d’Ivoire, the main originating country, Western Union currently has
570 access points compared with 12,093 mobile money agents.
• Valued proposition for customers: Aggressive pricing and an extensive network
of access points facilitated competition with MTOs and unregulated operators and
penetration into rural areas. Fees charged to the sender do not exceed 2.5 per cent of
the front value, compared with 5 per cent on average for MTOs and unregulated and
illegal channels. The service has had particularly strong traction in rural Burkina Faso,
where 60 per cent of recipients live.
• Regulatory approval for mobile money operators to send and receive remittances.
Two key success factors for Airtel, MTN and Orange were the support of the BCEAO
(Central Bank for West African Countries) and the existence of a common regulation
in all of the markets involved. To date, relatively few central banks have permitted
outbound and inbound remittances using mobile money, and the authorization
processes for operators is not well harmonized across markets.
• Cross-border interoperability across mobile money schemes. As with domestic
mobile money interoperability, cross-border remittances depend on operators
transacting across platforms and settling funds directly between each other. This
interoperability can be implemented directly through bilateral agreements or indirectly
through a processor. Orange Money uses a bilateral model in West Africa, which is
simplified by a common platform, currency and partner bank for all three markets. MTN
10
and Airtel have opted to interconnect through a processor or ‘hub’ (HomeSend).
10 HomeSend provided two main services to MTN and Airtel: a real-time money transfer messaging platform
and interface, and the management of anti-money laundering activities. To keep all transactions in the local
currency (CFA franc), MTN, Airtel and HomeSend decided it would be easier for the two operators to settle funds
directly between themselves.
32
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
accounts and insurance products that complete a
set of universal payment services and instruments.
For each type of transaction-based RSP described
above, the tables below provide a specific snapshot
Type of RSP
of their target market and geography of operation,
their current product offerings, the provision of
complementary services, and possible strategies to
be encouraged to improve financial access.
Traditional MTOs
Payment
Microinsurance
Housing loans
x
Micro credit
Mobile
x
Savings
Account-based
x
Account
Online
x
Direct payment
Cash
Services delivered
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Transnational, regional, domestic
Targets
Migrant workers, recipients
Inclusive advantages
Extensive networks, brands and sending mechanisms adopted by users, efficiency
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Develop partnerships with RSPs with decentralized payment networks and account
based transfers with financial intermediaries
Improve transparency (transfer fees, exchange rate, eventual tax) and consumer
protection (claim and complaint processes) with materials in different languages in
branches and on websites
Type of RSP
Online Platforms
Cash to cash
Online
Account-based
Mobile
Direct payment
Account
Savings
Micro credit
Housing loans
Microinsurance
Services delivered
reception
x
x
reception
x
x
x
x
x
x
Payment
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Transnational
Targets
Migrant workers, recipients
Inclusive advantages
Convenient access and payment options for senders equipped with payment cards
Interoperable with mobile payment networks on the receiving side, increasing
last-mile access
Lower cost structure compared to in-case services
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Develop partnerships with decentralized RSPs and account-based transfers with
financial intermediaries
Improve clients’ appropriation and customer protection
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
33
Type of RSP
Mobile network operators
Account
Savings
Micro credit
x
x
x
x
Payment
Microinsurance
Direct payment
x
x
Housing loans
Mobile
Account-based
Online
Cash to cash
Services delivered
x
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Mostly domestic
Emerging mobile to mobile regional corridors
Quasi-exclusively used as a receiving channel for ‘North-South’ remittances
Targets
Domestic and regional migrants, family recipients with strong penetration of
the BOP households
Inclusive advantages
Extensive network of mobile payment agents, notably in rural areas where airtime
network coverage exist
‘Emerging innovative’ transformative services, completing the mobile wallet suite
where mobile payment becomes prevalent, especially in Eastern Africa
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Develop international remittances within group’s subsidiaries, networks or with
traditional and online MTOs
Develop products matching customers at the low end of the market (micro-savings,
scoring microloans, micro-insurance products) rather in partnership with financial
intermediaries, insurance brokers, etc. or creating separated subsidiaries
Type of RSP
Postal networks
Mobile
Direct payment
Account
Savings
x
x
x
x
x
Payment
34
Microinsurance
Account-based
x
Housing loans
Online
x
Micro credit
Cash to cash
Services delivered
x
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Transnational, regional, domestic
Targets
Migrant workers, recipients
Inclusive advantages
Extensive decentralized physical infrastructure of post offices and retail payment
system know-how
Institutional recognition among customers
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
On the remittance line, develop partnerships with a variety of postal networks, MTOs
and MNOs to improve customer choice and market competition at the same time
Increase the variety of complementary services (current and saving accounts) through
partnerships with MFIs or banks and improve marketing of the services
In certain developing countries, strengthen institutional capacities and network
interconnection
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
4.2
Financial intermediaries
Financial intermediaries, banks and MFIs are
mainly involved in the remittance marketplace
as agents of major international MTOs. Yet, only
a few of them are leveraging their comparative
advantages to provide complementary transaction
accounts, like savings and loan products (among
others) to better serve remittance users. In host
countries, retail banks generally do not consider
migrant workers’ remittance-sending needs as
a specific or lucrative business. These banks
generally avoid in-cash transactions in their
branches, propose unadapted wire transfers and
use restrictive identification requirements resulting
in poor service provisioning for migrants workers.
Conversely, some banks have developed dedicated
business lines for migrants covering their financial
needs in their home country. However, these
institutions are generally only present where large
migrant communities have settled and with whom
they are able to develop long-term relationships
and returns on investments (e.g. Mexico-United
States, Morocco-Europe, Cape Verde-Portugal).
Banks in the country of origin rarely develop
and provide specific services for migrants beyond
in-cash remittances, and they rarely target the
low-income population that receives remittances.
However, some regional banks in southern
countries have developed both remittance and
transaction account services to tap into the market
of regional migrants, frequent travellers and small
traders (e.g. Ecobank, UBA in Africa). Others have
developed low-risk products and partnerships to
enlarge their client base and distribution capacities
(e.g. Standard Bank’s low-income banking package
distributed through retailers).
MFIs’ comparative advantages relate to
both their social and physical proximity to the
customers, their simple products, and more
globally, to their relational finance approach. Most
MFIs are limited by law to conduct operations
in national currencies, and are consequently
obliged to partner with MTOs as sub-agents of the
bank, which reduces their margin on remittance
services and their appetite for engaging in such
partnerships, even though such services are in
line with the needs of their customer base. MFIs,
notably rural MFIs located in migration areas, have
developed strategies such as cross-selling existing
products to recipients as well as more sophisticated
approaches and products to attract migrants
abroad. Case Study 8 showcases small MFIs
using a shared platform to facilitate international
remittance and promote financial inclusion of rural
recipients and migrant workers.
Case Study 8
Improving access and use of remittances and basic
financial services in rural areas: Asociación Mexicana de
Uniones de Crédito del Sector Social (AMUCSS)
AMUCSS is a non-profit organization formed by a network of rural financial institutions
and microbanks in Mexico located in regions of high migration. Since its inception in
1992, AMUCSS has accomplished a series of innovations linking remittances to financial
intermediation in the communities of origin. Linkages have a dual purpose: on the one
hand, to achieve financial inclusion of peasant and indigenous families in rural migration
areas, and on the other hand, to boost remittance investment for development.
Among innovative endeavours, AMUCSS established Envíos Confianza in 2008, a
remittance transfer company that operates with 13 of the most important remittance
companies and a network of 68 rural financial institutions with 300 points of payment.
In 2013, this mutualized platform was strengthened by Red Confianza, a technological
solution linking remittance payments and transfers directly into savings accounts. Its main
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
35
objective was the creation of a transactional financial ecosystem in rural areas enabling
remote communities to be linked to the domestic and international financial systems.
Red Confianza and Envíos Confianza enable migrants to be connected to their
communities of origin through effective models of educational marketing and promoting the
proper use of debit cards, mobile banking, and the creation a rural network of POS and
financial correspondents.
AMUCSS has achieved:
• The establishment of 44 rural microsavings institutions and a network of 68 financial
institutions with 300 points of payment in rural areas of Mexico
• A 15-20 per cent reduction in remittance transaction costs
• It serves 30,000 migrant families annually, benefiting 59,000 people
• Seven out of ten remittance recipients open a savings account, with a total monthly
savings mobilization of USD1.5 million
www.amucss.org.mx
www.enviosconconfianza.com
For each type of financial intermediaries RSP
described above, the tables ahead provide a specific
snapshot of their target segments and geography
of intervention, their current supply of products,
Type of RSP
the provision of complementary services, and
possible strategies to improve the financial access
of remittance users.
Banks in host country
Cash to cash
Online
Account based
Mobile
Direct payment
Account
Savings
Micro credit
Housing loans
Microinsurance
Services delivered
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Payment
36
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Domestic, limited to host country
Targets
Documented migrant workers as ordinary customers
Inclusive advantages
Generic retail banks have extensive networks of branches or ATMs. They are the main
contact points for migrants providing a set of services (account, payment card, checking
account, basic saving account) to cover needs in the host country. However, product
supply related to the home country is generally poor and limited to wire transfers
options not adapted for repeat low-value transfer (expensive, delayed payment).
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Facilitate account opening for migrants with reliable identification document
(passport, consular card)
Develop partnerships with MTOs or specialized banks located in home country
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Type of RSP
Specialized banks
Cash to cash
Online
Account-based
Mobile
Direct payment
Account
Savings
Micro credit
Housing loans
Microinsurance
Services delivered
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Payment
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Transnational with implantation in host country and presence or partners in
home countries
Targets
Migrant workers
Inclusive advantages
Provide a suite of adapted products for migrants workers and a marketing approach
to liaise with migrants abroad
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Develop partnerships with banks in host country to facilitate remote operations for
migrant workers
Type of RSP
Banks in home countries
Payment
x
Microinsurance
x
Housing loans
x
Micro credit
Mobile
x
Savings
Account-based
x
Account
Online
x
Direct payment
Cash to cash
Services delivered
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Domestic
Targets
Remittance receivers
Inclusive advantages
National coverage in main urban centres. Agents of international MTOs
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Develop low-cost basic services to bank low-income remittance receivers
Develop third-party banking agents and partnerships with local payment platforms or
MFIs in order to extend their distribution network and reduce operational costs
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
37
Type of RSP
MFIs
Cash to cash
Online
Account based
Mobile
Direct payment
Account
Savings
Micro credit
Housing loans
Microinsurance
Services delivered
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Payment
Complementary services
Geography of intervention
Domestic
Targets
Remittances receivers
Inclusive advantages
Extensive national coverage with presence in urban suburbs and rural areas
Sub-agents of MTOs through banks or financial institutions allowed to settle operations
in foreign currencies. Existing products adapted to low-income households
Interventions to improve
inclusiveness
Cross-sell existing products to remittance recipients
Develop mutualized platforms allowed to set up direct partnerships with MTOs or
banks in host countries
Set up new distribution channels based on new technologies and/or retail agents to
enlarge the distribution network in remote rural locations and reduce operational costs
All of the above-mentioned RSPs offer a
range of opportunities for remittance senders
and receivers to achieve financial inclusion, but
notably not one single provider can offer an allinclusive type-of-service. Given diverse behaviours
and patterns of remittance clients and the
specificities of markets and remittance corridors,
the nexus between remittances and financial
inclusion can only be strengthened by providing
remittance users with appropriate products and
mechanisms of delivery. The first set of required
services relate to access, while a second set of
services has to do with the promotion of the use
of further financial services. These two sets of
38
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
services have to be appropriate to the needs of the
market. Institutions need to create mechanisms,
business models and particularly partnerships to
address the immediate and cycle-changing needs
of remittance senders and receivers.
5 The regulatory framework and remittance
market environment
The regulatory framework and market environment
factors hindering financial inclusion among
remittance senders and recipients are broadly
clustered into two categories:
• Supply factors: those that hinder innovation
or competition in the market for remittances;
this is especially relevant for products that
have higher potential to increase financial
inclusion, such as where remittances are
delivered in a bank account, a mobile money
account, or an electronic payment instrument
like a pre-paid card.
• Demand factors: those that cause hesitation
among remittance senders and recipients
to use regulated (and especially non-cash)
remittance products.
When combined, these factors preserve the
status quo and result in missed opportunities to
foster financial inclusion among migrants and
their families.
5.1
Supply and demand-side
constraints that hinder financial
inclusion among remittance
senders and recipients
Table 5 outlines the supply and demand-side
constraints that might hinder availability of, access
to, and use of remittance products to migrants
and their families, as well as legal and regulatory
approaches to lessen these constraints.
Table 5: Supply and demand-side constraints limiting financial inclusion among
remittance senders and receivers
Supply Side n Limited availability
Demand Side n Limited usage
Constraints
• Low level of competition in the remittance market due to (i) anticompetitive behaviour such as exclusivity agreements and/or (ii)
inability of RSPs to use payment systems infrastructure
• Remittance regulation that creates an unfair environment (i.e.
rules that apply only to certain types of providers and are not
justifiable by increased risk, lower requirements, etc.)
• Remittance regulation that stifles/hinders innovation (i.e. by
narrowly defining the types of institutions, products and/or
services, as well as business models permitted)
• Rigid approach to AML/CFT compliance and/or enforcement
(i.e. without risk-based approach) may create bias against low
value-added customers
• Lack of either understanding or
trust of remittance products due
to low levels of transparency,
inadequate consumer protection,
or limited financial literacy among
potential users
• Onerous Know Your Customer
(KYC) procedures, even for small
transactions, that are difficult to
comply with and might reduce
profitability
Legal and
regulatory
approaches
• Pursue a legal and regulatory framework that is sound,
predictable, non-discriminatory and proportionate
• Promote competition in the remittance market by removing
unfair and inappropriate barriers to entry, and ensure that a
variety of RSP types can operate and compete in the market
• Facilitate innovation in the remittance market by allowing RSPs to
introduce innovative products and remove any legal barrier that
may be unnecessarily restricting market potential
• Improve transparency and
consumer protection in the
remittance market
• Invest in financial education
policies and programmes for
remittance senders and receivers
• Review KYC requirements to be
commensurate with risks
Desired
outcomes
• Increased level of competition among RSPs
• Increased availability of non-cash remittance products
• Non-cash products become more competitive in terms of price
vis-à-vis cash products
• Improved access to financial services
• Increased use of non-cash
remittance products among
migrants and their families
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
39
5.2
Proposed approaches
In order to improve levels of financial inclusion
among remittance senders and recipients,
governments should consider a legal and regulatory
approach that alleviates both supply and demandside constraints.
The following legal and regulatory measures
may be considered: (i) create an enabling
environment for the growth of non-cash remittance
products; and (ii) increase the likelihood that
migrants and their families will use these products,
once available.11
5.2.1 Promote competition in the
remittance market
Remittance markets that are contestable (i.e. open
to a wide range of RSPs) are characterized by
improved efficiency, increased availability of
services and lower costs for consumers. Therefore,
governments should pursue legal and regulatory
measures that promote competition in the market
for remittances, for example, by (i) prohibiting
anti-competitive behaviours such as exclusivity
agreements, and by (ii) ensuring that RSPs
are able to use domestic payment infrastructures
(World Bank 2007).
Consider prohibiting exclusivity agreements or limit
the period for which they may be imposed
Exclusivity agreements between RSPs and their
agents prohibit agents from offering the services of
any other RSP, thereby reducing capacity of other
RSPs to expand their network, and consequently
reducing the range of products available to
remittance users in one given access point, or
making accessing certain RSPs less convenient and
possibly more costly (when the transportation
cost and opportunity cost of travelling further
distances are considered). By restricting this choice,
exclusivity agreements may result in a de-facto
local monopoly.
Ensure that RSPs have adequate access to
domestic payment infrastructures
RSPs usually require the use of national payment
systems in order to process remittance transfers to
facilitate collection, settlement and disbursement
functions. Such access can be either direct or
indirect. For example, non-bank RSPs such as
MTOs and MFIs often have only indirect access
to payment systems and depend on direct
participants, usually banks, to provide them with
the required services (i.e. bank accounts, settlement
with collecting/paying agents nationally). Both
forms of access can provide RSPs with suitable
payment services. Criteria for directly accessing
the payment system should be objective, riskbased, and include publicly disclosed criteria for
participation, permitting fair and open access. The
regulatory framework for payment system operators
must incorporate direct access requirements that
are consistent with international best practices to
ensure the safety and soundness of the payment
system and a level playing field for any financial
service provider. Many markets are sufficiently
competitive so that RSPs with only indirect access
will have a choice of which direct participant to
use. Case Study 10 provides two examples of an
innovative model to provide direct access for nonbank RSPs to the national payment system.
In some countries, non-bank RSPs struggle
to even obtain indirect access to the national
payments system, because direct participants refuse
to serve RSPs. The increasingly pervasive problem
of non-bank RSPs struggling to find banks willing
to service them is now known as de-risking, given
that one of the primary drivers is the current global
approach to risk and, in particular, to compliance
with AML/CFT rules. Developing a risk-based
approach aimed at establishing compliance rules
proportional to the risk posed by the scheme
being regulated may be key (see section on
proportionality ahead).
11 These measures draw from and are consistent with the World Bank-CPSS General Principles for
International Remittances, which is a set of standards that were developed to assist countries in improving their
markets for remittance services. They have been endorsed by the G8, the G20, the Financial Stability Forum,
and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), among others. The five General Principles cover
elements including price transparency and consumer protection, payment system infrastructure, legal and
regulatory frameworks, market structure and competition, as well as governance and risk management. They
also include a set of recommendations on the roles public authorities and RSPs must play in the development of
an efficient market (CPSS/World Bank 2007, General Principles for International Remittances).
40
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Case Study 9
Eliminating exclusivity agreements12
Russia
In September 2003, the Commission of the Russian Ministry of Antimonopoly Policy
published a ruling that began the process to legally and effectively ban exclusivity
agreements – clauses which prohibited banks from offering cash-to-cash remittance
services of companies other than Western Union – in Russia, on the basis that they aimed
to restrict access to the market and, as a result, were in violation of Art. 6 of the Federal
Law “On Protection of Competition.” Western Union was asked “to terminate the violations
of the antimonopoly legislation.” As a result, all exclusivity clauses in contracts, which
numbered in excess of 200, between Russian banks and Western Union were considered
null and void, making Russia one of the first countries to completely ban exclusivity
clauses in the money transfer industry.
More recently, several other countries have followed suit, including;
• India. In September 2010, the Reserve Bank of India issued Circular 591.02.27.001,
forbidding exclusivity agreements for in-bound cross-border money transfers.
• Nigeria. In November 2008, the Central Bank of Nigeria issued Directive BSD/DIR/
CIR/GEN/VOL 2/017, which prohibited national banks from signing contracts with
international MTOs containing exclusivity clauses.
• Morocco. In 2011, Bank Al Maghrib effectively banned exclusivity agreements in
Morocco, boosting competition in the remittance market.
• Liberia. In October 2011, the Central Bank of Liberia issued directive 2/2011 that
nullifies exclusivity contracts between banks and MTOs and assigned a fine of
L$100,000 (equivalent to approximately over USD1,000) for each day of violation.
• Rwanda. In June 2012, the National Bank of Rwanda issued Regulation 6/2012 which
bans exclusivity agreements for all providers of payment services.
• Tunisia. In January 2013, the Banque Centrale de la Tunisie enacted its “Note aux
intermédiaires agréés No. 2013-01” to eliminate exclusivity in the contracts signed
with MTOs.
Case Study 10
Facilitating access to the national payment system
for non-bank RSPs
One model that has successfully facilitated direct access to national (centralized) payment
systems is one in which the smaller non-bank financial institutions and/or payment
service providers jointly create a ‘limited purpose bank’ whose only function is to provide
payment services to its members and their customers. Two examples of this model are
described below.
ARB Apex Bank Ghana
The ARB Apex Bank in Ghana is the bank of the rural and community banks (RCBs)
providing banking and non-banking support to the RCBs. Its key functions are training and
human resource development of the ARB Apex Bank and RCB staff, check clearing and
other operations on behalf of its member banks, and audit and inspection services.
12 The illegalization of exclusivity clauses in the market of remittances (Moré, 2015) available at bit.ly/1NtRUJW.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
41
Bansefi, Mexico
The National Savings and Financial Services Bank (Bansefi), a state development bank in
Mexico, has created a network of savings and credit institutions (MFIs, cooperatives
and other non-bank financial institutions) called L@ Red de la Gente created to strengthen
this sector, improve access to finance in rural areas, and give these financial institutions
better access to remittance networks, payment systems and other services. Bansefi
uses a special communications network that connects participating entities with a stateowned commercial bank, from which they can then offer payment products and services,
and also link up their service outlets to provide a large service delivery network. As of
July 2015, L@ Red de la Gente consists of 195 financial intermediaries (including Bansefi)
with a network of 2,353 branches present in 953 municipalities in Mexico, mostly in
rural localities.
Several regulators have taken steps to combat
the de-risking phenomenon, whereby non-bank
RSPs are essentially being denied access to national
payment systems because banks refuse to service
them. The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
of the U.S. Department of the Treasury (FinCEN),
for example, issued a note to remind banks that
it is indeed possible to serve the money service
industry while still meeting their Bank Secrecy Act
obligations. The note reiterated that FinCEN does
not support wholesale termination of services for
an entire industry without a bank-level assessment
of the risks presented and the ability of the bank to
manage those risks (2014). A similar statement was
also issued by the UK Financial Conduct Authority
(FCA 2015).
Ensure that the legal and regulatory framework
is well founded
A well-founded legal and regulatory framework for
remittances is one that is sound, predictable, nondiscriminatory and proportionate.
A sound legal and regulatory framework is well
understood and helps minimize the risks faced by
both RSPs and their customers.
A predictable legal and regulatory framework is
one in which it is clear which laws and regulations
are relevant, where they do not change frequently,
and where they are enforced by the authorities,
including the courts, in a consistent manner.
Predictability helps to create a favourable climate
42
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
for private-sector investment, and it is critical to
increasing competition in the remittance market.
A non-discriminatory legal and regulatory
framework is one that is equally applicable to
different types of RSPs insofar as they are providing
equivalent services. Regulating remittances solely
by type of entity may make regulation less effective
and distort markets. A functional rather than an
institutional approach to regulation and oversight
of remittance services – where equivalent services
are regulated the same way, regardless of type of
entity providing the service and delivery channel
– helps to level the playing field among different
types of RSPs, and it promotes competition on a
fair and equitable basis.
Case Study 11 provides three examples that
illustrate the impact of allowing non-banks
to participate in the market for international
remittances and payment services in the European
Union (EU), Japan and South Korea.
A proportionate legal and regulatory framework
for remittances is one that is not overly restrictive
and burdensome relative to the possible issues it
is designed to address or to the number and value
of transfers involved. Remittances can pose risks
to the financial system – products may be used to
launder money or finance terrorism – but they also
provide an important social benefit to users and,
on an individual basis, are often very low-value
transactions. If too stringent and not proportional
to the risks at hand, regulation intended to prevent
Case Study 11
Functional rather than institutional regulation for remittances
Payment Services Directive, EU
Introduced in 2007, the Payment Services Directive (PSD) (2007/64/EC) harmonized legal
frameworks for remittance services in the EU by creating the ‘Payment Institution’, which
now requires a single license for all providers of payment services (excluding deposittaking institutions or issuers of electronic money). The PSD has achieved three main goals:
(i) it supports the establishment of a single payment market and harmonizes payment
service regulations across member states; (ii) it increases competition among payment
service providers and efficiency in the payments market; and (iii) it promotes transparency
and consumer protection for payment service users (World Bank 2012).
Payment Services Act, Japan
In Japan, prior to the adoption of the Payment Services Act (PSA) in April 2010, only
banks licensed under the Banking Act, as well as certain depositary institutions, were
allowed to perform foreign exchange transactions, including remittances. The adoption of
the PSA opened the money transfer business to non-financial institutions, and, overall, the
impact on the market for international remittances has been very positive. Some of the
major benefits are highlighted below:
• Increased competition in the market for remittances. Six new payment providers
registered within one year of implementation, and another 21 in the second year, for a
total of 27 new providers, 18 of whom offered international remittance services.
• Better coverage of smaller corridors. Migrants in Japan sending money to recipient
countries with lower flows, and/or in less frequently traded currencies, such as
Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka or Thailand,
were previously limited to relatively expensive commercial banks. After the PSA, new
providers entered the market specifically targeting these corridors. For example, Japan
Money Express offers international remittance services to Indonesia and Nepal, and
Japan Remit Finance to Bangladesh.
• Lower costs overall, especially in high-volume corridors. Before the enactment
of the PSA, the average total cost of sending remittances from Japan was above
19 per cent. Within two years of implementation, the cost had fallen to just above
16 per cent. This positive trend continued thereafter, although Japan remains one of
the most expensive sending countries, according to the World Bank Remittance Prices
Worldwide (RPW) Database.
Korea Post
Korea Post has become one of the key players in the remittance market in the Republic
of Korea (ROK). Korea Post’s entry into the country’s remittance market expanded access
to financial services, especially in rural areas where financial infrastructure is limited.
Its entry into the market did not only lessen the cost of receiving remittances in rural
areas, but has also saved recipients’ time and money as they no longer have to travel to
neighbouring cities where remittance services are more readily available. Through its postal
network and bilateral agreements with other financial institutions, Korea Post offers four
international remittance products: (1) the traditional paper-based postal money order, (2)
SWIFT transfers, (3) the Eurogiro service, and (4) the International Financial System (IFS)
service. In 2006, Korea Post joined Eurogiro to expand its remittance services. Korea Post
launched the Eurogiro service in Mongolia, and at present is partnering with six countries:
Japan, Mongolia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Switzerland and Thailand. In 2011, the number
of transactions for Eurogiro accounted for 17 per cent of the total outgoing volume,
compared with 11 per cent in 2007.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
43
money laundering or prevent terrorist financing
can create barriers for senders to use regulated
remittance services, discourage banks and other
regulated financial institutions from offering
remittance services and provide banking services
to non-bank RSPs, and hamper the growth of new
technologies that facilitate the usage of electronic
remittance payments and potentially lower costs.
The answer to the question of how much
regulation is appropriate should be the result of
balancing public policy objectives, which may
not always point in the same direction. On the
one hand, encouraging competition in order to
reduce prices and increase access favours reducing
barriers to entry as far as possible, while on the
other hand, other public policy objectives such
as preventing money laundering or terrorist
financing favour potentially burdensome
regulation. Proportionality means that any such
contradictions are recognized and resolved so that
an appropriate balance is achieved commensurate
to a country’s overall priorities and market size. It
is important to note that proportionate regulation
is also likely to be more effective, given that RSPs
may be less likely to evade it by operating illegally.
Unauthorized remittance service operators are
not only risky for remitters and their families,
but may also circumvent any AML/CFT and other
regulatory restrictions, with potentially damaging
consequences for the financial system and the
wider community.
When successfully achieved, proportionality
can potentially address both demand and supply
side constraints. For example, on the demand
side, less stringent KYC requirements for lower
transfer amounts or no-frills accounts might make
accessing the financial system more approachable
for the unbanked and under-banked, while a
more risk-based approach to AML/CFT regulations
could lower the hurdle rates of participating in the
remittance market enough to tilt the cost-benefit
balance for potential RSPs in favour of entering
the market and/or fostering further competition.
Case Study 12 illustrates examples of reforms that
Case Study 12
Proportional approaches to KYC regulation
Identifying thresholds. In some cases, this takes the form of identifying thresholds below
which less stringent KYC procedures can be applied and, in some cases, where they
do not apply at all. In Canada, for example, only remittance transfers equal to or above
CA$1,000 require customer identification and verification. In Lesotho, low-risk customers –
classified as those whose monthly gross turnover is less than USD736 – are only required
to present one ID to open an account.
Accepting alternative forms of ID. The Matrícula Consular, or “Consular ID,” is an
identification card based on the Vienna Convention for Consular Relations that the
Government of Mexico issues through its consulates in Costa Rica, Spain and the United
States. It serves as proof of the identity, nationality and address of its bearer and does not
provide any information regarding his/her immigration status in the country of residence.
To be issued a Matrícula Consular, applicants must show proof of identity, proof of
Mexican nationality and proof of their local mailing address. For Mexican citizens applying
for the Matrícula Consular in the United States, a utility bill as proof of residency in the
United States is sufficient. Today, the Matrícula Consular is widely accepted by many
financial institutions across the United States. Other countries issuing similar consular
identification cards include Argentina, Brazil and Colombia.
For more information on the FATF risk-based approach, please see “Risk-Based Approach
for Banking Sector” published by the FATF available at bit.ly/1OqknBJ (World Bank 2012).
44
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
permit less stringent KYC procedures below certain
thresholds and an expansion in the types of ID
documents that are accepted to access the
financial system.
5.2.2 Facilitate and encourage innovation
Institutional rather than functional approaches
may distort markets where regulation allows only
certain types of providers, most often commercial
banks, to operate in the remittance market. Even
in cases where non-banks can participate in
the remittance market, the legal and regulatory
framework may sometimes narrowly define
remittance products so that certain business
models or institutional arrangements (e.g. agent
banking), products (e.g. e-money, pre-paid
cards), or technology (e.g. mobile phones) are
not covered and, thus, are effectively prohibited.
In such cases, not only is competition adversely
affected, but market development and innovation
are also impeded. Innovation in the remittance
market may (i) increase cost effectiveness of service
delivery, thereby encouraging more competition;
(ii) increase the availability of services and reduce
the costs to end consumers; and (iii) facilitate rapid
expansion of services, particularly in areas where
traditional approaches would not be commercially
viable, thus making it possible to reach otherwise
excluded populations. Case Study 13 showcases
legal and regulatory reforms in Brazil, India and
Case Study 13
Regulatory approaches to facilitate financial
sector innovation
New business models
Correspondent banking in Brazil
In the late 1990s, the majority of Brazil’s 5,578 municipalities had no bank branches,
and as many as 40 million Brazilians – about two thirds of the total population – had
limited access to financial services. The rapid expansion of correspondent banks
(correspondentes bancários), from approximately 2,000 in 2000 to around 150,000 in
2008, almost six times the number of bank branches (26,500), resulted in an equally
rapid and dramatic expansion in the number of bank accounts (from 63.7 million to
125.7 million).13 Correspondent banks act on behalf of banks under agency agreements,
and they are authorized to receive deposits and payments and make payments related
to the accounts concerned. The most important correspondent bank is the Brazilian
post office, which acts on behalf of a major Brazilian private bank and serves most
municipalities where there is no bank branch. Other types of correspondent banks include
lottery houses, supermarkets, drugstores and other small retailers (World Bank 2012).
Correspondent banking in India
In 2006, the Reserve Bank of India enabled banks to extend their reach using business
correspondents and, since 2007, it has permitted non-bank entities to provide payment
services. Guidelines for this approach have been progressively simplified. Today, banks are
free to appoint a wide range of individuals and entities to act as business correspondents
(World Bank 2012).
New products
Expanding the virtual reach of banks through e-money in the Philippines
Without losing sight of the importance of financial system safety and integrity and
13 G20 Principles for Innovative Financial Inclusion (Alliance for Financial Inclusion) available at bit.ly/1RxLMzw.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
45
consumer protection, the Central Bank of the Philippines (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas,
BSP) has prioritized the creation of an enabling environment for innovation in the market
for payment services and remittances. To that end, BSP issued circulars 649 (9 March
2009) and 704 (22 December 2010), creating a platform for an electronic money
ecosystem and an efficient retail payments platform, respectively. As a result, banks can
now offer e-money either by creating linkages with e-money service providers such as
telecommunications companies or by becoming e-money issuers either directly or through
outsourcing arrangements (World Bank 2012).
the Philippines that fostered development and
innovation in the market for remittance services
(and other retail payments) and facilitated the
emergence of new business models such as
banking correspondents and agents, and new
products, such as e-money.
5.2.3 Promote transparency and ensure
adequate consumer protection and
good governance of RSPs
From the perspective of remittance product users
in general, and migrants and their families in
particular, improving the transparency of the
various cost elements and service conditions
of remittance products, like other payment
instruments, helps promote confidence and trust
in the products, thereby promoting adoption
and usage.
Specific measures could include:
• Creation and publication of national or
regional remittance price databases
• Creation of minimum standards relating to
transparency and consumer protection
46
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
• Development and publication of simple
dispute resolution procedures for users of
remittance services
• Development of initiatives to foster user
education and awareness given that
senders and remittance recipients are often
disenfranchised due to poverty, lack of
education and their legal status.
Consumers should also be protected from loss of
funds due to operational failures, mismanagement
or fraud. For this purpose, regulators should
set prudential requirements to ensure that RSPs
governance structures take appropriate measures
to meet their fiduciary responsibilities to their
customers and risk management practices to
manage financial (liquidity and solvency), legal,
fraud, operational and reputational risks.
Case Study 14
Promoting transparency through remittance
price databases
Remittance prices are high for many reasons. However, the single most important factor
leading to high remittance prices is a lack of transparency in the market. It is difficult
for consumers to compare remittance prices because they are comprised of several
variables. Prices for remittances are frequently made up of a fee charged for sending
a certain amount, a margin taken on the exchange rate when remittances are paid
and received in different currencies, and, at times, a fee charged to the recipient of the
funds. These fee components may also vary according to how the receiver is paid (i.e. in
cash or by crediting an account), the speed of the transfer, and the ability of the sender
to provide information about the recipient (i.e. bank account number). The creation
of publicly available databases containing detailed information on the cost of sending
remittances has been identified as one of the most efficient means to improve the
transparency of the market.
Remittance Prices Worldwide
Remittance Prices Worldwide (RPW), a database managed by the World Bank, publishes
the total average cost of sending relatively small amounts of money along 227 remittance
corridors, including 32 remittance sending countries and 89 receiving countries. RPW
makes information about the total cost of sending remittances – broken down into
fee and exchange rate margin – publicly available, at no cost to consumers. RPW is
updated quarterly, and it also includes additional analyses on the trends in the market
for international remittances, dissected by geographic region, remittance service provider
type, and the product type, among other variables.
National and regional databases
In addition to publishing the RPW, the World Bank has developed a unified methodology
to certify national and regional remittance price databases. Collection of data at a
national or regional level can be more frequent, detailed and tailored to the needs of
the local communities. Thus, these databases can actually serve as a tool that allows
remitters to easily compare different services and costs, and have a more accurate
idea of how much the beneficiary will receive. At the same time, the publication of price
comparison tables helps to push the actors competing in the market towards efficiency
and lower costs. Currently, databases for Africa, Australia/New Zealand (Pacific and
Asia), Central America, France, Germany, Haiti, Italy, Norway and Sweden have been
certified by the World Bank.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
47
6 Beyond basic financial services: mobilizing
migrant investment back home
Only when daily needs have been cared for
and money has been put aside for emergencies
can attention turn to investment.14 In terms of
development impact, investment in micro, small
or medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) can be a
highly effective way of creating jobs and generating
income ‘back home.’ Migrant workers possess
assets, not only in financial terms, but also in
terms of their knowledge, skills and networks.
Effectively used, this migrant capital can be of great
benefit to migrant entrepreneurs and their home
communities. But while migration is a highly
entrepreneurial act, not all migrant workers will
become entrepreneurs.
The motivation of migrants to invest in
their countries of origin may have sentimental,
social and economic reasons that indicate their
willingness to return home or to mobilize
their resources towards development of their
communities or countries of origin. Therefore,
diaspora engagement to invest back home
requires specific approaches that surpass
traditional financial schemes aimed at promoting
more inclusive basic financial services, but an
engagement that relies on tripartite partnerships
among private and public sectors and diaspora.
In order for remittance senders, recipients and
entrepreneurs to invest, the financial infrastructure
must be in place to allow access to deposit, credit
and insurance services. While there are many
investment opportunities for large-scale investors,
finding these for smaller-scale investors is far more
difficult. As such, there is a need to identify other
models that generate returns and at the same time
have broader appeal.
Two main approaches for mobilizing the
resources of migrants can be distinguished:
Indirect investment of migrant savings in
financial instruments such as:
• Diaspora bonds15 or shared acquisition of
mutual funds investing in local MSMEs or
cooperatives
• MFIs’ transformation of migrant or recipient
savings into loans to finance microenterprises
(investment in MFIs); and/or
• Crowd-funding platforms acting as
third parties between migrants and MFIs
or MSMEs.
This approach requires strong communication and
financial education campaigns to build trust and
understanding of investment features, and market
research to align investment conditions with the
financial goals and capabilities of migrants.
Direct investment to create, develop or
consolidate MSMEs managed by migrant
returnees or remittance recipients by mobilizing
migrant or family members’ entrepreneurship
and own capital. This approach requires
methodologies that combine market information,
business development services and financing
provided at the local level by third parties (local
development agencies).
14 As per current trends, it is estimated that by the end of 2015 migrant workers around the world will
send home well over USD450 billion to their families in developing countries. The World Bank (Migration and
Development brief No. 22, April 2014) also estimates that migrant workers maintain additional savings of
USD500 billion that they could invest in their home communities.
15 Including but not limited to future-flow securitization of remittances in order to improve access to
international markets for the issuers to leverage long-term resources at advantageous rates.
48
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Case Study 15
Atikha’s catalytic programme to leverage Filipino migrant
workers’ savings for investment in agri-based cooperatives
Atikha is a Filipino NGO based in two of the country’s provinces. It has worked for
15 years on migration issues and development and mobilization of diaspora resources
for local development, in order to help migrant families and other nationals remain in
the country.
Between 2010 and 2012, IFAD cofinanced an intervention model implemented by
Atikha that allowed emigrant Filipino workers in Italy to invest collectively in their home
province through a cooperative group set up in 1979 – the Soro-Soro Ibaba Development
Cooperative (SIDC).
This was a pilot programme that demonstrated how migrants and their families could
achieve financial goals and successfully invest back home through combining specific
activities such as financial literacy programmes, followed by financial products and
investment avenues.
Initially, remittance recipients and their families attended financial education seminars,
and they were motivated to save. As a second step, migrants were given opportunities
to invest in SIDC, which in turn pooled migrants’ and families’ resources to invest in a
sustainable poultry cooperative. As a result, 1,100 overseas migrants and families invested
USD250,000 through SIDC; and in parallel, around 600 people in rural areas received
business and skills training. To date, the SIDC credit cooperative is providing more than
USD1.3 million in loans serving 600 beneficiaries with average loans of USD2,200.
The investment vehicle is sustainable, and it has enabled migrants to continue investing
in the poultry cooperative given that:
• The cooperative is already profitable and has its own market, which is necessary to
relieve migrant distrust
• It needs capital to cover further outlets
• It does not require complex governance to carry on its activities
Conditions to be allowed to invest in SIDC:
• To be a member of the cooperative for migrants and their family members, with
€25 a share
• To make a minimum contribution of €1,800 over one year (€150 per month)
• For an investment frozen for five years, the annual return is 6 per cent plus an additional
dividend depending on annual performance
• Transfer of shares and capital at the negotiated cost of €1 for amounts between
€150 and €200
Atikha had a catalyzing role among migrants, their families and local inhabitants by
bringing support of NGOs, local authorities and the private sector and by providing an
array of financial education, entrepreneurship training and support services to remittancereceiving families.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
49
Case Study 16
Enhancing food security in the Horn of Africa through the
Diaspora Investment in Agriculture initiative
In recognition of the importance of the diaspora in fostering economic growth and its
potential to enhance the resilience of fragile communities, the United States Department
of State and IFAD have launched the Diaspora Investment in Agriculture (DIA) initiative.
This partnership seeks to leverage the contributions of migrant workers and to encourage
their engagement in sustained economic development through investment in agriculture,
particularly in rural areas.
A first programme was launched in 2013 to finance innovative diaspora projects in
Somalia, one of the most severely conflict-stricken countries in the Horn of Africa. Somalia
is estimated to receive almost USD1 billion annually in remittances, exceeding official aid
to the country.
The programme has three main components:
• Mapping and researching market analysis of specific products, public support, relevant
public, private or international partners and successful models of agricultural projects
• Investment opportunities and models for scaling up
• Capacity enhancement of local organizations.
Case Study 17
Promoting diaspora investment in emerging markets’
SMEs: Homestrings Diaspora Bond – SEAF Macedonia II
Three organizations joined their expertise in order to leverage Macedonian diaspora capital
to fill the financing gap for SMEs in Macedonia: (i) Homestrings, an investment online
platform dedicated to diaspora (www.homestrings.com); (ii) Small Enterprise Assistance
Funds (SEAF) (www.seaf.com), an impact investment fund specialized in financing
emerging markets SMEs; and (iii) USAID’s Development Credit Authority (DCA)
(www.usaid.gov/dca), a development agency.
Homestrings will pool investments through the issuance of a diaspora bond, and it will
make a loan guaranteed by DCA facility to the SEAF Macedonia II Fund, an investment
fund dedicated to Macedonian SMEs. The objective of this fund is to invest in growing,
job-creating businesses with a reasonable commercial return. Coupon payment is
estimated at 4 per cent yearly with a five-year maturity term with eventual capital losses
partly covered by the DCA guarantee.
This tripartite financial mechanism aims at addressing the following issues:
• Although Macedonia’s banking sector is developed and the economy is safe,
unemployment remains high, migration is quite significant and labour-intensive SMEs
lack equity capital to develop their growth notably for familial SMEs created upon
own capital.
• Opportunities for diaspora to invest directly in small businesses are limited due to lack
of transparency in local markets, nascent and illiquid capital markets and uncertain
regulatory environments. Guarantees can help correct these market imperfections.
50
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
The stakeholders
Homestrings is an investment portal (www.homestrings.com) that facilitates global
diaspora investments in different types of instruments (bonds, funds and treasury bills).
It focuses on region members (mainly Africa, India and Latin America) and has a double
objective of being profitable and socially impacting. Minimum investment allowed is
USD1,000. Homestrings fees are generally 1 per cent for annual management fee and
10 per cent for annual performance fee.
• Small Enterprise Assistance Funds (SEAF) (www.seaf.com) is an investment fund
that provides growth capital to SMEs in emerging markets with a strong focus on
impact. On average, SMEs financed by SEAF generate a 25 per cent annual rate of
employment growth and a 19 per cent annual rate of wage growth in United States
dollars. Expected investors are Macedonian institutional investors, including pension
funds and foundations, high net worth individuals, in particular members of the
Macedonian Diaspora Investment Group, and SEAF Management LLC.
• USAID’s Development Credit Authority has developed a USD20 million loan guarantee
fund to incentivize diaspora to invest back home.
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
51
7 Principles for policy guidelines and
recommendations
The perception of the role of migrant workers
in development is shifting. Governments and
institutions are beginning to realize the vast
potential of mobilizing migrant capital for the
development of national and local economies.
However, the issues hindering financial
inclusion still need to be addressed.
The conditions to increase both access to
regulated points of services and effective use of
complementary basic financial services (savings,
loans, micro-insurance, pension schemes) for
remittance senders and receivers depend on several
factors, including the nature and the scale of
migrations, market competition and the financial
infrastructure within a specific country.
Because of the centrality of remittances to
development, it is vital to develop policy guidelines
to maximize the impact of migrants’ funds. The
right array of policies and interventions targeting
demand and supply and the market environment
could encompass the approaches described ahead.
7.1
Develop public goods to understand
remittances and related financial
inclusion issues
Market information is instrumental to design
policies and increase private-sector awareness
on market opportunities. The ways in which key
players can better understand the market include
the following:
Sending countries should assess:
• The volume of remittance flows for the
main corridors and the level of reliance of
destination countries on remittances;
• The segmentation of different communities
of migrant workers in terms of number,
preferences, and patterns to remit, save, and
invest money home; and
• Competition in the market.
52
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
Receiving countries should assess:
• Main remittance corridors;
• Patterns and destination of migration;
• Main areas of migration;
• Domestic access points and networks; and
• Ability of existing RSPs to cover international
and domestic recipients’ needs.
Both sending and receiving countries should pay
special attention to investment as knowledge of
the topic and concrete experiences are both at a
nascent stage.
7.2
Develop financial education
campaigns to improve financial
literacy, and ensure proper
consumer protection for remittance
senders and recipients
Financial literacy is fundamental in empowering
remittance senders and recipients to make the most
of hard-earned funds. Case studies point to the fact
that migrants and their families are keen to save
and invest their resources, but often lack knowledge
of their options. Financial education enables them
to use their funds to their maximum benefit.
By sharing responsibility for financial decisions
with family members and minimizing risks,
migrants can build a solid financial foundation.
Many of these financial strategies are new to
migrants and sometimes outside their cultural
comfort zone. Thus, broadening migrant workers’
understanding of their financial options is essential
to remittance-related policies.
Financial education must remain a central pillar
of every initiative dealing with financial inclusion.
Sending countries should:
• Seek to understand the migrant community
and its segmentation;
• Require transparent financial information
(e.g. web-based remittance price
comparisons);
• Create tailor-made approaches to financial
education that relies on community and
social networks of migrants; and
• Involve the private sector in these strategies.
Receiving countries should:
• Align financial literacy strategy with financial
inclusion and returning migrant strategies;
• Create and promote national financial
literacy campaigns; and
• Involve the private sector in these strategies.
7.3
Support innovative models to
deliver remittance services and
complementary products
Receiving countries should increase the number
and the penetration of access points to receive
cash. This in turn will improve the interaction
between low-income remittance recipients and
regulated financial institutions. Institutions should
be encouraged to cross-sell complementary, userfriendly and low-cost financial services that are
integrated within digital ecosystems or distributed
by financial intermediaries with decentralized
outlets. These institutions should pay particular
attention to leapfrog current distribution channels
and utilize technologies that allow new partnerships
to enlarge the frontier of financial delivery, especially
in countries where the uptake of mobile financial
services are being taken up.
7.4
Promote legal and regulatory
frameworks
Because migrants specifically, and financially
uneducated peoples generally, lack access to
remittance services and are often unaware of
complementary products, governments and
the private sector should investigate new and
innovative ways to reach these communities.
Innovations can be introduced at different levels of
the remittance market and should provide benefits
to all parties. They can reduce overall costs for
senders and receivers, but can also minimize the
risk. These benefits in turn increase the access to
and use of remittances.
Innovation should focus on:
• Modernizing technology in pay-out networks;
• Improving payment systems infrastructure;
and
• Furthering integration at the local level.
It is vital to promote legal and regulatory
frameworks that are sound, predictable, nondiscriminatory and commensurate to the level of
risk in both sending and receiving countries should
be promoted. It is equally important to ensure that
competition is enhanced by encouraging more
actors to enter the marketplace, widening the types
of payment networks or discontinuing exclusivity
agreements when they hamper competition.
Authorities should encourage consistent standards
of regulations across jurisdictions, while identifying
and adhering to at least the minimum standards of
client protection.
Sending countries should promote partnerships
between different types of institutions from both
sending and receiving countries that operate
under different regulatory frameworks and/
or geographies. These institutions should be
encouraged to provide alternatives to in-cash
transfers and to offer complementary products
beyond transfers. Furthermore, they should be
encouraged to promote online access and products,
create linkages with regulated RSPs, increase access
points and reduce sending costs.
Knowledge-sharing is one of the crucial ingredients
of development. Therefore, identifying and
disseminating good practices, as well as setting up
monitoring and impact assessment mechanisms are
key to determining the scalability of policies and
interventions. Ways to share knowledge include:
• Improve global knowledge on remittance
receivers and migrants’ financial behaviour
by systemizing the topic in demand-side
surveys’ methodology with global or regional
scope such as Findex or FinScope or at the
7.5
Support research, advocacy and
dialogue at international and
bilateral levels
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
53
household level through financial diaries or
academic research.
• Set transnational platforms to mobilize
market players and their overseers involved
in the supply chain at both ends of major
corridors. Public authorities and civil society
should identify problems and opportunities,
understand market facilitation needs and
implement subsequent coordinated policies.
• Support the development of diagnostic and
comparison tools applicable to main sending
and receiving countries to assess remittances
and development nexus; design and monitor
progress in policy achievements using a price
database, standardized country profiles,
country actions plans and diagnostic tools.
7.6
Create incentives for migrant
workers to be agents of change
Investment in micro, small or medium-sized
enterprises (MSMEs) can be a highly effective
way of creating jobs and generating income ‘back
home.’ Migrant workers possess significant assets,
not only in financial terms, but also in terms of
their knowledge, skills and networks. They have
a strong affinity with their home communities,
and they are often far better informed in terms
of the language and culture of their country than
most foreign investors. This affinity makes migrant
workers willing to take on risk by investing ‘back
home’ when others will not.
However, in order for these entrepreneurs
to invest, financial education and financial
infrastructure must be in place. Local governments
can create initiatives and incentives such as onestop shops to educate potential investors and to
provide assistance to migrant-run enterprises; and
they can train local officials to develop and provide
information channels about market opportunities
that match migrant goals.
Post-conflict and fragile states in particular
can benefit from diaspora investment. Indeed,
migrants can be instrumental in socio-economic
54
The use of remittances and financial inclusion
reconstruction efforts as the bridge between end of
conflict and the beginning of financial inclusion in
their home communities.
Leveraging the linkages between remittances and
financial inclusion represents a unique opportunity
to create a convergence between the financial
goals of millions of remittance senders and
receivers, mostly unbanked or under-banked, the
commercial strategies of traditional and emerging
financial services providers, and international
development goals. Addressing the nexus between
remittances and financial inclusion, G20 countries
can both pursue the objective to reduce the cost of
remittances to 5 per cent and lead the way towards
the achievement of several key objectives in the
post-2015 agenda, encompassing but not limited to
financial inclusion, innovative sources of financing,
inclusive growth, and migration and development.
However, this has to be a concerted effort with
the active involvement of public and private
stakeholders and civil society partners. It must
encourage the exchange of information, knowledge
and experience among institutions, experts and
project partners alike.
Migrant remittances represent a USD430 billion
economy that is currently still largely untapped by
the regulated financial system. By understanding
how migrants and their families use remittances,
the G20 countries can begin to leverage this
economic engine to bring migrants into the fold
of the financial system. This understanding
represents an enormous opportunity to bring
largely excluded populations into the formal
economy; to (re)build poverty-stricken areas
through economic investment; and to develop
innovative sources of financing for traditional and
emerging financial service providers. However,
this will not happen without a true understanding
of the financial goals of migrants, nor without
appropriate regulations and public policies,
and the commitment from public, private and
civil stakeholders to financial education for this
underserved group.
8 Bibliography
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The use of remittances and financial inclusion
57
9 Practical resources and toolkits
Financial inclusion
Financial Inclusion Strategies Reference Framework. World Bank, 2012. bit.ly/1Pc7rzD
Financial education
Financial Education for Migrants and their Families. OECD, 2015. bit.ly/1Ht2Zo4
FReDi: Financial Literacy for Remittances and Diaspora Investment. GIZ, 2012. bit.ly/1Wy6SED
Remittances
Best Practices Guide for Microfinance Institutions Active in Remittances. European Microfinance
Platform, 2014. bit.ly/1BUql5w
General Principles for International Remittances. World Bank, 2007. bit.ly/1OpVnXu
Guidance Report for the Implementation of the CPSS-World Bank General Principles for
International Remittance Services. World Bank, 2012. bit.ly/1WC3rYh
The FFR Brief – Five Years of the Financing Facility for Remittances. IFAD-FFR, 2012.
bit.ly/1Q6EV2q
From Remittances to M-Payments. World Bank, 2012. bit.ly/1uEs9KW
Inclusive Savings for Remittance Clients: A Practical Framework. Burgess, Elisabeth.
FOMIN, 2015. bit.ly/1TnkZsj
Making Money Transfers Work for Microfinance Institutions: A Technical Guide to Developing
and Delivering Money Transfers. CGAP, March 2008. bit.ly/1Hbi42P
58
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International Fund for Agricultural Development
Via Paolo di Dono, 44 - 00142 Rome, Italy
Tel: +39 06 54591 - Fax: +39 06 5043463
E-mail: ifad@ifad.org
www.ifad.org
www.ruralpovertyportal.org
ifad-un.blogspot.com
www.facebook.com/ifad
instagram.com/ifadnews
www.twitter.com/ifadnews
September 2015
www.youtube.com/user/ifadTV