PE 2 (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Brief History of Dance
a.
Dance in Ancient Times
- The dance rituals in the ancient times became more
complicated and elaborate. Only the priest came to be incharge of the dance. The ancient Egyptian dances were
mostly for religious worship or for magic in ringing good
crops. Dances of ancient Greece stemmed from the
tradition of the Olympic Games celebrated as a public
festival of ace, competition in skill, and rhythmic
gymnastics. The Romans had religious folk dances, but were
mostly copied from other countries.
b.
Dance in the Middle ages
- The brutal games of the gladiators were wiped out
together with the pagan rituals they used to cover-up this
brutality. The church, to strengthen Christianity, banned
dances. Despite the ban, people continue to do their folk
dances on holidays. After many years the Roman saw the
art, drama, music and rhythmic movement would add
interest to religious rituals.
c.
Dance of Renaissance
- The interest in dance was refreshed. The nobles of the
different castles and countries changed the folk or ritual
dances with the court dances to suit more formal and
elegant atmosphere of the court. They danced just for the
fun of dancing; the social dancing called ballroom dancing.
d.
1.
Dance in the East
HINDU DANCE
- The Hindus of India developed the language of symbolic
hand gestures called mudras. The Hindus believed that
dance is the source of joy and discipline through which one
finds spiritual understanding necessary to develop
character.
2.
CHINESE DANCE
- Chinese dance is the story of Chinese drama and music,
the purpose of which is to preserve the centuries of the
legend of gods, heroes and historical events. The Chinese
festivals are the New Year’s Lions Dragon Dances, the Great
Lantern Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Harvest Festival.
3.
JAPANESE DANCE
- Japan dance has been linked with the theater, especially
with the classical Noh Drama, known as the theater of the
scholars. The Kabuki Theater is the theater of the people.
The Kabuki Theater includes their established traditional
dances, prayer dances, festival dances historical dances,
stories of daily life dances and some borrowed comic
dances from the Noh.
Modes of Dance
1. Ballet is a highly disciplined and codified dance form
drawn from the classical performance with the most
choreographic and contemporary approaches. This dance
rooted as 17th century on the reign of Louis XIV of France,
and launched as a professional art by Jean Baptiste Lully
2. Modern Dance refers to a mode of dance that appeared
in the 20th century. It is modern in the sense that it is a
present-day expression of dance, finding new forms, new
movements and new rhythm to create artistic
communication
3. Classical Dance refers to the dances with standard rules
and restrictions, dances that are common in Asian
countries. This often narrates stories of historical events,
mythology and legends
4. Folk Dance is one performed by group of people from
different localities especially for recreation and for a feeling
of togetherness from an ancient ritual.
5. Ethnic Dance is highly traditional folk dance usually of
religious nature created by people of certain localities to
teach its history, customs, and beliefs.
6. Ballroom or Social Dance is a dance of the 20th century,
which originated during the 17th and 18th centuries from
the French courts mainly to entertain guests. These are the
waltz, polka, tango rumba, samba and cha-cha-cha.
7. Popular Dance or Modern Ballroom is the fashionable
short-lived ballroom dance of the present times. It places
strong emphasis on individuality and musical expression.
*The visual syncopation is evidenced by the frequent
dynamic changes and unexpected movements that make
the dance exciting.
Elements of Dance
CONTENT THEME – a dance usually tells a story, conveys an
emotion or expresses an attitude. It is like drama but
instead of using dialogue, the dance uses bodily
movements and gestures to communicate to the audience.
MOVEMENT – Movement is the fundamental element of
dance. Movement is the means by which the dancer can
manifest her emotions and inner feelings to the audience. A
dance movement must convey emotion otherwise, it will
seem mechanical and devoid of human feeling.
MUSIC – Music should relate to the dance for which it was
created. It should not be just an aid to the rhythmic
movement of the dancers. When one moves as a result of
some strong emotional reaction, one will either shout or
laugh for joy
SPECTACLE – The music and sequences of movements by
the dancers cast a kind of spell upon the audience. The
scenery and the costumes contribute to the dazzling
spectacle and mesmerize the audience.
Module 2
Origin and Historical Background
Ethnic Tradition
1. Ritual Dances.
a. The DUGSO among the Higaonon is a thanksgiving for a
bountiful harvest, the birth of a male child and for victory in
war.
b. The PAGDIWATA of Palawan involves offerings during a
festival to solicit a good harvest.
c. The CANAO in the Cordilleras offers chicken, pig and
carabao as sacrifice.
d. The SANGHIYANG OF Alfonso,Cavite is a ritual dance over
a fire.
e. The HINAKLARAN of Bukidnon is an offering, festival and
ritual dance of the three datus.
f. The MANDADAWAK or ALPOGAN of Tinguian in the
maountains of Abra worship their anito, the spirits,
ancestral dead and their great god.
- It is enacted by adventurous young men and attractive
maidens whenever the Matigsalug play the saluray and
kuglong, haglong, faglong and sing and dance together.
4. The Occupational Dances
a. The Bilaan people act out a whole sequence from men,
choosing and clearing a field to women bringing food. The
men digging the ground with poles, while the woman
sowing seeds from their baskets, and finally harvesting, to a
more leisurely rhythm of the haglong and gongs.
b. In Bukidnon, the planting is done using their tudak or the
digging poles, seed, harvest baskets and pestles for
pounding. They are dancing with their musical instrument s
and open-mouthed bamboo kalatong.
c. The Bilaan dramatically acts or expresses themselves
using gestures alone and dance out the fishing activity with
fisg traps.
d. The lakulak or frogs are the imaginary objects of the hunt
in the Matigsalug panulo.
e. A man dances with his bolo, while a woman attends with
a basket to store his takings.
g. The ANITUAN of the Aeta of Zambales drive away the evil
spirit that cause sickness.
5. Spanish Colonial Tradition
h. The MANDAYA of Davao hold various rituals to court the
favors of various environmental spirits.
a. The Pandanggo is a favorite dance of Filipinos during the
Spanish period. In Spain, the fandango is a lively Spanish
dance done to a slow-to-quick rhythm.
i. The BAGOBO of Davao believes in Pamulak Manobo who
created heaven and the earth, and molded the first man
named Taglai and woman named Toglibon.
b. The habanera is a piece of music named after Havana in
Cuba where it originated. It is danced in slow duple meter
with a step-close-step-pattern.
j. The ISNEG of the northeast Cordillera are as colorful in
their clothes as they are in their feasts.
c. The rigodon or rigodon de honor is the best ceremonial
dance to the Filipinos. It was introduced to the French court
by a dancing master named Rigaud and was first known as
Rigaudon, in Britain, it was called rigadoon.
k. The BUKLOG of Subanon is a very old rite; a communal
celebration, an offering of the gods, and a spiritual
experience.
2. Life-cycle Dances.
a. The Bilaan of Davao and Cotabato are rich in ritual
imagination. Cradles called ASLOLOG ABAN hel on mat is a
common ritual object in the south and blanket in the north.
The parents assured the marriage of their children.
b. In the Cordilleras, the Ifugao boys may play with their flat
tops or learn the dexterous rhythm of their music and
dances like the DINNUYYA.
c. The gliding INAGONG and hunting dance in Bukidnon a d
Kabanglasan in Mindanao can be learned.
d. Girls from Bukidnon, Tigwahanon, Matigsalug, and
Higaonon join adults to learn a range of dances that
stimulate painting, wave parallel hands to bamboo guitars
or saluray, display a flag-like palm leaves or lukay and
imitate hawks a in banog-banog.
3. Courtship
6. American Colonial Traditions
a. Bodabil is introduced by the Americans among the many
forms of entertainment which featured song, dance
routines, and comedy skits as well.
b. Ballet is an noriental dance and taught by Luva Adameit
to the first generation of Philippine ballet teachers and
choreographers
c. Modern Dance – A significant event in Phikippine modern
dance history was the Manila Grand Opera House
performance of Denishawn in 1926.
d. Folk and Social Dances
- The former Folk Arts Festivals and the annual Pang-alay at
the CCP help keep folk dance alive. Francisca Reyes Aquino’s
research has been expanded by the different folk dance
associations and dance companies like the Philippine Folk
Dance Society, Dance Education Associations of the
Philippines, and etc.
Module 3
Body Movement
Movement is any change in the body position in space
which may be stationary or dynamic. It is a way of
expressing, exploring and interpreting oneself to develop
one’s own capabilities.
What the body can do.
- Sustained (free flow) link smoothly movements or part of
movements
- Expressive flow maybe happy or sad, angry or gay, smooth
or rough
- Imitative flow may imitate person, animal or things
With Whom Does the Body Move
a. Individual – by yourself, one person
b. Partner – with somebody, two people
c. Group – with people, three or more
1. BODY AWARENESS refers to how you understand the
different parts of the body in relation to the other parts like:
• Head
• Legs and feet
• Trunk • Arms and hands
2. BASIC SKILL refers to specific movements that each of the
body part can do at any level. These include the following:
a. Axial or Non-Locomotor Movements. The movements
done on stationary place or around its own axis.
• Percussive or Accented • Elevating or Raising
• Extending or Stretching • Flexing or Bending
• Rotating or Twisting/turning
• Circumduction or Circling
• Pendular or Swinging/swaying
• Vibratory or Shaking/beating
b. Locomotor movements, the transfer of the body position
from one place to another which includes
 Walking is the transfer of body weight from one foot to
the other
 Running a fast walk or an increase speed in walking.
 Jump is a spring or push off on one foot or both feet.
 Leaping is a spring on one foot and landing on the other
foot.
 Galloping is a combination of a step and a cut
 Skip is a combination of a step and a hop twice in a
measure.
 Slide is a glide where the foot is in full contact with the
floor.
Where the Body Moves
Spatial (space)
• Direction – forward and backward, sideward right or left,
upward and downward, diagonal, or around a circle
clockwise or counterclockwise.
• Level – low, medium and high • Size – large and small
• Plane vertical, frontal and horizontal
• Pattern of movement – squae, circle, diamond, rectangle,
zig-zag.
How the Body Moves
a. Time
• Speed – slow, moderate fast
• Rhythm – smooth, jerky, even or sudden
b. Qualities
• Force – light or heavy, strong or weak
• Flow - Suspended (bound flow) stops at the end of the
movement or a part of the movement
Dance Fundamentals
Arms Positions
1st position- raise arms to a circle in front of the chest.
2nd position – open up arms sideward, raised below
shoulder level with a graceful curve.
3rd position – raise one arm overhead while other arm
remains in 2nd position.
4th position – raise one arm in front of chest in a half
circle, while one arm remains overhead.
5th position – raise both arms overhead in a graceful
curve.
Feet Positions
1st position – bring heels close to touch; toes apart.
2nd position – bring feet apart sideward.
3rd position – bring the heel of one foot to touch the
instep of the other foot.
4th position – bring one foot in front of the other foot
to walk strike.
5th position – bring the heel of one foot to touch the
toe of the other.
Dance Terms
ON HANDS AND ARMS
1. BILAO is the movements of the hands turning the palm
alternately up and down while held in front at waist level,
elbows close to waist.
2. HAYON-HAYON is a hand movement that sways the
forearm alternately front and back at waist level. As the
right arm is placed in front the left is placed behind.
3. KUMINTANG is hand movement that circles the wrist
either inward or outward. The Ilocano Kumintang is usually
done outward with a loosely closed fist.
4. ARMS IN LATERAL POSITION sways both arms from side
to side with the wrist leading, passing in front at chest or
waist level.
5. MASIWAK is an outward kumintang with two backward
snaps from the wrist.
ON FEET
1. BRUSH. Hitting the floor with the ball or heel of the free
foot in any direction.
2. CUT. Spring to displace one foot quickly with the other
foot.
3. CLOCKWISE. Moving around following the direction of
the hands of the clock.
3. DO-SI-DO. Moving together forward passing by each
other’s Right (Left) shoulder, crossing over back to back, and
walking backward by each other’s Left (Right) shoulder.
Then return to proper places.
4. COUNTERCLOCKWISE. Moving around following the
direction opposite the hands of the clock.
4. DRAW. Pulling the free foot along the floor close to
supporting foot.
5. JALEO. Partners stand by each other’s Right (Left)
shoulders, hands on waist with elbows almost touching,
then walk around (hop, skip or any dance step) clockwise
(counterclockwise).
5. COSTADOS. Pairs or partners that occupy the length of
the square or rectangle in a quadrille formation.
6. FREE HAND. The hand not holding anything or placed
anywhere.
7. FREE FOOT. The foot not bearing the weight of the body.
8. INSIDE HAND. The hand nearest one’s partner when
standing side by side or facing the audience.
6. PANADYAK. A stamp and a point combination with the
Right (Left) foot in front or at the side of the Left (Right)
foot.
9. INSIDE FOOT. The foot nearest one’s partner when
partners are facing the audience or when standing side by
side.
7. PLACE. Putting the free foot in any position with the feet
flat on the floor but bearing the weight of the body.
10. MOVE TOWARDS PARTNER. Partners standing from a
distance walk closer towards each other.
8. POINT. Touching the floor lightly with the toes of the free
foot.
11. MOVE AWAY FROM PARTNER. Partners move backward
to proper places or away from each other.
9. STAMP. A heavy or forceful step on the Right or Left foot
with or without transfer of body weight, enough to produce
sound or noise against the floor.
12. OUTSIDE HAND. The hand is away from partner when
standing side by side.
10. STEP. A complete transfer of body weight from one foot
to the other.
13. OUTSIDE FOOT. The foot away from the partner when
standing side by side.
11. TAP. Pat or hit lightly the floor with the toe or ball of the
free foot simply by flexing and extending the ankle joint.
14. PASS BY RIGHT TO RIGHT SHOULDER (Left to Left).
Partners facing each other move forward to exchange
places with partners passing by the right (left) shoulders.
12. WHIRL. A fast turn by means of small steps in place
either right or left.
15. SUPPORTING FOOT. The foot bearing the weight of the
body.
ON ARMS AND FEET COMBINED
16. STAND FACING EACH OTHER. Partners stand in front of
partners.
1. SALOK. A scooping motion of the hand from the side,
moving downward and upward. The trunk is bent forward
and the knees are slightly flexed during the scoop.
2. SAROK. Point the Right (Left) foot across the Left (Right)
foot in front, slightly bend Left (Right) knee, twist trunk to
the left (right). Cross Right (Left) arm over Left (Right) arm.
3. PATAY. Point the Right (Left) foot in rear, while the bent
Left (Right) foot supports the body weight. Then arms are
flexed holding them in front at shoulder level. Right (Left)
hand on top of the Left (Right)hand. Head slightly turns to
rest on the hands.
17. STAND BACK TO BACK. Partners stand with their backs
against each other.
18. STAR RIGHT (LEFT). Four or more people extend
Right (Left) arm to join Right (Left) hand at the center
and move around clockwise (counterclockwise) using
any steps.
GE 5 Contempo (Prelim Reviewer)
4. SALUDO. Partners bow to each other (to audience,
opposite partner or neighbors) with feet together.
Module 1
OTHER DANCE TERMS
• Globalization as the act or process of globalizing : the
state of being globalized especially the development of an
increasingly integrated global economy marked especially
by free trade, free flow of capital, and the tapping of
cheaper foreign labor markets.
1. ABRASETE. A boy’s right arm hooking the girl’s left hand
as they walk around.
2. CABECERAS. Pairs or partners that occupy the width of
the square or rectangular in a quadrille formation.
Definition of Globalization
- Globalization is the free movement of goods, services and
people across the world in a seamless and integrated
manner.
- Globalization is grounded in the theory of comparative
advantage which states that countries that are good at
producing a particular good are better off exporting it to
countries that are less efficient at producing that good.
Brief History of Globalization
• Economic "globalization" is a historical process, the result
of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to
the increasing integration of economies around the world,
particularly through the movement of goods, services, and
capital across borders. The term sometimes also refers to
the movement of people (labor) and knowledge
(technology) across international borders. There are also
broader cultural, political, and environmental dimensions of
globalization.
The Evolution of Globalization
Stage 1 – it is comprised between 1400 and 1750, being
called “the primary stage”, and witnesses geographic
discoveries, colonization and the appearance of
transcontinental trading exchanges.
Stage 2 – the interval 1750-1880, also known as the
“incipient stage”; it is characterized by the formation of
unitary states and the development of trading relations and
the signing of the first agreements in the domain of
international trading relations.
Stage 3 – comprised between 1880 and 1925, it is also
called “the stage of development” when the manufactured
production developed, the means of transport evolved, the
international trading as well as the population migration
intensified and the multinational organizations took shape.
Stage 4 - 1920 – 1927 when the great state powers
crystallize and the worldwide organizations and institutions
develop.
Stage 5 started at the end of the 20th century, being
characterized by the intensification of regionalization and
integration, but also by the strong development of
multinational corporations.
Types of Globalization
Economic globalization. This type focuses on the unification
and integration of international financial markets, as well as
multinational corporations that have a significant influence
on international markets.
Political globalization. This type deals mainly with policies
designed to facilitate international trade, commerce, and
institutions that implement these policies, which can
include national governments as well as international
institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund and
the World Trade Organization.
Cultural globalization. This type focuses on the social
factors that cause cultures to converge -- such as increased
ease of communication and transportation, brought about
by technology.
Introduction to the Study of Globalization
• The aim of studying globalization to understand the
differences and similarities of different cultures and to
understand how we are connected and at the same time
separated from the world.
Effects of Globalization
More Goods at Lower Prices
- Globalization encourages each country to specialize in
what it produces best using the least amount of resources,
known as comparative advantage.
Scaled Up Businesses
- Larger markets enable companies to reach more
customers and get a higher return on the fixed costs of
doing business, like building factories or conducting
research.
Better Quality And Variety
- Competition from abroad drives US firms to improve their
products. Consumers have better products and more
choices as a result.
Innovation
- Expanded trade spurs the spread of technology,
innovation, and the communication of ideas. The best ideas
from market leaders spread more easily.
Job Churn
- Globalization supports new job opportunities but also
contributes to job displacement. It does not significantly
change the total number of positions in the economy, as job
numbers are primarily driven by business cycles and Federal
Reserve and fiscal policies.
Decline In Gap between Rich and Poor Globally, But Wider
Inequality Within United States
- Globalization has helped narrow inequality between the
poorest and richest people in the world, with the number
living in extreme poverty cut by half since 1990.
• Globalization can be both negative and positive. In the
Philippines, the goal of attaining sustainable development
has been a primary consideration; therefore, global forces
are often intended to achieve, and directed towards
achieving this purpose.
Module 2
What is a global economy?
• refers to the interconnected worldwide economic
activities that take place between multiple countries. These
economic activities can have either a positive or negative
impact on the countries involved.
Global economy comprises several characteristics, such as:
- Globalization describes a process by which national and
regional economies, societies, and cultures have become
integrated through the global network of trade,
communication, immigration, and transportation
- International trade is considered to be an impact of
globalization. It refers to the exchange of goods and services
between different countries, and it has also helped
countries to specialize in products which they have a
comparative advantage in.
- International finance is money can be transferred at a
faster rate between countries compared to goods, services,
and people. It consists of topics like currency exchange rates
and monetary policy.
- Global investment refers to an investment strategy that is
not constrained by geographical boundaries. Global
investment mainly takes place via foreign direct investment
(FDI).
Why is the global economy important?
Economic importance at a micro and macro level:
The increase in the world’s population has led to emerging
markets growing economically, making them one of the
primary engines of world economic growth. The growth and
resilience shown by emerging markets is a good sign for the
world economy.
Long-term world economic outlook: According to
financial and economic projections based on demographic
trends and capital productivity models, the GDP in emerging
market economies in 2019 are likely to keep increasing at a
positive rate.
Who controls the global economy?
Although governments do hold power over countries’
economies, it is the big banks and large corporations that
control and essentially fund these governments. This means
that the global economy is dominated by large financial
institutions. According to world economic news, US banks
participate in many traditional government businesses like
power production, oil refining and distribution, and also the
operating of public assets such as airports and train stations
How does the global economy work?
International transactions taking place between top
economies in the world help in the continuance of the
global economy. These transactions mainly comprise trade
taking place between different countries. International
trade includes the exchange of a variety of products
between countries
Such transactions have a number of benefits including: Providing a foundation for worldwide economic growth,
with the international economy set to grow by 4% in 2019
- Encouraging competitiveness between countries in various
markets;
- Raising productivity and efficiency across countries; - Helping in the development of underdeveloped countries by
allowing them to import capital goods
What are the effects of global economy?
The main cause of these effects is economics — based on
the production and exchange of goods and services.
Restrictions on the import and export of goods and services
can potentially hamper the economic stability of countries
who choose to impose too many. The purpose of
international trade is similar to that of trading within a
country. However, international trade differs from domestic
trade in two aspects:
The currencies of at least two countries are involved in
international trade, so they must be exchanged before
goods and services can be exported or imported;
Occasionally, countries enforce barriers on the international
trade of certain goods or services which can disrupt the
relations between two countries. Trade barriers often
affect the economies of the trading countries, and in
the long run, it becomes difficult to keep employing
such barriers.
What are the benefits of global economy?
There are numerous benefits of a global economy, which
include:
- Free trade is an excellent method for countries to
exchange goods and services. It also allows countries to
specialize in the production of those goods in which they
have a comparative advantage.
- Movement of labor: Increased migration of the labor force
is advantageous for the recipient country as well as for the
workers. If a country is going through a phase of high
unemployment, workers can look for jobs in other
countries. This also helps in reducing geographical
inequality.
- Increased economies of scale: The specialization of goods
production in most countries has led to advantageous
economic factors such as lower average costs and lower
prices for customers.
- Increased investment: Due to the presence of global
economy, it has become easier for countries to attract
short-term and long-term investment. Investments in
developing countries go a long way in improving their
economies.
Factors affecting global economy
•Natural resources;
• Infrastructure;
• Population;
• Labour;
• Human capital;
• Technology;
• Law.
• International non-profit agencies are one of the major
sources of financing like regional development banks or
banks globally.
WORLD BANK
Module 3
Definition of Market Integration
• Market Integration is a situation in which separate
markets for the same product become one single market,
for example when an import tax in one of the market is
removed.
• Integration is taken to denote a state of affairs or a
process involving attempts to combine separate national
economies into larger economic regions
Free Trade
- Free Trade wherein international trade (the importation
and exportation) left to its natural course without tariffs and
non-tariff trade barriers such as quotas, embargoes,
sanctions or other restrictions.
- Tariffs - taxes or duties to be paid on a particular class of
imports or export
- Embargo - a government-instituted prevention of exports
to a certain country. Official ban on trade or other
commercial activity
- Economic sanctions - commercial and financial penalties
applied by one or more countries against a targeted
country, group, or individual
- Free Trade Areas - a group of countries within which tariffs
and non-tariff trade barriers between the members are
generally abolished but with no common trade policy
toward nonmembers.
Free Trade Issue
• Protectionism - the theory or practice of shielding a
country's domestic industries fromforeign competition by
taxing imports to protect their domestic industries
• Economic nationalism or economic patriotism - an
ideology that favors state interventionism in the economy,
with policies that emphasize domestic control of the
economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires
the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the
movement of labor, goods and capital
Brief History of Global Market Integration in the 20th
Century
• The international economic integration achieved during
the nineteenth century was largely unraveled in the
twentieth by two world war and the Great Depression.
The Role of International Financial Institutions in the
Creation
of
Global
Economy
International Financial Institutions
• multinational financial institution established at the end of
World War II (1944) to help provide long-term capital for
the reconstruction and development of member countries.
Purpose for the setting up of the Bank
• To assist in the reconstruction and development of
territories of members
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD)
• The IBRD was set up in 1945 along with the IMF to aid in
rebuilding the world economy and it was owned by the
governments of 151 countries and its capital is subscribed
by those governments
International Finance Corporation
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
• IMF is a cooperative institution that 182 countries have
voluntarily joined because they see the advantage of
consulting with one another on this forum to maintain a
stable system of buying and selling their currencies. Its
policies and activities are guided by its Charter known as the
Articles of Agreement.
Purpose of IMF
• To promote international monetary cooperation through
a permanent institution that provides the machinery for
consultation and collaboration on international monetary
problems
How can IFIs help in Economic Globalization
• They focus on long-term investment projects, institutionbuilding, and on social, environmental, and poverty issuesstrengthen economic governance- safeguard the stability
and integrity of the international financial system as a global
public goodencouraging true national ownership of reforms
by streamlining the conditions attached to IMF
Global Corporations
• A corporation is an artificial being created by operation of
law, having the right of succession and the powers,
attributes and properties expressly authorized by law or
incident to its existence
• a corporation is a legal entity that is separate and distinct
from its owners
• corporation is a form of business operation that declares
the business as a separate, legal entity guided by a group of
officers known as the board of directors.
• A global corporation is generally referred to as a
multinational corporation (MNC), transnational corporation
(TNC), international company. An enterprise that engages in
activities which add value (manufacturing, extraction,
services, marketing, etc) in more than one country (United
Nations Centre On Transnational Corporations, 1991)
5. Agricultural Bank of China
6. Bank of America
7. Wells Fargo
8. Apple
9. Bank of China 10. Ping an Insurance Group
Module 4
The Attributes of Today’s Global System
• A multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that
operates in more than one country. Generally, multinational
corporations consist of separate companies (called
subsidiaries)in different countries, all of which answer to a
central office located in the firm’s home country.
• It is important to note that internationalization is not
equal to globalization, but the former is a major component
of the latter
• World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international
organization established on January1, 1995 under the
Marrakesh Agreement after the Uruguay Round (1986–94)
of multilateral trade negotiations. WTO’s role is to supervise
and liberalize world trade.
The world politics today has four key attributes.
1. The countries or the states that govern themselves 2. The
interaction of the countries with each other through
diplomacy
3. The international organizations that facilitate these
interactions
4. Own operations of the international organizations
Contributions of Multinational Corporations
• Improving the balance of payments - inward investment
will usually help a country’s balance of payments situation.
• Providing employment - FDI will usually result in
employment benefits for the host country as most
employees will be locally recruited.
• Source of tax revenue - profits of multinationals will be
subject to local taxes in most cases, which will provide a
valuable source of revenue for the domestic government.
• Technology transfer - multinationals will bring with them
technology and production methods that are probably new
to the host country and a lot can therefore be learnt from
these techniques
• Increasing choice - if the multinational manufactures for
domestic markets as well as for export, then the local
population will gain form a wider choice of goods and
services and at a price possibly lower than imported
substitutes.
• National reputation - the presence of one multinational
may improve the reputation of the host country and other
large corporations may follow suite and locate as well
Corporations in the Philippines
• Jollibee - largest fast food chain in the Philippines,
operating a nationwide network of over 750stores.
2017 World Economic Forum World’s 10
Corporations
1. Apple
2. Alphabet
3. Microsoft
4. Berkshire Hathaway
5. Exxon Mobil
6. Amazon
7. Facebook
8. Johnson and Johnson
9. General Electric
10. China Mobile
Biggest
The World’s Largest Public Companies
1. ICBC
2. China Construction Bank
3. JPMorgan Chase
4. Berkshire Hathaway
• Nation-state is a relatively modern phenomenon that has
a very complex definition. The term nation-state is
composed of two non-interchangeable words – nation and
state. “Not all states are nations and not all nations are
states” They also added that if there are states with multiple
nations, there are also single nations with multiple states
The State
• State refers to a country and its government like the
government of the Philippines.
4 elements of the state:
1. Citizen – it exercises authority over a specific population
2. Territory – it occupies a defined territory
3. Government – crafts various rules that people follow;
promotes protection of its citizens
4. Sovereignty – it is sovereign over its own territory;
known as the internal and external authority. Sovereignty
is the element of the state that is concerned with
political globalization.
The Nation
• Nation is an “imagined community” because it is limited
and does not go beyond the “official boundary.” Being
“limited” means having boundaries which is a contrasting
attribute to many religious imagined communities. also
pointed that calling nations “imagine” does not mean that it
is made up. Rather, the nation allows one to feel a
connection with a community of people even if he/she will
never all of them personally in his/her lifetime
Nation and State
• Nation and state are closely related because it is a kind of
nationalism that facilitates the state formation. In the
contemporary era, it has been the nationalist movements
that allowed the creation of nation-states.
Political Institutions in International Relations
• Political globalization can be seen in changes such as
democratization of the world, creation of the global civil
society, and moving beyond the centrality of the nationstate, particularly as the sole actor in the field of politics.
The Nation State
• Nation-state is a territorially bounded sovereign polity—
i.e., a state—that is ruled in the name of a community of
citizens who identify themselves as a nation. The legitimacy
of a nation-state’s rule over a territory and over the
population inhabiting it stems from the right of a core
national group within the state to self-determination.
The nation-state fuses two principles:
- The principle of state sovereignty, first articulated in the
Peace of Westphalia (1648), which recognizes the right of
states to govern their territories without external
interference;
- The principle of national sovereignty, which recognizes
the right of national communities to govern themselves.
• Nation-states have their own characteristics that may be
taken-for-granted, but that all developed in contrast to prenational states. Their territory is considered semi-sacred
and nontransferable. Nation-states use the state as an
instrument of national unity, in economic, social, and
cultural life. Nation-states typically have a more centralized
and uniform public administration than their imperial
predecessors because they are smaller and less diverse.
• Civil Society is the space outside of government, family,
and market. It is a place where individuals and collective
organizations advance common interests. Civil society
organizations
can
include
community
groups,
nongovernmental organizations, social movements, labour
unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faithbased organizations, media operators, academia, diaspora
groups, lobby and consultancy groups, think tanks and
research
centers,
professional
associations,
and
foundations.
The Interstate System
- Liberal Internationalism is Immanuel Kant who asserted
that states in the global system is like the people living in a
given territory. He argued that if people living together
require a government to prevent lawlessness, the same
principle should also be applied to the states
- Socialist Internationalism Marx believes that the true form
of internationalism should deliberately reject nationalism
(known as socialist internationalism) because it rooted
people in domestic concerns instead of the global ones.
Internationalism and Globalization
• Internationalism is only one window into the broader
phenomenon of globalization. Nevertheless, it is a very
crucial aspect of globalization since global interactions are
heightened by the increased interdependence of the states.
This increased interdependence manifests itself not just
through state-to-state relations
Contemporary Global Governance
• Global governance refers to the rules, norms and laws that
make and remake global systems and the geographical
consequences for citizens, ecosystems and human, and
physical environments in different places. Rules refer to
standards for activities, norms refer to expectations about
what is considered to be ‘normal and reasonable’, and laws
refer to obligations and duties on signatories.
Global Governance in the Twenty-First Century
• Global governance is not a singular system. There is no
"world government", but the many different regimes of
global governance do have commonalities: While the
contemporary system of global political relations is not
integrated, the relation between the various regimes of
global governance is not insignificant, and the system does
have a common dominant organizational form.
The Treaty of Westphalia
Global governance can be roughly divided into four stages:
➢ Established the notion of sovereignty and nation-state. It
is a set of agreements that was signed in 1648 in order to
end the Thirty Years’ War among the major continental
powers of Europe
1. agenda-setting; 2. policymaking,
Contemporary Global Politics
➢Political globalization is one of the three main
dimensions of globalization, the other two are the economic
and cultural globalization. This system includes the national
governments
and
their
governmental
and
intergovernmental organizations. It is also characterized by
some government-independent elements of the civil society
such as the international non-governmental and social
movement organizations
Internationalism
• Imagine a system of heightened interaction between
several states, particularly the desire for greater
cooperation and unity among states and people.
Internationalism divided into two broad categories:
3. implementation and enforcement, and
4. evaluation, monitoring, and adjudication.
Effects of Globalization to Governments
• Each state is autonomous unto itself and responsible
within its own system of government to those who are
governed. The decisions, the conflict, and the resolution of
that conflict are done through the institutions of
government established and codified in that particular
state, whether or not through elections. Civil society
includes the private economy, educational institutions,
churches, hospitals, fraternal organizations, and other nonprofit organizations. There have been several challenges to
the government and ultimately, to state autonomy.
GE 6 Art Appre (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
History of Arts in the Philippines
➢Arts in the Philippines refer to all the various forms of the
arts that have developed and accumulated in the Philippines
from the beginning of civilization in the country up to the
present era
➢These arts are divided into two distinct branches, namely,
traditional arts and non-traditional arts. Each branch is
further divided into various categories with subcategories.
➢The National Commission for Culture and the Arts, the
official cultural agency of the government of the Philippines,
has categorized Filipino arts into traditional and nontraditional. Each category are split into various arts, which in
turn have sub-categories of their own
(A) Traditional Arts
➢ Singkil is a folkdance of the Maranao people
Folk architecture – including, but not limited to, stilt houses,
land houses, and aerial houses.
• Maritime transport – boat houses, boat-making, and
maritime traditions
• Weaving – including, but not limited to, basket weaving,
back-strap loom weaving, headgear weaving, fishnet
weaving, and other forms of weaving
• Carving – including, but not limited to, woodcarving and
folk non-clay sculpture
• Folk performing arts – including, but not limited to,
dances, plays, and dramas
• Folk (oral) literature – including, but not limited to, epics,
songs, and myths
• Folk graphic and plastic arts – including, but not limited
to, calligraphy, tattooing, folk writing, folk drawing, and folk
painting
• Design – including, but not limited to, industrial design,
and fashion design.
• Film and broadcast arts – including, but not limited to,
film and broadcast direction, film and broadcast writing,
film and broadcast production design, film and broadcast
cinematography, film and broadcast editing, film and
broadcast animation, film and broadcast performance, and
film and broadcast new media
• Literature – including, but not limited to, poetry, fiction,
essay, and literary/art criticism
• Music – including, but not limited to, musical composition,
musical direction, and musical performance
• Theater – including, but not limited to, theatrical
direction, theatrical performance, theatrical production
design, theatrical light and sound design, and theatrical
playwriting
• Visual arts – including, but not limited to painting, nonfolk sculpture, printmaking, photography, installation art,
mixed media works, illustration, graphic arts, performance
art, and imaging
Folk architecture
➢ Folk architecture in the Philippines differ significantly per
ethnic group, where the structures can be made of bamboo,
wood, rock, coral, rattan, grass, and other materials.
➢ These abodes can range from the hut-style bahay kubo
which utilizes vernacular mediums in construction, the
highland houses called bale that may have four to eight
sides, the coral houses of Batanes which protects the
natives from the harsh sandy winds of the area, the royal
house torogan which is engraved with intricately-made okir
motif, and the palaces of major kingdoms such as the Daru
Jambangan or Palace of Flowers
• Pottery – including, but not limited to, ceramic making,
clay pot-making, and folk clay sculpture
➢ Folk architecture also includes religious buildings,
generally called as spirit houses, which are shrines for the
protective spirits or gods. Most are house-like buildings
made of native materials, and are usually open-air. Some
were originally pagoda-like, a style later continued by
natives converted into Islam.
➢There are numerous Filipino specialists or experts on the
various fields of traditional arts, with those garnering the
highest distinctions declared as Gawad Manlilikha ng
Bayan (GAMABA), equal to National Artist.
➢ Folk structures include simple sacred stick stands to
indigenous castles or fortresses such as the idjang, to
geologically-altering works of art such as the Rice Terraces 6
of the Philippine Cordilleras, locally called payyo.
(B) Non-Traditional Arts
Maritime Transport
Architecture and allied arts – including, but not limited to,
non-folk architecture, interior design, landscape
architecture, and urban design
➢ Maritime transport in the Philippines includes boat
houses, boat-making, and maritime traditions. These
structures, traditionally made of wood chosen by elders and
craftsfolks, were used as the main vehicles of the people,
connecting one island to another, where the seas and rivers
became the people's roads.
• Ornament, textile, or fiber art – hat-making, maskmaking, accessory-making, ornamental metal crafts
• Dance – including, but not limited to, dance
choreography, dance direction, and dance performance
➢ Aside from the balangay, there are various styles and
types of indigenous sea vehicles throughout the Philippines,
such as the two-masted double-outrigger boat armadahan,
the trading ship avang, the dugout canoes awang, the large
sailing outrigger ship balación, the native and widelyavailable watercraft bangka, the tiny canoe bangka anakanak, the salambáw-lifting basnigan, the small doubleoutrigger sailboat bigiw the dugout canoe birau. .From 1565
to 1815, ships called the Manila galleons were also built by
Filipino artisans.
Philippine Arts Timeline
Pre – Colonial Period
• Where art was expressed through drawings on the rocks
to show the religious symbols either animistic or Islam
based. They also expressed their daily activities like fishing
farming and they also put some decorative patterns in wall
rocks of wood
• In this period which is also known as Neolithic Period
which is the later part of Stone Age, they make art by
making stone weapons, jewelry and decorative crafts out of
stone. They also make their own shelter and has an
alphabet which is Baybayin. They also have tattoos as
ornamentation and rite passage.
Spanish Colonial Art Period (1521 – 1898) (378 Years)
• Started when Philippines was colonized by Spaniards. they
introduced formal paintings, sculpture and Architecture
influenced with Byzantine Gothic, Baroque and Rococo art
style. Most art religious lived in the Filipinos ‘antique
furniture and carving design.
American Colonial Art Period (1899 – 1940) (42 years)
• Americans brought education to the Philippines that is
why schools like University of the Philippines Diliman,
Siliman University and Central University were build. They
also brought Art Nouveau style which is an architecture art
design prominent to Western Europe. The education is
more accessible in period than the Spanish Colonial period
where the rich people can only study. Filipinos were taught
by the Thomasites. The paintings them in this period are
landscapes, still life and portraits are reserve for official with
high rank.
Japanese Colonial Art Period (1941 – 1945)
• Japanese invasion caused fear sufferings and hardships to
the Filipinos. The development of art stopped because of
the war. Filipinos were deprived from freedom of
expression and speech because the Japanese stopped the
prediction. But they also influenced us with poem style
(Tanaga and Haiku)
art, maximalism, minimalism, abstraction, expressionism,
constructivism, magic realism, and environmental art.
Development of Philippine Art
19th Century Art
➢ Fernando Amorsolo: He is one of the most important
artists in the history of painting in the Philippines. Amorsolo
was a portraitist and painter of the rural Philippine
Landscapes.
1900's Philippine Art
➢ Juan N. Luna: Juan Novicio Luna was a Filipino painter,
sculptor and a political activist of the Philippine Revolution
during the late 19th century. He became one of the first
recognized Philippine artists
Spolarium - the painting features a glimpse of Roman
history centered on the bloody carnage brought by
gladiatorial matches. Spolarium is a Latin word referring to
the basement of the Roman Colosseum where the fallen
and dying gladiators are dumped and devoid of their worldly
possessions.
➢Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo A Filipino artist. He is
acknowledged as one of the great Filipino painters of the
late 19th century, and is significant in Philippine history for
having been an acquaintance and inspiration for members
of the Philippine reform movement
1942-1945 Philippine Art
The Art Association of the Philippines is an art organization
that aims to "advance and foster, and promote the interests
of those who work in the visual arts." It is founded by Purita
Kalaw Ledesma. Today, the main office and gallery of AAP is
located in Kanlungan ng Sining, Rizal Park, Manila,
Philippines. Its present President is Mr. Fidel Sarmiento.
1960's Philippine Art
➢ Modern Art reached its peak. ➢ Ink Fish by Ang Kiukok
➢ It is a figurative abstract painting of an undersea life with
three skeletal fish as prominent figures and full of colors.
2000’s – Present Philippine Art
Philippine art has come a long way from pre-colonial to the
present avant-garde artist exploring different or possible
techniques
ranging
from
the
traditionalist,
representationalist, abstractionalist, abstract-expressionist,
semi-abstractionist,
figurative
expressionalist,
nonobjectivist, and other forms of -isms.
Module 2
Post-Colonial Art Period (1946 -1969) (24 Years)
Art Appreciation as a Way of Life
• Also known as the Philippine Modern Art Era. Arts in this
period are modern, conservative and experimental public
art. This art have the influences of Western styles like pop
➢ Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous French philosopher of the
twentieth century, described the role of art as a creative
work that depicts the world in a completely different light
and perspective, and the source is due to human freedom
(Greene, 1996 as cited by Caslib, Garing, & Casau, 2018).
Each artwork beholds beauty of its own kind, the kind that
the artist sees and wants the viewers to perceive.
form of skill, like carpentryor surgery”. Arts in
Medieval Latin came to mean something different. It
meant “any special form of book-learning, such as
grammar or logic, magic or astrology”
The Role of Creativity in Art Making
➢ Creativity requires thinking outside the box. It is often
used to solve problems that have ever occurred before,
conflate function and style, and simply make life a more
unique and enjoyable experience. In art, creativity is what
sets apart one artwork from another.
➢ A creative artist does not simply comply or imitate
another artist’s work. He does not imitate the lines, flaws,
colors, and patterns in recreating nature. He embraces
originality, puts his own flavor into his work, and calls it his
own creative piece.
Art as a Product of Imagination, Imagination as a Product
of Art Making
➢ German physicist Albert Einstein who had made
significant and major contributions in science and humanity
demonstrated that knowledge is actually derived from
imagination. He emphasized this idea through his words:
“Imagination is more important than knowledge. For
knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand,
while imagination embraces the entire world, and all there
ever will be to know and understand.”
➢ Imagination is not constrained by the walls of the norm
but goes beyond that. That is why people rely on curiosity
and imagination for advancement. Through imagination,
one is able to craft something bold, something new, and
something better in the hopes of creating something that
will stimulate change. Imagination allows endless
possibilities. In the same way that imagination produces art,
art also inspires imagination. Imagine being in an empty
room surrounded by blank, while walls, and floor.
Art as Expression
➢ You may only be conscious about feeling this sort of
excitement, fear, or agitation, but you know that just one
word is not enough to describe the nature of what you truly
feel. Finally, you try to release yourself from this tormenting
and disabling state by doing something, which is called
expression oneself
➢ Robin George Collingwood, an English philosopher who is
best known for his work in aesthetics, explicated in his
publication The Principles of Art (193) that what an artist
does to an emotion is not to induce it, but express it.
Through expression, he is able to explore his own emotions
and at the same time, create something beautiful out of
them. There are countless ways of expressing oneself
through art. The following list includes, but is not limited to,
popular art expressions. The word “art” comes from the
ancient Latin ars which means a “craft or specialized
Module 3
Art is Universal
• Literature has provided key words of art.
➢lliad and the Odyssey are the two Greek Epics that one’s
being taught in school.
➢The Sanskrit pieces Mahabharata and Ramanaya are also
staples in this fields.
• Age is not a factor in determining art. “An art is not good
because it is old, but old because it is good”
• In the Philippines, the works of Jose Rizal and Francisco
Balagtas are not being read because they are old.
➢Florante at Laura never fails to teach high school
students the beauty of love, one that is universal and pure.
➢Ibong Adarna, another Filipino masterpiece, has always
captured the imagination of the young with its timeless
lessons.
Art Is Not Nature
• Paul Cezanne, a French painted a scene from reality
entitled well and Grinding Wheel in the Forest of the
Chateau Noir.
➢Man’s expression of his reception of nature Man’s way of
interpreting nature. Art is made by man, whereas nature is a
given around us.
• Art is not nature. Art, not directed by representation of
reality, is a perception of reality. Five blind men touching an
elephant Art has its reason why the artist made it.
Art Involves Experience
• Art is just experience. By experience, we mean the “actual
doing of something” (Dudley et al., 1960) and it also
affirmed that art depends on experience, and if one is to
know art, he must know it not as fact or information but as
an experience.
• A work of an art then cannot be abstracted from actual
doing. In order to know what an artwork, we have to sense
it, see and hear it. An important aspect of experiencing art is
its being highly personal, individual, and subjective. In
philosophical terms, perception of art is always a value
judgment.
Arts Is Cultural
• Art in culture is expressed in dress, and in the ornaments
we wear. It is expressed in how we care for our children and
how we furnish our surroundings. Anciently, art objects
were first utilitarian, such as baskets, bowls, and tools used
for survival. As culture evolved, art became prominent in
religious rituals, celebrations, marriage, and burial rites.
Art As Expression
• Art is an expression made visible by a form. The
expression contained in the form is an attempt to translate
the unnamed and the unknown. Intrinsic to our existence as
humans is our quest to create meaning, and art allows that
process to take place
• Art, at its root, is an expression and the artist is an
expresser, translating in order to create meaning. Art
expresses and translates, art acknowledges and reveals, art
transfers and art intervenes.
➢ Art is an expression—an expression of feeling, belief,
and character. The simplicity of that sentence is rather
deceptive and seems tidier than its implications.
➢ Art —in the past and in the present, even still—
continuously strives to establish an understanding of the
unknown, to name the unnamed, to mark the ordinary, and
to dignify our existence. Central to each of those purposes
are emotions
strong emotions of joy, anger, love, sorrow, and the list goes
on
• It uses a word’s emotional, musical, and spatial values that
go beyond its literal meaning to narrate, emphasize, argue,
or convince. These words, combined with movements, tone,
volume, and intensity of the delivery, add to the artistic
value of the poem.
Architecture
➢Art is the pursuit and creation of beautiful things while
architecture is the making of beautiful buildings. However,
not all buildings are beautiful. Some buildings only embody
the functionality they need, but the structure, lines, forms,
and colors are not beautifully expressed, balance of the
lines, colors, and shapes completes the masterpiece.
Buildings should embody these three important elements—
plan, construction, and design—if they wish to merit the
title architecture
Dance
➢It is a series of movements that follows the rhythm of the
music accompaniments. It has been an age-old debate
whether dance can really be considered an art form, but
here we primarily describe dance as a form of expression.
Dancing is a creative form that allows people to freely
express themselves. It has no rules.
Module 4
Film
Visual Arts
• Visual arts is the kind of art form that the population is
most likely more exposed to, but its variations are so
diverse—they range from sculptures that you see in art
galleries to the last movie you saw. Some mediums of
visuals arts include paintings, drawings, letterings, printing,
sculptures, digital imaging, and more.
Performance Arts
• Performance art is a live art and the artist’s medium is
mainly the human body which he or she uses to perform,
but also employs other kind of art such as visual art, props,
or sounds. It usually consists of four important elements:
time, where the performance took place, the performer’s
body, and a relationship between the audience and the
performer(s)
• Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose
rosters of well-known artists include the likes of Marina
Abramovic, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. Performance art
may be planned or spontaneous and done live or recorded
since it is also durational in nature, it is also considered as
ephemeral works of art
Poetry Performance
• Poetry is an art form where the artist expresses his
emotions not by using paint, charcoal, or camera, but
expresses them through words. These words are carefully
selected to exhibit clarity and beauty and to stimulate
• Film refers to the art of putting together successions of
still images in order to create an illusion of movement.
Filmmaking focuses on its aesthetic, cultural, and social
value and is considered as both an art and an industry. Films
can be created by using one or a combination of some or all
of these techniques: motion-picture camera (also known as
movie camera), animation techniques, Computer-Generated
Imagery (CGI), and more. The art of filmmaking is so
complex it has to take into account many important
elements such as lighting, musical score, visual effects,
direction, and more.
Digital art
➢ Is an artistic work or practice that uses digital technology
as part of the creative or presentation process. Digital art is
itself placed under the larger umbrella term new media art.
Analog
➢ art Is any art where the material making the art is
manipulated by hand, like paint. You can control any portion
of it. Digital is constituted of many individual pieces of
electronic information--such as pixels, in the case of digital
photography--which cannot be further broken down.
Literary Arts
• Artists who practice literary arts use words—not paint,
musical instruments, or chisels—to express themselves and
communicate emotions to the readers. Literary art goes
beyond the usual professional, academic, journalistic, and
other technical forms of writing. It focuses on writing using
a unique style, not following a specific format or norm. It
may include both fiction and non-fiction such as novels,
biographies, and poems
Theater
• Theater uses live performers to present accounts or
imaginary events before a live audience. Theater art
performances usually follow a script, though they should
not be confused with literary arts. Much like in filmmaking,
theater also considers several elements such as acting,
gesture, lighting, sound effects, musical score, scenery, and
props. The combination of these elements is what gives the
strongest impression on the audience and the script thus
becomes a minor element. Similar to performance art, since
theater is also a live performance, the participation of the
viewer is an important element in theater arts.
Applied Arts
Applied arts is incorporating elements of style and design to
everyday items with the aim of increasing their aesthetical
value. Artists in this field bring beauty, charm, and comfort
into many things that are useful in everyday life. Industrial
design, interior design, fashion design, and graphic design
are considered applied arts. Applied is often compared to
fine arts, where the latter is chiefly concerned on aesthetic
value.
GE 7 Sci, Tech, & Soc (Prelim
Reviewer)
Module 1
Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations
Changed the Course of Science and Technology
1.1 ANCIENT AGES BC
➢ The earliest form of science and technology were human
artifacts found during prehistoric time about 2.3 million
years ago.
➢ Mesopotamian cultures around 400 BC showed evidence
of emerging science such as disease symptoms, chemical
substances and astronomical observations and in the Nile
Valley of Egypt, information on the treatment of wounds
and diseases, mathematical calculations such as angles,
rectangles, triangles and the volume of the portion of a
pyramid had been around for thousands of years.
➢ Many philosophers wrote topics on psychology, biology
and other topics. Among them were Euclid, who founded
the Modern Geometry and Archimedes, who founded
engineering mechanics and calculated the value for pi which
is still being used today.
➢ 3000 BC is called the Bronze Age where pigments were
used to color the human skin and alloying copper with tin
used until now to make swords, other weapons, machinery,
medals, statues, belts and shoe buckles.
➢ Two-wheeled carts in Mesopotamia and the first pyramid
in Egypt in 3000 BC
1.2 MIDDLE AGES (450-1450A.D.)
This era is also called the Dark Ages because warfare had
improved tremendously.
➢ It also gave birth to much scientific and technological
development like the printing press of Gutenberg in
Germany, the great Art works of Leonardo da Vinci of Italy.
➢ From 1450 – 1600 AD, the period know as rebirth of
knowledge is the Renaissance Era in Europe. Copernicus
rediscovered the Heliocentric Theory, the invention of the
magnetic compass aided Prince Henry, the navigator in his
travel to South Africa and Portugal to reach India.
1.3 MODERN AGES (around 1600 A.D.)
• Galileo was the first to use modern scientific methods
based on experiment and testable observations. He also
constructed a spyglass which he continually improved until
he built the so called Telescope.
❖ Isaac Newton defined the laws of gravity and planetary
motion, co-founded calculus and explained the laws of light
and color. Albert Einstein became the most famous scientist
of the 20th century because of his Theory of Relativity and
the famous equation E = mc2.
❖ The Industrial Revolution brought about the beginning of
factories that produce goods at massive quantity. The light
bulb replaced the candles and oil lamps in the late 1800.
❖ 20th century gave birth to the radio, the first car to run
with engine power and the first man went to space in a
rocket. This period was also the beginning of
communication, electronic and computer era.
Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society
2.1 Copernican Revolution
• A shift in the field of astronomy from a geocentric
understanding of the universe, centred around Earth, to a
heliocentric understanding, centred around the Sun, as
articulated by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in
the 16th century.
• De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium , he wanted a
model of the universe in which evervthing moved around a
single center at unvarying rates.
In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary
motion:
➢ The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of
the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun,
➢ The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the
Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun.
•The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a
shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and
Neptune with the longest year. One of the great problems
in his model is the position of the stars which cannot be
placed in a fixed position. The Catholic Church considered it
heretic, hence it was banned and ignored by Rome for the
rest of the 16th century
2.2 Darwinian Revolution
❖ The publication in 1859 of The Origin of Species by
Charles Darwin ushered in a new era in the intellectual
history of humanity. Darwin is deservedly given credit for
the theory of biological evolution: he accumulated evidence
demonstrating that organisms evolve and discovered the
process, natural selection, by which they evolve.
❖ The importance of Darwin's achievement is that it
completed the Copernican revolution initiated three
centuries earlier, and thereby radically changed our
conception of the universe and the place of humanity in it.
Darwin completed the Copernican revolution by drawing
out for biology the notion of nature as a lawful system of
matter in motion.
2.3 Freudian Revolution
• Sigmund Freud – Austrian Doctor with new ideas about
the mind and claimed that human behavior is not based on
reason
• He was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method
for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains
human behavior. Freud’s Theory: emphasized the influence
of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that
the human mind was composed of three conflicting
elements: the id, the ego, and the superego
Cradles of Early Science
3.1 Meso-American
• Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America
from Southern Mexico up to the border of South America.
There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in
culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European
colonizers
1. The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations
that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are
known for their works in astronomy
• Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial
bodies was advanced for their time, as evidenced by their
knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles
in planting and harvesting. Also known for measuring time
using two complicated calendar systems These calendars
were very useful for their life especially in planning their
activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural
celebrations.
• The Mayans also developed the technology for growing
different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary
machineries and tools. Built hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different
communities. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and
devised a ralnbow of glittery paints made from a mineral
called mica. They are also famous as one of the world's first
civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics.
2. The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica.
❖ roads paved with stones, stone buildings that
surmounted earthquakes and other disasters; irrigation
system and technique for storing water for their crops to
grow in all types of land. Calendar with 12 months to mark
their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;
❖ the first suspension bridge, quipu, a system of knotted
ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; Inca
textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic
achievements
3. Aziec civilization has also made substantial contributions
to science and technology and to the society as a whole
❖ Mandatory education. The Azte puts value on education,
Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate
during. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of
antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
❖ Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for
agricultural farming in which the land was divided into
rectangular areas and surrounded by canals. Aztec
calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals,
and planting season. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow
boat used for traveling in water systems
3.2 Asian
• Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of
many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural,
economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the
field of science, technology, and mathematics, great
civilizations have stood out.
❖India. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and
held with high regard in u whole of Roman Empire.
Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated
in ancient India before 2500 BC is still practiced as a form to
alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal
properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to
cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta
Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical
procedures famous in Ancient India. Ancient India is also
notable in the field of astronomy. Ancient India is also
known for their mathematics. Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya,
introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and
techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. Brahmagupta,
also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and
lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a
decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
now used universally throughout the worid. Another Indian
named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as
the 1ounder of mathematical analysis
❖ China. Known for traditional medicines, a product of
centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese
people. Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among
the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese
civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and
printing tools that became known in the West only by the
end of the middle Ages. Chinese also made significant
records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and
comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to
understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to
our world
3.3 Middle East
islands and Filipinos were already aware of the
medicinal and therapeutic properties of plants and the
methods of extracting medicine from herbs.
❖ They already had an alphabet, number system, a
weighing and measuring system and a calendar.
Filipinos were already engaged in farming,
shipbuilding, mining and weaving. The Banaue Rice
Terraces are among the sophisticated products of
engineering by preSpanish era Filipinos. A 2,000-yearold terraces that were carved into the mountains of
Ifugao in the Philippines by ancestors of the
indigenous people. The Rice Terraces are commonly
referred to by Filipinos as the "Eighth Wonder of the
World"
SPANISH COLONIAL ERA
❖ The Spanish introduced formal education and
founded scientific institution.
• A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded
as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of
the intromission theory of light. In mathematics, the
mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al- Khwarizmi gave his
name to the concept of the algorithm while the term
algebra is derived from al-jabr. In particular, some scholars
considered Jabir ibn Hayyän to be the "Father of
Chemistry". Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental
medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical
trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book
Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard
medicinal xS in both the Muslim world and in Europe during
the 17th century.
❖ During the early years of Spanish rule in the
Philippines, Parish schools were established where
religion, reading, writing, arithmetic and music was
taught.
3.4 African
AMERICAN PERIOD
• The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed
❖ On July 1, 1901 The Philippine Commission
established the Bureau of Government Laboratories
which was placed under the Department of Interior
immensely and made significant advances in the fields
of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Egypt was
known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as
the medieval forerunner of chemistry. Astronomy was
also famous in the African region. For instance,
documents show that Africans used three types of
calendars: lunar, solar and stellar, or a combination of
the three. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains
between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have
been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six- month lunar
calendar, is considered to be the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.
❖ Sanitation and more advanced methods of
agriculture was taught to the natives.
❖ The Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine
colonial economy. Trade was given more focus by the
Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of
big profits.
❖ On October 26, 1905, the Bureau of Government
Laboratories was replaced by the Bureau of Science
and on December 8, 1933, the National Research
Council of the Philippines was established.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING THE AMERICAN
PERIOD
❖ There was simultaneous government
encouragement and support for an Extensive public
education system;
Science and Technology in the Philippines: A
Historical Perspective
❖ the granting of scholarships for higher education in
science and engineering;
❖ The natives of the archipelago already had practices
linked to science and technology even before the
colonization by the Spaniards in the Philippine 37
❖ the organization of science research agencies and
establishment of sciencebased public services.
❖ On 21 January 1901, the Philippine Commission,
which acted as the executive and legislative body for
the Philippines until 1907, promulgated Act No. 74
creating a Department of Public Instruction in the
Philippines that provided for the establishment of
schools that would give free primary education, with
English as the medium of instruction. (mod for more)
POST COMMONWEALTH ERA
❖ During the 1970s, which was under the time of
Ferdinand Marcos' presidency, the importance given
to science grew.
❖ Under the 1973 Philippine Constitution, Article XV,
Section 1, the government's role in supporting
scientific research and invention was acknowledged.
❖ In 1974, a science development program was
included in the government's Four-Year Development
Plan which covers the years 1974- 1978.
❖ The National Science Development Board was
replaced by the National Science and Technology
Authority under Executive Order No. 784. (mod for
more)
Paradigm Shifts in the History of Science and
Technology
Science, Technology and Society (STS) is a
relatively recent discipline, originating in the 60s and
70s, following Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962).
❖ Completing the map of the human genome
❖ Establishing the evolutionary descent of a particular
species
Module 2
Definition of Science and Technology
Science is a process.
• Concerned with discovering relationships between
observable phenomena in terms of theories.
• Systematized theoretical inquiries.
• It seeks for truth about nature.
Science is a product
• Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on
facts or truths observations.
• A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for
the systematic observation of empirical phenomena.
• Source of cognitive authority.
Technology as a process.
• It is the application of science.
• The practice, description, and terminology of applied
sciences.
• The intelligent organization and manipulation of materials
for useful purposes
Technology as a product
Paradigm Theory
• A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes.
• It is like a language, rituals, values, commerce and arts, it
is an intrinsic +part of a cultural system and it both shapes
and reflects the system values.
• It is the product of the scientific concept.
• A paradigm theory is a general theory that helps to
Definitions of Science and Technology
provide scientists working in a particular field with
their broad theoretical framework—what Kuhn calls
their “conceptual scheme.” It provides them with their
basic assumptions, key concepts, and methodology.
Paradigm Shift Definition
• A field of endeavor upon which a two-way interaction
operates between science and technology. •
Interdependent and overlapping methods which employ
both existing knowledge and existing know-how.
• A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes
which enable society to produce, distribute, install, maintain
or improve goods and services needed to satisfy human
needs.
•A paradigm shift occurs when one paradigm theory is
PURPOSES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Example in mod)
replaced by another.
(Example in mod)
Causes of a Paradigm Shift
Normal science is the business of solving
specific puzzles, collecting data, and making
calculations. Normal science includes:
❖ Working out how far each planet in the solar
system is from the sun
• To improve quality of human condition.
• To provide solution to our practical problems.
• To establish relevant institutional linkages and essential
mechanisms
LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
• Epistemological concerns. It cannot help us with questions
about the God, the ultimate Good, and Truth. It cannot
deny nor confirm the existence of God, soul, heaven and
other uncertainties.
• Metaphysical concerns. Immaterial and transcendental
nature is beyond the grasp of scientific inquiry. It cannot
speak to issues of ultimate origin, meaning, or morality.
• Axiological concerns. It cannot answer questions about
value.
Importance of Science and Technology
One of the most important aspects of Science and
Technology is that it has solution to the difficult of the
difficult problems, the problems which have the potential to
become major bottlenecks to the overall growth of the
country
• Formulate and adopt a comprehensive National Science
and Technology Plan, and monitor and coordinate its
funding and implementation.
• Promote, assist and where appropriate, undertake
scientific and technological research and development in
areas identified as vital to the country’s development.
• Promote development of indigenous technology and the
adaptation and innovation of suitable imported technology,
and in this regard, undertake technology development up to
commercial stage.
Government Laws
Some of these problems could be:
• Health Aspects • Standard of Education
• Availability of healthy food and safe drinking water
• Infrastructure
On the other hand, once mitigating solutions are
found for these problems, then the second major issue is
the under-development in the field of scientific research
and technology that directly affects the development of the
country’s economy, infrastructure, higher education, and a
few other fields listed below:
• Development of Nuclear Technology
• Defense Technology
• Development of Satellites
• Biotechnology • Meteorological Science
• Space Technology
• Nanotechnology
RA 2067 –“Science Act of 1958” An act to integrate,
coordinate, and intensify scientific and technological
research and development and to foster invention
RA 10055 – “Philippine Technology Transfer Act of 2009”
An act providing the framework and support system for the
ownership, management, use, and commercialization of
intellectual property generated
RA 10612 –“Fast-Tracked S&T Scholarship Act of 2013” An
act expanding the coverage of the science and technology
scholarship program and strengthening the teaching of
science and mathematics is secondary schools and for other
purposes.
RA 10535 – “The Philippine Standard Time (PST) Act of
2013” An act to set the Philippine Standard Time (PST) in all
official sources throughout the country, to provide funds for
the installation, operation and maintenance of synchronized
time devices
• Wireless Communication, etc.
The Role of Science and Technology in Nation Building
Development at any phase is always linked with
technology happens when there is advancement in science.
• Development is required in every individual to every
nation in all aspects and for development to happen,
science and technology go hand in hand. Basically science is
known as the study of knowledge, which is made into a
system and depends on analyzing and understanding facts.
Technology is basically the application of this scientific
knowledge.
• Modernization in every aspect of life is the greatest
example of the implementation of science and technology
in every nation. With the introduction of modern gadgets in
every walk of life, life has become simple and this is possible
only because of implementing science and technology
together
Government Laws, Policies Pertaining to Science and
Technology
Department of Science and Technology functions
RA 8439 – “Magna Carta for Scientists, Engineers,
Researchers and other S & T’s personnel in government”
An act providing a magna carta for scientist, engineers,
researchers and other science and technology personnel in
government.
Famous Filipinos In The Field Of Science
Ramon Cabanos Barba
✓ Known for inventing a way to induce more flowers in
mango trees using ethereal and potassium nitrate.
Proclaimed a National Scientist of the Philippines in June
2014.
Josefino Cacas Comiso
✓ For his works on observing the characteristics of
Antarctica by using satellite images.
Jose Bejar Cruz Jr.
✓ Known internationally in the field of electrical
engineering.
Lourdes Jansuy Cruz
✓ Notable for her research on sea snail venom. Known as
the Sea Snail Venom Specialist
Fabian Millar Dayrit
✓ For his research herbal medicine.
Rafael Dineros Guerrero III
✓ For his research on tilapia culture
dengue and other possible virus infections like the Covid 19
developed by Dr. Raul Destura with the full backing of DOST.
3. Ginhawa (ReliefVent) - The DOST, together with UP
specialists and biomedical technicians are developing a
costefficient ventilator that can be used for both children
and adults.
Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr.
✓ For inventing the meconium drugs testing.
Lilian Formalejo Pateña Source
✓ A scientist who discovered a breed of calamansi and
seedless pomelo. Discovered micro propagation which
established the banana industry in the Philippines. Inventor
of leaf-bud cutting cassava.
Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz
✓ For being an outstanding educator and graph theorist.
Gregory Ligot Tangonan
✓ For his research in the field of communications
technology.
Caesar A. Saloma
• An internationally renowed physicist
4. RxBox - A portable device that remotely captures medical
signals and transmits information to hospitals. Funded by
DOST and developed by researchers at the Electrical and
Electronics Engineering Institute
5. Anti-Dengue Medicine - The world’s first Anti-Dengue
Medicine in the world is now on its final testing stage after
being developed by the team of Dr. Rita Grace Y. Alvero and
lead researchers from Pharmalytics and De La Salle Medical
and Health Sciences Institute.
6. Agriculture Machinery - A 12-horse power single-cylinder
diesel engine that is strong and reliable enough to provide
power to different agricultural types of machinery being
used by local farmers is being developed by DOST’s Metal
Industry Research and Development Center
7. Elevated Train - Automated Guideway Transit, an
Elevated Train System, formerly housed at the U.P. is now
being utilized by the Bataan Peninsula State University for
its engineering programs.
Edgardo Gomez
✓ Recognized for his outstanding contributions and
researches on marine ecosystems which became the bases
for management of and the conservation programs for the
country’s marine resources. Named as a National Scientist
of the Philippines in 2014.
8. ULAT - Understanding Lightning and Thunderstorms for
Extreme Weather and Monitoring and Information Sharing
or ULAT was also presented.
9. Nutrition - A comprehensive program on nutrition, a
partnership between the DOST-Food and Nutrition Research
Institute’s NuGen Lab, is also in development.
William Padolina
✓ For his significant contributions in the field of natural
products chemistry, coconut chemistry, biotechnology and
in management of research and development. President of
National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)Philippines
Angel Alcala
✓ Known for his field work to build sanctuaries and to
promote biodiversity in the aquatic ecosystems.
Named as a National Scientist of the Philippines in
2014.
Latest Innovations in Science and Technology in the
Philippines
1. Nanosatellites - After launching the cube satellites made
by the University of the Philippines engineering graduates,
DOST’s Advanced Science and Technology Institute is now
also working on two more locally-built Nanosatellites
2. Biomedical Devices - Among the Biomedical devices is the
Lab in Mug, a faster and cheaper diagnostic test kit for
10. Coconuts - There will also be a Nationwide TissueCultured Coconut Planting Day, a coconut propagation
program with the Philippine Coconut Authority’s Coconut
Somatic Embryogenesis Technology.
11. Hybrid Trimaran - Anticipated is the maiden voyage of
an environment-friendly Hybrid Trimaran being built in a
shipyard in Aklan through the Philippine Council for
Industry, Energy and Emerging Technology Research and
Development, Aklan State University, Metallica Shipyard,
and Marina
12. Book Series - The National Research Council of the
Philippines a “Science for the People” book series, on the
successes, experiences, and impacts of scientists, doctors,
engineers, and entrepreneurs, will be launched this year.
13. DOST Facilities - Several DOST facilities are lined up to
start offering services this year including the country’s first
fully Automated Gamma Irradiation Facility and the
Philippine Textile Research Institute’s Regional Yarn
Production and Innovation Center.
14. Bamboo - Watch out for the concert using enhanced
Bamboo Musical Instruments.
15. Laboratories - Several laboratories are in the works,
including metrology laboratories in chemistry and biology,
and the Tissue-Culture Laboratory for ornamental plants in
Bulacan.
16. Testing Facilities - The construction of Testing and
Simulation Facilities for packaging testing and green
packaging laboratories, and a modular multi-industry
innovation facility to improve the competitiveness of
businesses are already in the works.
17. Handa Pilipinas - The Exposition and Innovations in
Disaster Risk Reduction and Response Expo will be held in
March 2020.
18. Visayas Genome - Center The establishment of the
Philippine Genome Center in the Visayas by the Philippine
Council for Health Research and Development.
19. Science Discovery - For students, there are the Regional
Science Discovery Centers that will be set up in Cagayan
Valley, Butuan City, Davao City, Legaspi City, and Pasig City.
These science centers will showcase interactive exhibits to
educate students about science, technology, and their
benefits.
20. Smart Cities - DOST is also on board with the Smart
Cities Program that will formulate a so-called Smart Index to
capture data on the interaction between people, land,
transportation system and economic activities.
Module 3
Concept of Science Education
• Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and
understanding science. Teaching science involves
developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This
means exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping
teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively.
Science education is justified by the vast amount of
scientific knowledge developed in this area that prepares
citizens in a scientifically and technologically driven world.
Science education provides skills and knowledge that are
necessary for a person to live in
THE SCIENCE EDUCATION PROJECT (SEP) is a major project
that would have the following objectives:
➢ Improvement of pre-service, in-service education of
science/mathematics teachers,
➢ Local development of science textbooks and equipment,
➢ Evaluation of locally produced materials,
• R.A 5506 - an Act establishing Science Education Center
(SEC) as a permanent unit of the University of the
Philippines. This act earn marked 250,000 pesos annual
from the national especial science fund for the support of
the center
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
• Science education helps students learn important
concepts and facts that are related to everyday life. The
basic education curriculum in the Philippines contains
mother tongue- based multilingual education, universal
kindergarten, college and livelihood readiness and
specialized upper secondary education. The curriculum also
features spiral progression and contextualization and
enhancement, which helps make the curriculum more
relevant to the students.
• In tertiary education, science education deals with
developing students' understanding and appreciation of
science ideas and scientific works. 1his is done through
offering basic science courses in the General Education
curriculum. Science education in the tertiary level also
focuses on the preparation of science teachers, scientists,
engineers, and other professionals in various sciencerelated fields such as engineering, agriculture, medicine,
and health sciences
Science Schools in the Philippines
• Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS) This is a
government program for gifted students in the Philippines.
It is a service institute of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer free
scholarship basis for secondary course with special
emphasis on subjects pertaining to the sciences, with the
end-view of preparing its students for a science career.
• Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in
pursuance to DepEd Order No, 73 s. 2008, and DepEd Order
No. 51 S. 2010. This project started in June 2007 with 57
identified elementary schools that participated or were
identified as science elementary schools in the country.
• Quezon City Regional Science High School The school was
established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it was
named Quezon City Science High School. It was turned into
a regional science high school for the National Capital
Region in 1999 The school was a product of a dream to
establish a special science school for talented students in
science and mathematics.
Indigenous Knowledge System
• Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life
experiences of young children as they grow up. They live
and grow in a society where the members of the community
prominently practice indigenous knowledge. Their parents
and other older 1olks served as their first teachers and their
methods of teaching are very effective in transmitting
cultural knowledge in their minds.
Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught
and practiced by the indigenous people are:
❖ Predicting weather conditions and seasons using
knowledge in observing animals behavior and celestial
bodies;
❖ Using herbal medicine;
❖ Preserving foods;
❖ Classifying plants and animals into families and groups
based on cultural properties;
❖ Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
❖ Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
❖ Building local irrigation systems,
❖ Classifying different types of soil for planting based on
cultural properties
❖ Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits;
❖ Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in
the yard.
Contribution of Indigenous Science in the development of
Science and Technology in the Philippines
• Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge
system practiced by different groups of people and early
civilizations. It includes complex arrays of knowledge,
expertise, practices, and representations that guide human
societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural
milieu
• Indigenous science includes everything, from metaphysics
to philosophy and various practical technologies practiced
by indigenous peoples both past and present. Indigenous
science is important in the development of Science and
technology in the Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations,
indigenous Science gave birth to the development of
science and technology as a field and as a discipline.
Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the
natural environment and in coping with everyday life.
• Indigenous knowledge and Western science represent two
different ways of looking at the world around us. Western
science tries to understand the natural world by studying
individual parts
Module 4
Different Conceptions of Human Flourishing
• Aristotle’s human flourishing arises as a product of
different factors such as phronesis, friendship, wealth and
power. For Aristotle, the good is what is good for purposeful
and goal-directed entities. He defines the good proper to
human beings as the activities in which the life functions
specific to human beings are mostly utilized. Good means
“good for” the individual moral agent. Egoism is the integral
part of Aristotle’s ethics
• There is a difference between eastern and western ideas
regarding society and human flourishing. The Western
society where Aristotle is included tends to be more focused
on the 123 individual, while those from the East are more
community-centric. Individual flourishing as an end then is
primarily more of a concern for western civilization. Eastern
civilization puts the community above the individual.
• This is apparent in the Chinese Confucian system or the
Japanese Bushido, both of which view the whole as greater
than their components. The Chinese and the Japanese
encourage studies of literature, sciences and art, not
entirely for oneself but in service of a greater cause. The
Greek Aristotelian view, on the other hand, aims for
eudaimonia as the ultimate good; there is no indication
whatsoever that Aristotle entailed it instrumental to achieve
some other goals.
Science, Technology and Human Flourishing
• Contributions of science and technology have been laid
down thoroughly. Every discovery, innovation and success
contributes to our pool of human knowledge. Perhaps, one
of the most prevalent themes is human’s perpetual need to
locate himself in the world in finding proofs to trace
evolution
• Suffice to say that the end goals of science and technology
and human flourishing are related, and that the good is
inherently related to the truth. The following are two
concepts about science which ventures its claim on truth
Development of Scientific Method and Validity of Science
a. Scientific Method
Science is an organized way of studying things and
finding answers to questions. Scientific method is an
approach to seeking knowledge that involves forming and
testing a hypothesis. This methodology is used to answer
questions in wide variety of disciplines.
1. Observe and identify using your senses the unexplainable
occurrences around you.
2. Identify the problem and identify the possible factors
involved.
3. Formulate hypothesis that could explain the said
occurrences. Ideally, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis
and accept the alternate hypothesis for the study to be
significant and beneficial to the society.
4. Conduct experiment by setting up dependent and
independent variables and see how the dependent variable
affects the dependent variable.
5. Gather and analyze the data once your experiment is
complete. Collect your measurements and analyze them to
see if they support your hypothesis or not. Accept or reject
the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation in
case others would like to extend and broaden the study you
have conducted.
b. Verification Theory
The idea proposes that a discipline is science if it is
confirmed or interpreted in the event of an alternative
hypothesis being accepted. In that regard, said theory gives
premium to empiricism and take only into account those
results which are measurable and experiments which are
repeatable
c. Falsification Theory
Perhaps the current prevalent methodology in
science, falsification theory asserts that as long as an
ideology is not proven to be false and can best explain a
phenomenon over alternative theories, we should accept
the said ideology. Due to its hospitable character, the shift
to this theory allowed emergence of theories otherwise
rejected by verification theory.
The Good Life
• What is “the good life?” this is one of the oldest
philosophical questions. It has been posed in different ways
- How should one live? What does it mean to “live well?”but these are really just the same question. After all,
everyone wants to live well and no – one wants “the bad
life”
The Moral Life
• One basic way in which we use the word “good” is to
express moral approval. So when we say that someone is
living well or that they have lived a good life, we may simply
mean that they are a good person, someone who is
courageous, honest, trustworthy, kind, selfless, generous,
helpful, loyal, and principled and so on. They possess and
practice many of the most important virtues. Socrates and
Plato both have absolute priority to being a virtuous person
over all other supposedly good things such as pleasure,
wealth or power. In Plato’s dialogue, Gorglas, Socrates takes
this position to an extreme
Schools of thought as the Goal of a Good life
Materialism
• The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece.
Democritus and Leucippus led a school whose primary
belief is that the world is made up of and is controlled by
the tiny indivisible units in the world called atomos or seeds.
Materialism is the belief that everything is made of matter
and energy, with no “immaterial” entities like souls, spirits,
or supernatural gods. In addition, materialists do not believe
in “metaphysical transcendence,” or any layer of being that
goes beyond the material world. Materialism is also a
central element of secular humanism, a movement that
rejects traditional religion in favor of living an ethical life
based on reason and compassion rather than obedience to
any God or holy book.
Hedonism
The Life of Pleasure
• The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus was one of the
first to declare, bluntly, that what makes life worth living is
that we can experience pleasure. The view that pleasure is
the good, or to put it in another way that pleasure is what
makes life worth living, is known as hedonism. Now, the
word “hedonist”, when applied to a person, has slightly
negative connotations. It suggests that they are devoted to
some have called the “lower” pleasures as sex, food, drink
and sensual indulgence in general
The hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in
acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has always been the priority of
hedonists. The mantra of this school of thought is the
famous, "Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die."
Led by Epicurus, this school of thought also does not buy
any notion of afterlife just like the materialists.
Hedonism refers to a family of theories, all of which have in
common that pleasure plays a central role in them.
The Fulfilled Life
• Aristotle, views the good life in a more comprehensive
way. According to Aristotle, we all want to be happy. We
value many things because they are a means to other
things; for instance, we value money because it enables us
to buy things we want; we value leisure because it gives us
time to pursue our interests. o et al., 2019). For Aristotle,
the good life is the happy life. But what does that mean?
Today, many people automatically think of happiness in
subjectivist terms; to them a person is happy if they are
enjoying a positive state of mind, and their life is happy if
this is true for them most of the time.
The original term, apatheia, precisely means to be
indifferent. Stoicism is a moral philosophy that emphasizes
the discipline and mastery of the emotions in order to reach
a wiser, rational, and peaceful mindset. Stoicism is a way of
life first defined in Greece in the 3rd century B.C.E. by the
philosopher Zeno, although its ideas were hardly new. In
fact, some people think it might have been influenced by
Greek contact with Indian culture. Stoic philosophers didn’t
argue that people should be emotionally flat, rather, they
argued that we could train ourselves, through discipline, to
have an emotional life. The Stoics are especially known for
teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings,
and those external things such as health, wealth, and
pleasure are not good or bad in themselves, but have value
as "material for virtue to act upon."
The Meaningful Life
• A lot of recent research shows that people who have
children are not necessarily happier than people who don’t
have children. Indeed, during the child raising years, and
especially when the children have turned into teenagers,
parents have typically had lower levels of happiness and
higher levels of stress. But even though having children may
not make people happier, it does seem to give them the
sense that their lives are more meaningful.
What is the ultimate goal of good life?
• Aristotle was the originator of the concept of eudaimoinia
(from daimon – true nature). He deemed happiness to be a
vulgar idea, stressing that not all desires are worth pursuing
as, even though some of them may yield pleasure, they
would not produce wellness. Aristotle thought that true
happiness id found by leading a virtuous life and doing what
is worth doing.
Stoicism
Theism
• Theism (pronounced THEE-ism) means “belief in one or
more gods.” It covers a huge range of religious beliefs,
notably the Abrahamic monotheisms, Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam. Theism refers to any kind of belief in any god or
gods, so it is difficult to make any other generalizations
about it. Two people may both say they believe in God, so
they’re both theists; but what they mean by “God” could be
completely different.
Types of theism by number of Gods:
• Monotheism: one god • Polytheism: many gods
• Ditheism: two gods, usually one good and one evil
• Henotheism: one main god with many minor gods
Different ideas about the nature of the god or gods:
• Pantheism: God = everything or the universe
• Deism: God created the whole universe but does not
interfere in events
• Autotheism: God = the self or is within the self
• Eutheism: God is entirely merciful and just
• Misotheism / Dystheism: God is evil
Humanism
• Humanism as another school of thought espouses the
freedom of man to carve his own destiny and to legislate his
own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and
controls. For humanists, man is literally the captain of his
own ship. Inspired by the enlightenment in seventeenth
century, humanists see themselves not merely as stewards
of the creation but as individuals who are in control of
themselves and the world outside them.
When Technology and Humanity Cross
• Tracing back its origins, the word “technology” from the
Greek words technē and logos which mean art and word,
respectively. Taking the two words together, technology
means a discourse on arts. Concepts like machine and tools
were also attached to the word "technology" which is the
more popular sense of the concept nowadays.
• The roles played by technology these days are very crucial
not only to a few but also to everyone. In one way or
another, each person in the society is directly or indirectly
affected by technology whether he wills it or not. In fact,
most people survive their everyday lives with great reliance
to the different technological advancements already
available to the masses
a. Roles Played by
Advancements in Society
The
Different
Technological
❖Television sets, mobile phones, and computers or laptops
all have different functions and roles played in the lives of
the people, although some may be a little similar. These
roles have become so essential that people, more
specifically Filipinos, developed a strong inclination toward
technology and its products.
• A robot is an actuated mechanism programmable in two
or more axes with a degree of autonomy, moving within its
environment, to perform intended tasks.
• A service robot, is a robot that performs useful tasks for
humans or equipment excluding industrial automation
application. Note: industrial robot or a service robot.
• A personal service robot or a service robot for personal
use is a service robot used for a noncommercial task, usually
by laypersons. Examples are domestic servant robot,
automated wheelchair, personal mobility assist robot
• A professional service robot or a service robot for
professional use is a service robot used for a commercial
task, usually operated by a properly trained operator.
Examples are cleaning robot for public places, delivery robot
in offices or hospitals, fire- fighting robot, and surgery robot
in hospitals
Robots play different roles not only in the lives of
the people but also in the society as a whole. They are
primarily used to ease the workload of mankind. They were
invented to make life more efficient and less stressful.
c. Ethical Dilemma/s Faced by Robotics
❖Just like any other technological advancements, robotics
also faces different problems and dilemmas. Although the
idea is to help people and make their lives a lot easier than
before, it is still not immune to different ethical dilemmas
and possible undesirable outcomes. One of the dilemmas
faced by robots is safety. Another ethical dilemma faced by
robots is the emotional component. This may seem a little
absurd as of the moment, but looking at how fast
technology progresses nowadays, it is not completely
impossible for robots to develop emotions
d. Why the future does not need us?
❖There is no doubt that innovation is part of our nature as
human beings. Invariably we should, must, and will continue
to build and ascend into the acquisition of new capabilities.
For our society and the well-being of our species, this has
shown that it can be a very good thing. We have reached a
challenging point, however, and it is vital that we start
thinking considerately, and perhaps differently, about our
approach to innovation.
b. Robotics and Humanity in this Corona Virus Pandemic
❖These particular robots do specific tasks but focus mainly
in assisting their masters in their everyday tasks. The
International Federation of Robotics (IFR) and United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) made it
their task to formulate a working definition for service
robots.
GE 8 Ethics (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
What is Ethics?
• The word “ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethos”
which means “characteristic way of acting”, “habit”, or
“custom”. The Latin equivalent is mos, mores, from which
come the word moral and morality. Ethics studies the
characteristics behavior of man as endowed with reason
and freewill.
•The study of Ethics started with the Greek philosophers,
notably Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle who has
greatly influenced ethical thinking with three important
treatises – the Nicomachean Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics,
and the Magna Moralia (Great Ethics).
• Ethics is the study of man as moral being, one who is
rationally able to distinguish between right and wrong. It
examines how man is accountable for his actions and its
consequences. It proposes how man ought to live his lifemeaningfully. It is concerned with morality, the quality
which makes an act good or evil, correct or wrong
General and Special Ethics
❖General Ethics is about the principles of morality. It
explains the norms with which the moral significance of the
human act is determined.
❖Special Ethics is the application of the principles of
General ethics to the problems and issues confronting a
person on account of his circumstances in life, for instance,
as a citizen, neighbor, worker, wife, husband, or child.
Special Ethics includes the sub-branches of professional
ethics, such as medical ethics, business ethics, legal ethics,
biological and environmental ethics.
The Nature of Ethics
• Ethics is a philosophical term originating from Greek word
“ethos” meaning custom or character. Also, there is the
distinction a person could make, mainly between ethics and
morals. This is important because when giving emphasis to
ethics, it is almost as synonymous to the concept of
“morality”, which gives more confusion to the idea.
1. Ethics is a natural science. It employs the power of human
reason, which is purely a natural process. Being a branch of
philosophy, it arrives at its conclusions using the human
reason, which is philosophy’s only tool.
2. Ethics is a practical science. It is not studied for the love of
learning. All are bound in conscience to apply its principles
to their conduct.
3. Ethics is not a physical science. It does not deal with
physical laws, such as “water seeks its own level.” It is
rather a moral science, dealing with the free acts of men.
4. Ethics is the study of the moral behavior or conduct of
man as viewed from ultimate principles insofar as these
principles are known by human reason.
a. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right
and wrong.
b. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct.
c. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of
morality.
d. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human
actions.
What use is Ethics?
1. Ethics can provide a moral map
Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - think of
abortion and euthanasia for starters. Because these are
such emotional issues, we often let our hearts do the
arguing while our brains just go with the flow.
2. Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement
Using the framework of ethics, two people who are arguing
a moral issue can often find that what they disagree about is
just one particular part of the issue, and that they broadly
agree on everything else.
3. Ethics doesn't give right answers
Ethics doesn't always show the right answer to moral
problems. Indeed, more and more people think that for
many ethical issues there isn't a single right answer - just a
set of principles that can be applied to particular cases to
give those involved some clear choices.
4. Ethics can give several answers
Many people want there to be a single right answer to
ethical questions. They find moral ambiguity hard to live
with because they genuinely want to do the 'right' thing,
and even if they can't work out what that right thing is, they
like the idea that 'somewhere' there is one right answer.
Division of Ethics
Individual Ethics - as regards to God
- as regards to self
- as regards fellowmen
Social Ethics
- in the family
- in the state
- in the world
Ethics and Morality
• The two terms where ethics comes from the Greek word
ethos which means character or a characteristic way of
acting while morality on the other hand came from the
Latin word moralis which means customs or manners.
However, there are some difference between the idea of
the researchers as to the difference between the two. Ethics
seems to point out to the individual character of a person
while morality is connected to the relationships and
interaction among human beings.
Moral vs Non-moral standards
• Moral standards are bases for moral behavior and bases
for determining whether a certain act is moral or immoral
and for someone to be responsible or not. These are the
guides of human behavior and decision making.
• Non-moral standards defined as the rules that are distinct
to moral or ethical thoughts. Either these standards are not
necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense
• The meaning of mores as the fixed morally binding
customs of a particular group. The term "mores" refers to
the norms set by society, largely for behavior and
appearance. Individuals who do not follow social mores are
often considered social deviants
factors, can affect the operating standards and guidelines of
the organization
• Norms on the other hand is a principle of right action
binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide,
control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior.
❖Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint. Freedom, in
Kant’s theory, is not concerned with our capacity of a free
choice; rather it is the property of the will
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant
benefits
b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations
f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and
vocabulary.
Moral Dilemma
A dilemma is a condition where there is no clear “best
choice” between two or more alternatives. Dilemmas help
us to focus our moral intuitions and test our moral theories.
Every dilemma contains an ethical dilemma i.e. whether the
decision is good/bad, fair/unfair, moral/immoral. Judgments
are made from the point of view of those who make the
decision (agents), from the point of view of those who
require decision (principals) and from the point of view of
the most people who do not participate in decision-making
but are affected by them (the common good or the general
interest). . There are different types of the ethical dilemma
of which the knowledge is necessary because different
types of the ethical dilemma require different strategies for
their resolving.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
❖Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development uses
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be
considered, for example, between the rights of some
authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is
being unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s
stories of dilemma concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
❖INDIVIDUAL - dilemma here is when the employee’s
ethical standards are in opposition to his or her employer,
which could lead to tensions in the workplace.
❖ORGANIZATIONAL - ethical Standards are seen in
company procedures. Still, there is a gap and tension
amongst those who operates the business whose ethical
standard depart from that of the organization.
❖SYSTEMIC - systemic level, ethics is inclined by the bigger
operating environment of the establishment. Political
pressures, economic situations, societal behaviors and other
Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts
Morality as Freedom
❖Will is a kind of causality of living beings insofar as they
are rational, and freedom would be that property of such
causality that it can be efficient independently of alien
causes determining it, just as natural necessity is the
property of the causality of all non-rational beings to be
determined to activity by the influence of alien causes
Different types of Freedom
• Freedom to be alive
• Freedom of association
• Freedom of belief
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom to express oneself
• Freedom to press
• Freedom to choose one’s state in life
• Freedom to talking each other • Freedom of religion •
Freedom from bondage and slavery
Reason and Impartiality
• Impartiality is making moral decisions by not to giving any
special weight to one’s own desires and interests. Morality
needs the impartial consideration of every individual’s
benefits. One must not rely on his own feelings, no matter
how controlling and influential they might be. Feelings may
be illogical and may be nothing but products of different
factors such as bias, self-centeredness, or the environment
itself. Morality is, at the very least, the effort and challenge
to direct one’s behavior by reason – which is, to do what
there are the reasons for doing based on giving impartial
weight to the benefits of each individuals affected by one’s
choice
Module 2
Culture and its Role in Moral Behavior
• Culture is the customary beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a racial, religious, or social group. It is also
the characteristic features of everyday existence such as
diversions or a way of life shared by people in a place or
time. Culture is the integrated pattern of human knowledge,
beliefs and behaviors. This consists of language, ideas,
customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools,
techniques, and works of art, rituals and other capacities.
• Moral behavior as “acts intended to produce kind and/or
fair outcomes. It is distinct to action or actions that produce
respectable results for the people as part of a community. It
can also be applied to the entire global humanity
• Moral development refers to the “process through which
a human person gains his or her beliefs, skills and
dispositions that makes him or her morally mature person.”
This moral development is fundamentally rooted in the very
experience of a person, in his or her relationship with others
in the community
The Influence of Culture in Moral Development
gave us the personal and family honor that we valued, as
well as dignity and pride. Western influence gave us a
systematic education and form of government. Family, as a
foundation of all relationship gave us hiya (shame) which is
instilled in at an early age
❖Culture is always social and communal by which the
relationship of the people towards one another and their
experience as a people are the culture’s meadow
Strengths(7) and Weaknesses(7) of a Filipino
❖The culture defines the normative principles and behavior
of the society
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is opening yourself to others and
feel one with others with dignity and respect deal with them
as fellow human beings
❖Culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the
people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and
limitations as they live and relate with one another
❖Culture helps in generating the character and identity of
its people, it also includes their moral character.
❖The culture identifies the authorities or the governing
individuals or groups.
Cultural Relativism
• Cultural relativism as the idea that a person's beliefs,
values, and practices should be understood based on that
person's own culture, rather than be judged against the
criteria of another. Cultural relativism is also considered as
basis for moral judgments amid cultures
• Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our
own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal.
Cultural relativism is connected in understanding a culture
on its own identity and not to make decisions using the
morals of one’s own culture. The objective of this is
encourage consideration of cultural practices and beliefs
that are distinct to one’s culture
2 types of cultural relativism
❖Absolute cultural relativism is when everything that
happens within a culture must and should not be
questioned by outsiders.
❖Critical cultural relativism raises questions about cultural
practices in terms of who is accepting and tolerating them
and why. Critical cultural relativism also distinguishes power
relationships.
The Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
• Filipino’s understanding of moral behavior and ethics is
grounded on two notions in our culture. First one is loób,
which can easily be misunderstood when literally translated
into English as ‘inside’ but which is better translated as
‘relational will’, and the second is kapwa, which is literally
translated as ‘other person’ but is better understood as
‘together with the person’. These serve as pillars for a
special collection of virtues (kagandahang-loób, utang-naloób, pakikiramdam, hiya, lakas-ng-loób/bahala na) which
are not individualistic virtues in the same way as most of the
cardinal virtues of the Western tradition. Eastern influence
2. Family Orientation is a genuine and deep love for family.
Commitment and responsibility, honor and respect,
generosity and sacrifice and sense of trust and security are
the main focus of this strength.
3. Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheery and positive
approach to life and its up and down, pleasant nature, a
sense of humor and tendency for cheerfulness that
contribute not only to the Filipino appeal but also to the
Filipino Spirit
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos are quick
to adapt to changes.
5. Hard Work and Industry is also a positive trait of the
Filipinos which shows the capacity for hard work given to
raise one's standard living of a decent life for one's family.
6. Faith and Religiosity is a foundation of the Filipino
culture. Our Faith in God, is reflected in our mantra “behalf
Na” (si Bathala Na) is accepting reality to comprehend which
gives us a strong will or “Pampalakas-loob".
7. Ability to Survive. Filipinos will do anything to survive. As
part of being resilient and creative, Filipinos are quick to
adapt to changes which is a big factor in surviving.
1. Extreme Personalism is always trying to give personal
interpretation to actions. Thank you with "but" is a common
Filipino trait.
2. Extreme Family Centeredness is a strong family
protection for either good or bad condition. With the
concept of blood is thicker than water, Filipinos will sacrifice
himself for his love one no matter what the situation is
3. Lack of Discipline is the relaxed attitude but poor time
management of the Filipinos. Being impatient and unable to
delay gratification or reward and the love to take short-cuts
or 'palusot' system is rooted in our system
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative is a strong reliance to
others fate which is a Filipino trademark. It's all because of
the race (nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, hardwork, dream and perseverance etc
5. Colonial Mentality the internalized attitude of ethnic or
cultural inferiority felt by Filipinos as a result of colonization,
that is, them being colonized by another group.
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome is a self-serving arrogance that
generates feeling of jealousy, greed and competitiveness
towards others.
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection of the Filipinos tend
to make them forget a misfortune very fast and thus bound
to commit them again.
Module 3
How is a moral character developed?
• Aristotle theorized three levels of moral character
development: an ethics of fear, an ethics of shame, an
ethics of wisdom
6 patterns that social scientists have defined morality:
1) An evaluative orientation that distinguishes good and bad
and prescribes good
2) A sense of obligation toward standards of a social
collective;
3) A sense of responsibility for acting out of concern for
others;
4) A concern for the rights of others;
5) A commitment to honesty in interpersonal relationships;
and
6) A state of mind that causes negative emotional reactions
to immoral acts.
Psychological components of Moral Development
1. Ethical Sensitivity—the view of moral and social
circumstances, as well as the capability to consider probable
actions and their effects in terms of all the people affected;
2. Ethical Judgment—with regards to probable option and
the basis for decide on one or more as the most viable
judgment;
3. Ethical Motivation—the choice of moral values most
appropriate in the condition and the dedication to act on
that choice;
4. Ethical Action—the ego strength combined with the
psychological and social skills necessary to carry out the
selected alternative.
7 psychological components of the “moral anatomy”
Moral behaviour
•prosocial
•donating to charity
•sharing
•telling the truth
• empathy
❖Another emphasis of the social-cognitive view is human
agency or volition. Social-cognitive theorists normally focus
on personal agency and the freedom to choose. They
recommend that with this freedom happens from a
responsibility to make good judgments and act morally. Not
all acts help to build moral character, but those acts which
emanate from moral characters certainly matter in moral
development, hence, there appears the apparent circular
relationship between individual acts and moral character.
The Stages of Moral Development
•North American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg authored
that the moral growth of an individual has six stages, but
sadly, only a minor proportion of individuals achieve the
highest stage. Using the idea of the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget, the first to make a methodical research of cognitive
development as a springboard and starting point, Kohlberg
classified the phases of ethics as part of the psychological
development of children.
These are the stages of moral perception as devised by
Kohlberg
The two initial stages of morality are called
“preconventional” because there is no code of conduct in
them. Actions are isolated events, and the wider context is
hardly seen.
1) In the first stage – lowest and most basic – “right action is
that action which is not punished”. The priority is to avoid
condemnation: for this reason obedience occurs. The wrong
action is the action that provokes punishment
2) In the second stage, right action is seen as that “which
serves the interests of each one”. The goal is obtaining a
reward. Now the exchange and the deal between
individuals occur on the basis of immediate interests.
Moral values
•believe in moral goods
Moral emotion
• guilt
interactional category is social cognition This method
merges many of the statements of the blank slate,
information processing, and affective methodologies. The
main difference is that it shifts its attention on
concentrating thoughts and values into action
• compassion
Moral reasoning
• about right and wrong
Moral identity
• morality as an aspect self-image
Moral personality
• enduring tendency to act with honesty
• altruism
• responsibility
Stages three and four are called “conventional”, because in
them the individual is sincerely loyal to the collective rules
and norms.
3) In the third stage, the child (or the adult) demonstrates
he has a good character. It is the stage of the “good-boy
attitude”. The goal is obtaining social approval or the
sincere support of the elders and the more powerful
persons
“Metamoral”
• make morality possible even though they are not
inherently moral
4) The fourth stage is dominated by the idea of Law and
Order. At this point, the practice of respect for and
obedience to the leader, the boss, the teacher, as well as
due regulations, plays a key 56 role. Discharging one’s duty
is the priority.
❖The most recently developed viewpoints on moral
character development that can be placed in the
Stages five and six are called postconventional because they
go beyond appearances. They question institutionalized
injustice and aim at the inner improvement of both
individual and society.
Values are criteria or goals that transcend specific
situations.
5) In the fifth stage of ethical development, therefore, the
individual realizes that the laws and customs are sometimes
unfair. If necessary, he tries to improve them.
1. The emotional system is the primary motivational system
for goal-directed behavior
2. Each specific emotion serves distinct motivational
functions in goal striving
3. These motivational functions cannot be reduced to the
overall valence of the specific emotions
4. The distinct motivational functions are rooted in the
experiential qualities of the specific emotions
5. Emotions can be either endogenous (an integral part) or
exogenous (environmentally invoked) to the goal striving
process, their effect on behavior being contingent on their
perceived relevance to the current goal.
6) In the sixth stage of moral development, the individual –
or the community – tries to live according to the principles
of universal ethics.
Module 4
Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral
dilemma
• Emotions “are all those feelings that so change men as to
affect their judgements, and that are also attended by pain
or pleasure. Such are anger, pity, fear and the like, with
their opposites.” Emotion is indeed a heterogeneous
category that encompasses a wide variety of important
psychological phenomena.
Emotions are an observable mental state. According to
philosophers and psychologists, they are characterized by:
• A distinctive phenomenology
• A reaction of the nervous system
• A particular motor response
• An action tendencies or motivations
• A cognitive evaluation of what is calculated is the
intended target, and the value assigned to it
Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas
❖Ethics is subjected to one’s feelings. It seen as necessary
in ethical judgments as it is natural and a trained reaction to
moral dilemmas. There are ethicists who consider that
ethics is also an issue of emotion. They state that moral
judgments must also be emotional. Feelings are viewed also
as essential in ethical judgment as they are even considered
as an instinctive and educated response to moral dilemmas
❖The best decisions are made when there's a careful
balance between emotions and logic. When your emotions
are running high, your logic will be low, which can lead to
irrational decisions.
Here are four ways your emotions can cloud your judgment:
1. Excitement can cause you to overestimate your chances
of success.
2. Anxiety in one area of your life spills over into other
areas.
3. Feelings of sadness can cause you to settle.
4. Anger and embarrassment can lead to taking a long shot
Balance Emotion and Logic
❖Emotions certainly play an important role in the decision
making process. Anxiety can keep you from making a poor
choice and boredom can ignite a spark that leads you to
follow your passion. To make balanced choices,
acknowledge your emotions
Decision Making
Emotional Impact on Judgment and Decision Making: Eight
Major Themes
Theme 1. Integral Emotions Influence Decision Making
Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions
Theme 2. Incidental Emotions Influence Decision Making
There are two theories that give focus on the role of feelings
in morality:
Theme 3.ons That Shape Emotions’ Influence on Decision
Making
❖Ethical Subjectivism runs opposite to the principle that
morality is objective or unbiased. The theory which is not
about what is right and what is wrong. It also does not say
how everyone should live or what moral norms everyone
must practice. It is a theory regarding the nature of moral
judgments.
Theme 4. Emotions Shape Decisions via the Content of
Thought
❖Emotivism expresses that moral statements are pointless.
It is no longer a view of ethics that has many followers and
advocates. Like subjectivism it teaches that there are no
objective moral facts, and that therefore killing is wrong
can't be objectively true. Moral statements only voice the
person’s feelings about the matter.
Theme 7. Emotions Influence Interpersonal Decision Making
Theme 5. Emotions Shape Decisions via the Depth of
Thought
Theme 6. Emotions Shape Decisions via Goal Activation
Theme 8. Unwanted Effects of Emotion on Decision Making
Can Be Reduced Under Certain Circumstances
Emotions and Decision-making
There are numerous emotions, but we can generally divide
them into two:
❖Positive emotions are affection, care, sympathy,
friendship, pleasure, love, contentment, satisfaction, and
many others.
❖Negative emotions are the opposites such as annoyance,
hate, envy, greed, disappointment, resentment, jealousy
and others.
• Feelings influence our reactions and decisions. These
emotions are held responsible and accountable for our
significant decisions for which in return, we may be sorry or
triumphant based on the result. The reality is, emotions do
affect our decision.
• Researchers have pinpointed numerous ways though
which feelings and emotions can affect decision making. The
significance of emotion for decision making is also evident in
the reality that decision making is habitually an emotional
means.
• There are numerous ways though which feelings and
emotions can affect decision making First, scholars from
several disciplines have suggested that affective reaction is
a core driver of conscious attention and allocation of
working memory, both of which are necessary for the
extensive cognitive processes involved in decision making.
Second, feelings can facilitate the decision-making
processes involved in selecting and prioritizing choices
relevant to situational requirements. Finally, considerable
evidence exists that momentary feelings influence how
people process information during decision making, which
in turn promotes decision-making effectiveness in particular
contexts.
MST 02 Livin’ in IT (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Definition and Subject Matter
Digital Age
• also called the information age, or computer age, is
defined as the time period starting in the 1970s with the
introduction of the personal computer with subsequent
technology introduced providing the ability to transfer
information freely and quickly. The digital age began in
earnest with the widespread use of the Internet. This
current era whereby social, economic and political activities
are dependent on information and communication
technologies
•Personal computers and other subsequent technologies
were introduced to provide users the ability to easily and
rapidly transfer information
• The current development era in which social, economic
and political activities/processes are driven by application of
ICTs/digital technologies
• From about 1980 on, coincidence with the advent of the
World Wide Web.
• The widespread use of digital technologies by masses such
as computers, email, Internet, electronic games, videos
• Expanded to include online and social media, the
industrial revolution is brought through industrialization
into an economy based on information computerization.
Communication in the Digital Age
• Communication is any task or transaction that requires
more than one person can only be successfully completed
with communication
• Communication in the Digital Age covers communication
methods, technologies and approaches in the digital age.
This affordable and easily accessible course can be studied
at any time, and it can help you improve your academic
performance, study for exams or boost your understanding
of modern-day communication
• Technology, the application of scientific knowledge to the
practical aims of human life or, as it is sometimes phrased,
to the change and manipulation of the human environment.
ICT in the Digital Age
• Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is
technology that is used to handle communications
processes such as telecommunications, broadcast media,
intelligent building management systems, audiovisual
processing and transmission systems, and network-based
control and monitoring functions. ICT is a term that
describes types of technology that are used for
communications. It is like Information Technology, but ICT
focuses more on technologies that deal with
communication, like cell phones. Although ICT is often
considered an extended synonym for information
technology (IT), its scope is, in some ways, more broad.
Evolution of Communication: Past and Current types of
communication
• Communication is very important. It is a key to
understanding between people. Through the years,
communication has evolved. Technology has indeed
redefined communication. People no longer have to wait for
years, months, weeks, and days to receive an information or
message. Today, texts, e-mails, tweets, and personal
messages can reach the recipient in just a matter of seconds
• Cave Paintings the oldest form of symbols used for
communication is cave paintings. The oldest cave painting
was discovered inside Chauvet Cave in France around
30,000 B.C, the most efficient form of communication for
man was through cave paintings and stone carvings.
❖At 776 BCE, pigeons were utilized by Ancient Greeks to
deliver messages. From carrier pigeons to marathon men, it
was the year 530 BCE when Ancient Greeks ran all the way
from Marathon to Athens, simply to announce the victory of
Greek over Persia
• Television was not just invented by a single person, but
developed through the efforts of various brilliant people.
The earliest records of TV broadcasting occurred after the
World War II, in which the display was still black and white.
❖More than 2000 years later, after the invention of paper
came the first daily newspaper, the “Einkommende Zeitung”
in 1650. In 1840, the telegraph was invented by Samuel
Morse, making long-distance communication very much
feasible
• Internet after the creation of computers in the 1950s, the
ARPANET, which was the early predecessor of the internet
was developed. The ARPANET was designed to manage
communication between ARPA computer terminals in the
1960s. The term “internet” first emerged in 1973. The first
internet service provider was the Telenet.
• Symbols to communicate, around 10,000 B.C.,
petroglyphs were created. They were carvings in the rock
surface, usually referred to as a rock art. In 9,000 B.C.,
pictograms were developed in which ancient people
logographic images to tell a story. Egyptians had their
hieroglyphs. Chinse created characters. Lastly, the alphabet.
• E-mail with the onset of the internet, electronic mails
started to become popular. Although emails came before
the ARPANET, however, it was “offline”. In 1975, John Vittal
developed a software to organize emails. From that time,
75% of ARPANET traffic was email. In 1994, Yahoo! was
born.
• Smoke Signals ancient people also rely on elements to
communicate. Smoke signals were primarily used in sending
messages in China. In 200 B.C., smoke signals to send
messages along The Great Wall of China. In 150 B.C., Greek
Historian Polybius developed smoke signals representing
the alphabet.
• Text Message the first official SMS messaging took place
on December 3, 1992, when Neil Papworth, an engineer
from Sema Group (now Airwide Solutions) used a computer
to send “Merry Christmas” through the Vodafone network.
In 1994, the Radiolinja was the first network service
provider to carry out person-to-person text messaging.
Carrier Pigeons over 2,000 years ago, the ancient Romans
used pigeons as primary messengers between military men.
In the 12th century, messenger pigeons were widely used.
They also played a vital role in World Wars I and II.
• Social Media the latest mode of communication in the
digital era is the use of social media platforms. It has
become more available because of the proliferation of
smartphones where social media apps can easily be
installed. In 2004, Facebook was created by Mark
Zuckerberg. Today, the Messenger is one of the most widely
used messaging apps. There are more than two billion
Facebook users worldwide
• Postal System Egyptians used courier serve to send out
decrees in 2,400 B.C. Postal systems were also organized in
Persia, China, India, and Rome before. On the other hand, it
was only in 1653 when Frenchman De Valayer started a
postal system in Paris which involved the use of mailboxes
and delivery of paid envelopes
• Newspaper in 1440, German Johannes Gutenberg
developed the printing press system which radically
changed communication forever. The German-language
publication of Johann Carolus in Strasbourg in 1605 was the
first newspaper. The first English-language newspaper was
published in Amsterdam in 1620.
• Radio after print media flourished, radio followed. In the
1830s, various scientists, such as Maxwell and Hughes
studied on wireless telegraphy which developed the theory
of electromagnetism. In 1888, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
discovered “Hertzian waves”, named after him. In 1893,
Tesla started using wireless power as a form of transmitting
content.
• Telegraph communication started after Samuel Morse
invented the Morse code which encoded the ISO basic Latin
alphabet. The Morse code transmitted messages through
series of clicks, tones, and lights.
• Telephone it was invented by Scottish Alexander Graham
Bell in 1876. The telephone acts is a telecommunication
device that converts human audio signals to electronic
signals which are transmitted via cables.
Communication in the Digital Age
New Paradigms of Communication in The Digital Age
1. From Audience To User - The communication process in
the actual scenario is user centered: users have the control
to choose, to decide, to search, to define and configure, to
subscribe or unsubscribe, to comment and, most important:
to write, talk and film. Self-media, nanopublishing or thin
media are the new names for the strategy of those users
who decide to become even more active and start low
profile digital native media activities.
2. From Media To Content - The media convergence
towards digital resets media identity, shifting from
platforms to contents and outstanding brand image in
relation to a type of content not to a media format. Media
brand image is one of the most valuable actives of media
companies in the new environment: a source of credibility
and prestige for digital content.
3. From Monomedia To Multimedia - This multimedia
identity of the actual environment allowed all media
industries to converge online (press, broadcast, movies) and
this is the reason why media distinctions related 13 to use
of single language (textual, audio, visual) tend to be erased.
Online media are multimedia, and multimedia is a new
language.
4. From Periodicity To Real-Time - Regular frequency was a
strong paradigm of the old scenario to the point the many
media were defined in relation to its time constraints (daily,
weekly, monthly). Online media assume that they must to
be real time updated to survive in the new environment.
5. From Scarcity To Abundance - One of the strong effects
of “readers becoming writers” is the proliferation of online
information without clear attribution of source authority
and heterogeneity of content quality. The overflow of
information calls for new skills and tools to manage data,
news, and opinions.
6. From Editor-Mediated To Non-Mediated - The
gatekeeper paradigm was broadly used to explain the role
of media editors and the agenda-setting theory and to
describe the functions of media in defining the daily issues.
This intermediation function should be revisited nowadays
in the light of the decentralized nature of the net.
7. From Distribution To Access - The access paradigm is
complementary with the user center paradigm and both
explain the strong interactive nature of the new
environment. Access means to seek, search, navigate, surf,
decide, an active attitude, a will to connect and
communicate, the contrary of the passive reception of
media content.
8. From One Way To Interactivity - With the net emerges a
bilateral inverse model many-to-one based on the clientserver architecture of the internet, but also a multilateral
horizontal and symmetrical many-to-many model. The fact
that content providers and users access the same channel
to communicate, enable the users to establish a bilateral
relationship with media and also a multilateral relationship
with other users of the system
9. From Linear To Hypertext - The digital platforms enable
narrators to organize content by fragmenting it into small
units (nodes) with multiples paths between them (links).
Hypertextual narratives empower the user shifting the
control of the narrative from the narrator to the reader.
10. From Data To Knowledge - The extraordinary amount of
data available in the Digital Age bring back the strategic role
of media as social managers of knowledge, a role to be
shared with an increasing number of new players. The
opportunity to redefine the profiles, the professional
challenges and the academic training of communicators,
and also to rethink the changing nature of media and
mediators.
Module 2 A
Basic Computing Periods
1. Abacus. The Abacus know as early computing tool where
logarithm was inventedThe first manual data processing
device was the abacus which was developed in China in the
twelfth century A.D.. Thus device has a frame with beads
strung on wires or rods and arithmetic calculations are
performed by manipulating the beads.
2. Napier’s Bones. John Napier was a Scottish
mathematician who became famous for his invention of
logarithms. The use of “logs” enabled him to reduce any
multiplication problem to a problem of addition. His
“bones” are set of eleven rods side by side products and
quotients of large number can be obtained. The sticks were
called “bones” because they were made of bone or ivory
3. Oughtred’s Slide Rule. Although the slide rule appeared in
various forms in Europe during the seventeenth century, its
invention is attributed to the English mathematician William
Oughtred. Basically, a slide rule consists of two movable
rulers placed side by side. By sliding the rulers one can
quickly multiply and divide.
4. Pascal’s Calculator. Blaise Pascal was a French
mathematician and experimental physicist who was one of
the first modern scientists to develop and build a calculator.
In 1965, he devised a calculating machine that was capable
of adding and subtracting numbers. The machine was
operated by dialing a series of wheels.
5. Leibniz’s Calculator. Like Pascal, Gotfried Leibniz was a
seventeenth-century scientist who recognized the value of
building machines that could do mathematical calculations
and save labor too. Leibniz 26 finished his calculator in
1964. It utilized the same techniques for addition and
subtraction as Pascal’s device but could also perform
multiplication and division, as well as extract square roots
6. Babbage’s Analytical Engine. Charles Babbage, a
nineteenth-century Englishman, is frequently considered
the father of the modern computer. Although he did not
actually build an operational computer himself, his ideas
became the basis for modern computational devices.
7. Hollerith’s Punched-Card Machine. In the 1880s, Herman
Hollerith, a statistician with the US Bureau of the Census,
completed a set of machines to help process the results of
the 1890 census. Using 3 by 5 inch punched cards to record
the data, he constructed an electromagnetic counting
machine to sort the data manually and tabulated the data
Generations of Computers/Computing
✓ First Generation (Vacuum Tubes) 1939-1954
It was in 1937 when John V. Atanasoff devised the first
digital electronic computer. Atanasoff and Berry came up
with ABC prototype in November 1939. Computer in this
generation was expensive and bulky. It used machine
language for computing and could solve problem at a time.
Computer during this phase could not support multitasking
task. The two notable machines of this era were the UNIVAC
is the first every commercial computer which was
purchased in 1951 by a business and “Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) machines
✓ Second Generation (Punched card/transistor) 1954-1959
. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They
were a big improvement over the vacuum tube, despite still
subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat. Transistor
made computer smaller and cheaper. They made computers
energy efficient.
✓ Third Generation (Chip/Integrated Circuit (IC)) 19591971
Transistors were now being miniaturized and put on silicon
chips (called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase
in speed and efficiency of these machines. These were the
first computers where users interacted using keyboards and
monitors which Semi-conductors increased its speed and
efficiency of the computer. As a result of these advances
which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new
mass market of users emerged during the ‘60s.
✓Fourth Generation (Microprocessor) 1971-1991
In 1971 Intel produced large scale integration recognition
circuit. which positioned all computer components (CPU,
memory, input/output controls) onto a single chip. The Intel
chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981
saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for
home use and 1984 saw the Macintosh introduced by
Apple.
✓Fifth Generation (Under the Development) 1971-beyond
Computer System is based on principles of Artificial
Intelligence and Natural Language recognition. Artificial
Intelligence (AI) is a reality made possible by using parallel
processing and superconductors. Leaning to the future,
computers will be radically transformed again by quantum
computation, molecular and Nano technology.
Module 2 B
Principles of Digital Development
• Digital development or ICT4D (information and
communication technology for development) describe the
use and application of technology and digital tools in
international development.
• It is important because technology is a core part of
everyday life. We use phones, tablets and computers to
search for information, navigate to new places, pay bills and
connect with our family and friends. Technology also plays a
key role in international development. While the digital
revolution has not advanced at an equal pace across the
world and marginalized groups continue to be excluded, the
introduction of new tools has brought improvements. ,
technology can offer us new ways to address the challenges
faced by children. We can make our work more efficient and
more transparent with digital data collection and analytics,
and we can ensure the voices of marginalized people reach
decision makers and leaders everywhere.
Principles of Digital Development
1. Design with the user
• Develop context appropriate solutions informed by user
needs.
• Include all user groups in planning, development,
implementation and assessment.
• Develop projects in an incremental and iterative manner.
2. Understand the Ecosystem
• Participate in networks and communities of like-minded
practitioners.
• Align to existing technological, legal, and regulatory
policies.
• It is needed to increase the relevance and sustainability of
technology-supported international development and
reduce duplication of effort.
3. Design for Scale
• Design for scale from the start, and assess and mitigate
dependencies that
• might limit ability to scale.
• Employ a “systems” approach to design, considering
implications of design
• beyond an immediate project.
4. Build for Sustainability
• Plan for sustainability from the start, including planning
for long-term financial health e.g., assessing total cost of
ownership.
• Utilize and invest in local communities and developers by
default and help catalyze their growth. • Engage with local
governments to ensure integration into national strategy
and identify high-level government advocates.
5. Be data driven
• Design projects so that impact can be measured at
discrete milestones with a focus on outcomes rather than
outputs.
• Evaluate innovative solutions and areas where there are
gaps in data and evidence.
• Use real-time information to monitor and inform
management decisions at all levels.
6. Use Open Standards, Open Data, Open Source, and Open
Innovation
• Adopt and expand existing open standards.
• Open data and functionalities and expose them in
documented APIs (Application
• Programming Interfaces) where use by a larger
community is possible.
7. Reuse and Improved
• Use, modify and extend existing tools, platforms, and
frameworks when possible.
• Develop in modular ways favoring approaches that are
interoperable over those that are monolithic by design.
• It is needed as the use of information and
communications technologies in international development
has matured, so too has the foundation of methods,
standards, software, platforms, and other tools.
8. Address Privacy and Security
• Assess and mitigate risks to the security of users and their
data.
• Consider the context and needs for privacy of personally
identifiable information when designing solutions and
mitigate accordingly.
• Ensure equity and fairness in co-creation, and protect the
best interests of the end-users.
9. Be Collaborative
• Engage diverse expertise across disciplines and industries
at all stages.
• Work across sector silos to create coordinated and more
holistic approaches.
• Document work, results, processes, and best practices and
share them widely.
Microprocessors
• The microprocessor is the central unit of a computer
system that performs arithmetic and logic operations, which
generally include adding, subtracting, transferring numbers
from one area to another, and comparing two numbers. It's
often known simply as a processor, a central processing
unit, or as a logic chip.
• A microprocessor accepts binary data as input, processes
that data, and then provides output based on the
instructions stored in the memory. The data is processed
using the microprocessor's ALU (arithmetical and logical
unit), control unit, and a register array.
Benefits of a Microprocessor
• They don't cost a lot - Due to their use of IC technology,
microprocessors don't cost much to produce. This means
that the use of microprocessors can greatly reduce the cost
of the system it's used in.
• They are fast - The technology used to produce modern
microprocessors has allowed them to operate at incredibly
high speeds--today's microprocessors can execute millions
of instructions per second.
• They consume little power - Power consumption is much
lower than other types of processors since microprocessors
are manufactured using metal oxide semiconductor
technology. This makes devices equipped with
microprocessors much more energy efficient.
• They are portable - Due to how small microprocessors are
and that they don't consume a lot of power, devices using
microprocessors can be designed to be portable (like
smartphones).
• They are reliable - Because semiconductor technology is
used in the production of microprocessors, their failure rate
is extremely low.
• They are versatile - The same microprocessor chip can be
used for numerous applications as long as the programming
is changed, making it incredibly versatile.
Common Terms Used
• Word Length. Word length refers to the number of bits in
the processor's internal data bus- -or the number of bits
that a processor can process at any given time..
• Instruction Set. The instruction set is the series of
commands that a microprocessor can understand.
Essentially, it's the interface between the hardware and the
software.
• Cache Memory. The cache memory is used to store data
or instructions that the software or program frequently
references during operation. Basically, it helps to increase
the operation's overall speed by allowing the processor to
access data more quickly than from a regular RAM.
• Clock Speed. The clock speed is the speed at which a
microprocessor is able to execute instructions. It's typically
measured in Hertz and expressed in measurements like MHz
(megahertz) and GHz (gigahertz).
• Bus. A bus is the term used to describe the set of
conductors that transmit data or that address or control
information to the microprocessor's different elements.
Most microprocessors consist of three different buses,
which include the data bus, the address bus, and the control
bus.
Categories of Microprocessors
1. Based on Word Length Microprocessors can be based on
the number of bits the processor's internal data bus or the
number of bits that it can process at a time (which is known
as the word length). Based on its word length, a
microprocessor can be classified as 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and
64-bit.
2. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) RISC
microprocessors are more general use than those that have
a more specific set of instructions. The execution of
instructions in a processor requires a special circuit to load
and process data. Because RISC microprocessors have fewer
instructions, they have simpler circuits, which means they
operate faster.
3. Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) CISC
microprocessors are the opposite of RISC microprocessors.
Their purpose is to reduce the number of instructions for
each program. The number of cycles per instruction is
ignored.
4. Special Purpose Processors Some microprocessors are
built to perform specific functions. For example,
coprocessors are used in combination with a main
processor, while a transputer is a transistor computer: a
microprocessor that has its own local memory.
The Microprocessor Was a Turning Point for Modern
Computing
• CPUs used to be enormous. It wasn't until the 1960s that
designers were attempting to integrate the functions of a
CPU onto microprocessor units. It was the successful
development of the microprocessor that led to the home
computer.
Module 3
Defining Technological Innovation
To define innovation one might return the Latin
origin of the word. Innovation or “innovaire”, which means
“to make something new” leads to several conclusions of its
deeper meaning. The Latin concepts is quite cryptic and can
be better understood when divided into three parts.
• Generate or realize a new idea (innovation and creativity)
• Develop this idea into a reality or product (realization)
• Implement and market this new idea (implementation)
The “to make something new” refers to replacing
old concepts or products with new ones, continually
updating and improving them. When a concept such as
technology into the meaning of innovation, and defining the
term “Technological Innovation”
• Generate or realize a new idea, based on technology,
capability or knowledge (invention)
• Develop this into a reality or product (realization)
• Diffuse, implement and market this new idea, technology,
capability or knowledge (implementation)
Thus technological innovation is a part of the total
innovation discipline. It focuses specifically on technology
and how to embody it successfully in products, services and
processes. Technology as a body of knowledge might thus
be seen as a building block for technological innovation,
serving as cornerstone to research, design, development,
manufacturing and marketing
Different Types of Innovation
Technological innovation is a complex process of
several distinct stages, many of which require different
focuses and different management strategies.
a. Should the firm start with the inception of an idea
(invention)?
b. Is it more beneficial to take up a well-developed concept
and focus on commercialization?
c. Should the firm spotlight an existing technology and aim
at perfecting or modifying it?
Marquis defines the following different types of innovation:
• Radical innovations: ideas that have impact on or cause
significant changes in the whole industry
• Incremental innovation: small ideas that have importance
in terms of improving products, processes, and services
• System innovations: ideas that require several resources
and many labour years to accomplish.
Henderson and Clark define the types of innovation as: •
Incremental – incremental innovation refines and extends
an established design, but underlying concepts, and links
between them, remain the same
• Architectural – the essence of architectural innovation is
the reconfiguration of an established system to link
together existing components in a new way
• Modular – it is an innovation that changes a core design
concept, without changing the product’s architecture or
primary function
• Radical – radical innovation establishes a new dominant
design and hence a new set of core design concepts,
embodied in components that are linked together in a new
architecture.
The Micro-Grid
• A micro-grid is a small-scale power grid that can operate
independently or collaboratively with other small power
grids. The practice of using micro-grids is known as
distributed, dispersed, decentralized, district or embedded
energy production
Micro-grids are typically supported by generators or
renewable wind and solar energy resources and are often
used to provide backup power or supplement the main
power grid during periods of heavy demand. A micro-grid
strategy that integrates local wind or solar resources can
provide redundancy for essential services and make the
main grid less susceptible to localized disaster
Artificial Intelligence (A.I.)
• Artificial intelligence (AI) is wide-ranging branch of
computer science concerned with building smart machines
capable of performing tasks that typically require human
intelligence. AI is an interdisciplinary science with multiple
approaches, but advancements in machine learning and
deep learning are creating a paradigm shift in virtually every
sector of the tech industry.
Artificial intelligence generally falls under two broad
categories:
1. Narrow AI: Sometimes referred to as "Weak AI," this kind
of artificial intelligence operates within a limited context
and is a simulation of human intelligence. Narrow AI is often
focused on performing a single task extremely well and
while these machines may seem intelligent, they are
operating under far more constraints and limitations than
even the most basic human intelligence.
2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): AGI, sometimes
referred to as "Strong AI," is the kind of artificial intelligence
we see in the movies, like the robots from West world or
Data from Star Trek: The Next Generation. AGI is a machine
with general intelligence and, much like a human being, it
can apply that intelligence to solve any problem.
Artificial Intelligence Examples:
• Smart assistants (like Siri and Alexa)
• Disease mapping and prediction tools
• Manufacturing and drone robots
•
Optimized,
personalized
healthcare
treatment
recommendations
• Conversational bots for marketing and customer service
• Robo-advisors for stock trading
• Spam filters on email
• Social media monitoring tools for dangerous content or
false news
• Song or TV show recommendations from Spotify and
Netflix
History of Artificial Intelligence
Intelligent robots and artificial beings first
appeared in the ancient Greek myths of Antiquity.
Aristotle's development of the syllogism and it's use of
deductive reasoning was a key moment in mankind's quest
to understand its own intelligence.
(nasa MODULE yung HISTORY)
Module 4
ICT Components and Productivity Tools
Hardware
• It is a collective term used to describe any of the physical
components of an analog or digital computer. The term
hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing
device from software, which consists of written instructions
that tell physical components what to do. Computer
hardware can be categorized as having either internal or
external components.
• External components, also called peripheral components,
are those items that are often connected to the computer in
order to control either its input or output. Common input
components include a mouse, keyboard, microphone,
camera, touchpad, stylus, joystick, scanner, USB flash drive
or memory card.
✓ SSD: A type of nonvolatile storage device that stores
persistent data on solid-state flash memory. An SSD consists
of a flash controller and NAND flash memory
✓ Graphics Card: Responsible for rendering graphics in a
computer and projecting information onto a screen, a
graphics card aims to remove the processing strain from the
processor or RAM.
✓ Removable Drives: Any type of storage device that can
be removed from a computer while the system is running,
including USB cards and optical discs, such as compact discs
(CDs), Blu-ray discs and digital versatile discs (DVDs).
✓ Power Supply: The power supply converts the power
from the outlet into usable power for the other components
inside the computer. Typically, more power is needed to run
more complex systems.
Software
• It is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate
computers and execute specific tasks. Opposite of
hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a
computer, software is a generic term used to refer to
applications, scripts and programs that run on a device.
Software can be thought of as the variable part of a
computer, and hardware the invariable part.
External Hardware Components
• Are called peripherals. Peripherals include input devices,
such as a mouse or keyboard; output devices, such as a
monitor or printer; and external storage devices, such as a
hard drive or USB card.
Hardware Virtualization
• it is the abstraction of physical computing resources from
the software that uses the resources. This is made possible
by a virtual machine (VM) manager called a hypervisor.
Essentially, the hypervisor creates virtual versions of
internal hardware so that resources can be shared and used
more efficiently.
Types of Hardware
✓ Motherboard: The motherboard is the computer's
central communications backbone connectivity point
through which all components and external peripherals
connect.
✓ CPU: The CPU is responsible for processing most of the
computer's data, turning input into output.
Software can be purchased or acquired in the following
ways:
▪ Shareware - usually distributed on a free or trial basis,
with the intention of sale when the period is over.
▪ Liteware - a type of shareware with some capabilities
disabled until the full version is purchased.
▪ Freeware - can be downloaded for free but with copyright
restrictions.
▪ Public Domain Software - can be downloaded for free
without restrictions.
▪ Open Source Software - a type of software where the
source code is furnished and users agree not to limit the
distribution of improvements.
▪ Proprietary Software - software that remains the property
of its owner/creator and is used by end users or
organizations under predefined conditions.
Types of Software
✓ System Software: Is a type of computer program
designed to run a computer's hardware and application
programs. System software coordinates the activities and
functions of the hardware and software.
✓ RAM: The hardware in a computer where the OS,
application programs and data that are being used are kept
so the device's processor can quickly reach them.
✓ Application Software: Is a computer software package
that performs a specific function for an end user or, in some
instances, for another application. An application can be
selfcontained or a group of programs
✓ Display Screen: A display screen may be an external
monitor, or it may be built into the computer. A
touchscreen display is sensitive to pressure.
Storage (Computer Storage)
✓ HDD: A nonvolatile memory (NVM) hardware device, an
HDD stores OS files, application problems, media and other
documents.
• Data storage is the collective methods and technologies
that capture and retain digital information on
electromagnetic, optical or silicon-based storage media.
Storage is a key component of digital devices, as consumers
and businesses have come to rely on it to preserve
information ranging from personal photos to businesscritical information.
The original aim was to create a network that would allow
users of a research computer at one university to "talk to"
research computers at other universities.
Why data storage is important?
How the Internet works?
• Underscoring the importance of storage is a steady climb
in the generation of new data, which is attributable to big
data and the profusion of internet of things (IoT) devices.
Modern storage systems require enhanced capabilities to
allow enterprises to apply machine learningenabled artificial
intelligence (AI) to capture this data, analyze it and wring
maximum value from it.
• Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total
resources
of
the
currently
existing
public
telecommunication
networks.
Technically,
what
distinguishes the Internet is its use of a set of protocols
called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Two recent adaptations of Internet technology, the
intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP
protocol. The Internet can be seen as having two major
components: network protocols and hardware
How data storage works?
• The term storage may refer both to a user's data generally
and, more specifically, to the integrated hardware and
software systems used to capture, manage and prioritize
the data. This includes information in applications,
databases, data warehouses, archiving, backup appliances
and cloud storage.
Types of Data Storage Devices/Mediums
Data storage media have varying levels of capacity
and speed.
✓ SSDs store data on nonvolatile flash memory chips.
Unlike spinning disk drives, SSDs have no moving parts.
✓ Optical data storage is popular in consumer products,
such as computer games and movies, and is also used in
high-capacity data archiving systems
✓ Flash memory cards are integrated in digital cameras and
mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, audio
recorders and media players.
✓ Physical magnetic floppy disks are rarely used in the era
of flash. Unlike older models, newer computer systems are
not equipped with slots to insert floppy disks, which
emerged as an alternative to magnetic disk
Communication
• Communication technology can significantly influence the
performance of a task and ensure prompt and reliable
communication among team members. Email has
increasingly become a standard mode of official
communication for most organizations.
• Types of communication technology include: email,
texting, instant messaging, social networking, tweeting,
blogging and video conferencing.
Internet
• Sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system
of computer networks -- a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer. It was conceived by
the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S.
government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet.
Uses of the Internet
▪ social media and content sharing;
▪ e-mail and other forms of communication, such as Internet
Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony, instant messaging,
video conferencing;
▪ education and self-improvement through access to online
degree programs, courses and workshops; and
▪ searching for jobs, both the employer and applicant use
the Internet to post open positions, apply for jobs and
recruit individuals found on social networking sites like
LinkedIn.
Difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet
▪ The key difference between the Internet and the World
Wide Web (WWW or the Web) is that the Internet is a
global connection of networks while the Web is a collection
of information that can be accessed using the Internet. In
other words, the Internet is the infrastructure and the 75
Web is a service on top.
Security and the Internet
▪ Installing antivirus and antimalware
▪ Creating difficult, varied passwords that are impossible to
guess.
▪ Using a virtual private network (VPN) or, at least, a private
browsing mode, such as Google Chrome's Incognito
window.
▪ Only using HTTPS ▪ Making all social media accounts
private.
▪ Deactivating autofill. ▪ Turning off the device's GPS.
▪ Updating cookies so an alert is sent anytime a cookie is
installed.
▪ Logging out of accounts instead of just closing the tab or
window.
▪ Using caution with spam emails and never opening or
downloading content from unknown sources.
▪ Using caution when accessing public Wi-Fi or hotspots.
Social Impact of the Internet
• The social impact of the Internet can be seen as both
positive and negative. On one side, people argue that the
Internet has increased the risk of isolation, alienation and
withdrawal from society, pointing to increases in an
emotional response called FOMO, or the fear of missing out.
On the other side, people believe the Internet to have had
the opposite effect on society, arguing that the Internet
increases civic engagement, sociability and the intensity of
relationships.
Benefits of the Internet include:
▪ Access to endless information, knowledge and education.
▪ An increased ability to communicate, connect and share.
▪ The ability to work from home, collaborate and access a
global workforce.
▪ The chance to sell and make money as a business or
individual.
▪ Access to an unlimited supply of entertainment sources,
such as movies, music, videos and games.
ENG’G306 Physics(Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Introduction to Physics
 Physics is the most fundamental branch of physical
science which deals with the study of matter and energy,
and their relationship with each other. Simple physics
definition is, Physics is basically the study of how objects
behave. Physics is an important and basic part of physical
science. It is an experimental science. Classical Physics and
Modern Physics are two Major Types of Physics
Main Branches of Physics
Classical Physics
❖Classical Physics believes in a single nature, only the
particle nature of matter. It provides the macroscopic vision
of matter. It is based upon Newton’s laws of mechanics and
Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism
Modern or Quantum Physics
❖Quantum Physics believes in the dual nature, both
particle and wave nature of matter. It provides a
microscopic vision of matter. It is based upon Planck’s
quantum theory of light and De Broglie’s idea of matterwave
Common Branches of Physics
Mechanics
❖Mechanics for physics is the branch of physics that deals
with the study of the motion of objects, its causes and
effects. Basically there are three types and branches of
mechanics, classical mechanics, and quantum mechanics
Electricity and Magnetism
❖Electricity and magnetism can be defined as Electricity is
the branch of physics that deals with the study of charges at
rest or motion and the relationship of electricity with
magnetism are called electricity & magnetism
Thermodynamics
❖Thermodynamics is a branch of Physics that deals with
the relationships and conversions between heat and other
forms of energy
Optics
❖The optics is part of the physics responsible for the study
of light and the phenomena associated with it
Electronics
❖Electronics is the important branch of physics that deals
with the study of the motion and control of electrons and
study of their behavior in vacuums, semiconductors, and
gasses and with devices using such types of electrons. This
type of control of electrons is done by devices that resist,
carry, select, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the
electrons
Nuclear Physics
❖Nuclear physics is the study of protons and neutrons at
the center of an atom and the interactions that holds them
together in a space just a few femtometers (10-15 meters)
across. Example nuclear reactions include radioactive decay,
fission, the break of a nucleus and the fission, and
immerging nuclei
Physicist and Their Contributions
Famous Physicist and Their Contributions
(Checkout the module for more Physicist)
The Famous Physicists that contributes in study of
physics is presented at the table above. “Physicist” is a term
used for a person skilled in natural science or specialized in
physics.
Measurements in Physics
System of Units
System of units is a collection of units in which certain units
chosen as fundamental and all others are derived from
them. This system is also called an absolute system of units.
In the most of the system, the mass, the length, and the
time are considered to be fundamental quantities, and their
units are called as fundamental units. The following are
some systems of units which are in common use.
 c.g.s system of units: The Unit of length centimeter
(cm).The unit of mass gram (g).The unit of time second (s)
 m.k.s system of units: The unit of length meter (m). The
unit of mass (kg).The unit of time second (s).
 f.p.s system of units: The unit of length is a foot (ft).The
unit of mass is pound (lb). The unit of time is second (s)
The Metric System
Metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system
of measurement created in France in 1799. The
International System of Units (SI), the official system of
measurement in almost every country in the world, is based
upon the metric system. In the metric system, each basic
type of measurement (length, weight, capacity) has one
basic unit of measure (meter, gram, and liter).
The English System
❖While the metric system was lawfully accepted for use in
the United States in 1866, the US has not adopted the
metric system as its "official" system of measurement. The
US English System of measurement grew out of the manner
in which people secured measurements using body parts
and familiar objects
Conversion Ratio
❖Conversion ratio (or unit factor) is a ratio equal to one.
This ratio carries the names of the units to be used in the
conversion. It can be used for conversions within the English
and Metric Systems, as well as for conversions between the
systems. The conversion ratio is based upon the concept of
equivalent values.
Conversion of Units and Constants
Newton (N) – kg.m/s2
Joules (J) – N.m
Pascal (Pa) – N/m2
Watts (W) – J/s
(Checkout the module for more conversion)
Module 2
Classification of Vectors
1. Free Vector – is the one whose action is not confined to
or associated with a unique line in space. 2. Sliding Vector –
is one for which a unique line in space must be maintained
along which the quantity acts.
3. Fixed Vector – is one for which unique point of
application is specified and therefore the vector occupies a
particular position in space.
Kinematics
❖Branch of physics and a subdivision of classical mechanics
concerned with the geometrically possible motion of a body
or system of bodies without consideration of the forces
involve
Speed
❖Speed is defined as the distance per unit time. Speed is a
scalar quantity.
Velocity
Velocity is defined as the displacement per unit time. ❖
Velocity is vector quantity (with direction).
Engineering mechanics
Average Velocity
❖Average velocity is defined to be the change in position
divided by the time of travel
Statics
Difference between Average Speed and Average Velocity:
Branches of Mechanics
Dynamics
Kinetics
Kinematics
Statics
❖Statics studies objects that are either at rest, or in
constant motion, that is a motion with constant velocity as
to its magnitude and direction
Dynamics
❖Dynamics studies objects with acceleration. Dynamics is
divided into kinematics and kinetics
Kinematics
❖Kinematics describes the motion of objects, while kinetics
studies forces that cause changes of motion
Kinetics
❖The study of forces acting on the bodies in motion and
their effect in acceleration
Scalar and Vectors
Vector Quantities
❖Vector quantities are quantities whose measurement is
specified by magnitude and direction. The following
examples of vector quantities: Weight, momentum, torque,
velocity, displacement, acceleration, electric field intensity
Scalar Quantities
❖Scalar Quantities are those quantities which have only
magnitudes. The following are examples of scalar quantities:
Speed, mass, volume, energy, length, temperature,
pressure, voltage, and time
 Average speed is defined as the total distance travelled by
the time taken whereas average velocity is defined as the
displacement by the time taken.
 Since speed is a scalar quantity, the average speed is also
considered as a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector
quantity. Therefore, the average velocity is a vector
quantity.
Distance
❖distance is a length from one point to another usually
measured in a straight line. It is a Scalar quantity. Distance
unit can be meter, feet, inches, etc.
Displacement
❖It is the change in position, specified by a length and a
direction. Displacement is a vector quantity. Displacement
unit can be meter, feet, inches, etc.
Acceleration
❖acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time.
Instantaneous Acceleration
❖acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity.
Uniformly Accelerated
❖uniformly accelerated motion is defined as the motion in
a straight line in which the direction is always the same and
the speed changes at constant rate.
Rectilinear Motion
 Rectilinear motion is another name for straight-line
motion. This type of motion describes the movement of a
particle or a body
Free Falling Bodies
 Free falling object is an object that is falling under the sole
influence of gravity. Any object that is being acted upon
only by the force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall.
There are two important motion characteristics that are
true of freefalling objects:
 Free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance.
 All free-falling objects (on Earth) accelerate downwards at
a rate of 9.8 m/s/s (often approximated as 10 m/s/s for
back-of-the-envelope calculations)
Module 3
Projectile
 A Projectile is a body which after being given an initial
velocity with an initial angle of release is allowed to travel
under the action of gravity only. A projectile is a trajectory
which is a graph of a parabola
 Curvilinear translation (motion) is a motion along a curve
path either on the vertical plane or on horizontal plane. This
type of motion includes a trajectory or projectile which is a
curve path on vertical plane and rotation on horizontal
plane
Maximum Height and Range
 Since the variable “x” is in second degree while the other
variable “y” is in the first degree, then the graph is a
parabola (Tiong & Rojas, 2008). Note: The vertical
component of the velocity decreases as it goes up and is
zero at maximum point of the projectile and increases as it
goes down, while the horizontal component is constant
(Tiong & Rojas, 2008). According to Tiong & Rojas (2008) if
the initial point of the projectile is on the same elevation as
the point of impact, the following formulas may be used.
ENG’G109 Safety (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Safety Culture
 Creation of a safety culture is the most important factor
for achieving safety. This involves operating an organization
in such a manner that health is viewed as a main objective
and properly included in all operation. Safety culture in a
company is the general behavior and disposition to health.
Safety always comes first in a good safety culture and that
will be evident in the work the organization produces.
Safety is incorporated into the products of the organization,
and its security procedures support what is already being
achieved
The Benefits of a Safety Culture
 Is aware of the value of safety.
 Makes safety paramount in everything they do.
 It strives continuously to improve safety; and
 Understands those parts of the law and other relevant
regulations.
The benefits of nurturing a culture of good safety are: 
Safety is incorporated into the goods and facilities of the
organization.
 Potential hazards and failures are detected and
prematurely eliminated or controlled.
 The goods of the Company are safe.
 Organizations realize cost savings and efficiencies; and
 Minimizes the possibility of non-compliance with legal
obligations.
Safety policy
 Management commitment is the starting point for a good
safety culture. This is best expressed by setting a safety
policy, endorsed by the management board. A safety policy
should state the aims of the organization to achieve safety.
The safety policy statements should define the
organization’s fundamental approach for managing safety.
They should cover issues relating to both process and
product safety. It is up to each individual organization,
depending on the nature of their business, to define their
own set of safety policy statements.
The declarations on safety policy should, however, cover the
following issues:
 Confirmation that safety is the organization’s main
objective.
 Definition of the responsibility of the management and
accountability for safety performance.
 Responsibility for the safety of everyone within the
organization.
Putting safety policy into practice
 Management is dedicated to the safety policy.
 Everybody within the company is conscious of the value of
following safety policy.
 Is provided the necessary training and resources.
❖Awareness is a central element in the effective execution
of safety policy. Everyone in the organization should be
aware of the importance of safety and the safety policy of
the organization. The strategies to do this can differ based
on the organization's size and form. Clear review of the
protection policies can be necessary for smaller entities
How to Monitor Safety Policy
❖ Management should check for implementation of the
safety policy. This will typically be done with a rolling
scheme, ensuring that every aspect of the policy is
monitored over a period of a couple of years. A safety policy
aspect is typically monitored on a random selection from all
the organization’s relevant activities. In some cases, a
simple inspection of these activities may be enough.
Managing Human Factors
❖You should treat Human Factors like any other part of
Safety Engineering with equal importance. Railways rely on
people to ensure they are safe to operate. Men are
committing errors. Hence human error can lead to danger;
it may also be the main cause of danger. Any organization
that professes to have a culture of safety should consider
human behavior as a significant issue
Safety Engineer
Safety engineers look for ways to prevent accidents in the
workplace. They inspect buildings and machines for hazards
and safety violations, investigate accidents and determine
what caused them and educate workers on how to use
safety equipment. Some safety engineers specialize in
certain areas such as fire prevention or product safety
What do they do?
Safety Engineers ensure safe workplaces. They track the
general working environment, examine structures and
equipment for dangers and infringements of health and
suggest safety measures of new systems and goods.
What do I have to do to be one?
You must hold a bachelor’s degree in Industrial Engineering;
Industrial Management or a similar discipline to work as a
safety engineer. People who work in this field are interested
and concentrated on details; they have good observational
skills; and they are imaginative.
Module 2
Electrical Safety Inspection
 The Philippine Electrical Code is hereby adopted, and the
standards contained therein shall be considered safety
standards to the extent that they safeguard any person
employed in any workplace and control the practice of
electrical engineering
Definition
(1) "Installation" as used in this Rule shall mean assemblage
of electrical equipment in a given location, designed for
coordinated operation, properly erected and wired.
(2) "Approved" shall mean acceptable to the Bureau after
test and examination show compliance with standards.
General Provisions
(1) No electrical installation shall be undertaken without the
plans having been approved by the Secretary or his
authorized representative.
(2) No service or power supply shall be connected to any
electrical installation by any utility company supplying
electricity or by any person until the necessary final
inspection is conducted and a safety certificate/permit
issued by the Regional Labor Office or authorized
representative having jurisdiction over the case.
(3) The following are excluded in the coverage of this Rule;
a. electric generating plants with franchises which are under
the jurisdiction of the Board of Power and Waterworks.
b. electric generating plants and electrical installations in
radio and television station which are under the jurisdiction
of the Department of Public Works, Transportation and
Communications, and
c. electrical installation for conveyances used in connection
with water transportation which are under the jurisdiction
of the Bureau of Customs.
(4) The exemptions under 3 (a) and (b) are only for the
design and construction, the electrical installation may be
inspected by the Regional Labor Office or authorized
representative, if such poses danger to the safety and
health of the workers therein.
(5) The practice of electrical engineering as required under
this Rule shall be subjected to the provisions of the
Philippine Electrical Engineering Law, R.A. 184.
Application and Plans
(1) Application for electrical installation shall be filed by the
owner/manager to the Secretary or his authorized
representative having jurisdiction accompanied by plans,
designs and/or specifications in triplicate prepared under
the responsible charge of, signed and sealed by a registered
professional electrical engineer duly licensed to practice in
the Philippines.
(2) Application for the electrical installation for household
lighting utilizing energy involving installation of twenty (20)
outlets or less, or for the power or heat utilizing electrical
energy not exceeding four (4) kilowatts need not be
accompanied by plans.
(3) After construction, a certificate of final inspection shall
be secured from the office having jurisdiction, which shall
serve as a service connection, safety permit and to use the
installation for one year counted from the date of final
inspection.
(4) Application for a certificate of electrical inspection shall
be filed by the owner, manager or his authorized
representative with the Regional Labor Office or authorized
representative having jurisdiction at least thirty (30) days
before the expiration date of the safety permit.
Inspection
(1) The safety engineers of the Regional Labor Office or
authorized representative having jurisdiction shall conduct
annual safety inspection on all electrical installation and/or
special inspections as provided in Rule 1004.
(2) All Regional Labor Offices shall adopt and maintain an
effective records control of all electrical inspections in order
that re-inspection shall not go beyond the expiration date.
Permit to Use Installation
(1) A certificate to use the installation shall be issued subject
to the following:
a. Work shall be performed under the responsible charge or
supervision of a duly authorized electrical engineer or a
master electrician in conformity with the field of action
authorized for each grade.
b. All work shall conform with the approved plans and the
provisions of this Standards.
c. All materials used in the installation shall be of the
approved type.
d. The certificate shall be valid for a period of one (1) year
counted from the date of final inspection and renewable
annually thereafter if inspection show it is safe to use.
(2) A certificate shall continue to be valid even beyond the
expiration date if an application for renewal was submitted
and filed at least thirty (30) days before the expiration date
and for reasons beyond its control, the enforcing agency
concerned failed to act on the application on or before the
date of expiration.
(3) Temporary Installation Certificate: A temporary
certificate may be issued for the following: a. temporary
installations for building construction or other civil
engineering work; b. temporary installations pending
completion of permanent installation; and c. temporary
installation for amusements such as ferris wheels, fairs,
fiestas and other similar electrical installations.
(4) Temporary Installation Certificate shall be issued after
the following conditions are complied with:
a. Clearance by the enforcing authority of the electrical
plans where the installation is over twenty (20) outlets or
the total load exceeds four (4) kilowatts.
b. Submission of sketch of the proposed installation to the
Regional Labor Office or authorized representative for
installation of twenty (20) or less outlets on for loads not
exceeding four (4) kilowatts, showing a layout of the wiring
installation, location
(5) Duration of Temporary Certificate:
a. Temporary installation for construction work and
installation pending permanent installation shall be for a
period of one hundred twenty (120) days from the date of
issuance subject to renewal until the work is completed.
Each renewal is for a period of one hundred twenty (120)
days.
b. Installations for amusements shall be for sixty (60) days
renewable for a maximum of sixty (60) days.
Additional Loads
(1) When subsequent inspection is conducted for additional
loads to an existing installation within a covered year, fees
shall be charged only for the additional load.
(2) Permit for additional loads inspected within the covered
year shall have for their expiration date the date of the
original electrical installation.
(3) The original installation including all additional
loads shall be reinspected on the same date of the
following year. (4) Additional load and/or alteration of
installation is not allowed unless a permit is issued.
Requirements in the Preparation of Electrical Plans
(1) Location Plans:
a. site of the compound indicating any known landmarks,
private or public buildings and arrow indicating NORTH
direction drawn not necessarily to scale.
b. the service drop from the utility company pole to the
building structure; and
c. all feeder lines.
(2) Electrical Layout:
a. power layout, in addition to the lighting layout, if the
number of motors exceed (10);
b. other loads;
c. bell system circuit;
d. telephone system circuit; e. riser or single line diagram
f. riser design computation;
g. load schedule;
h. electrical legend and specifications;
(3) Outdoor sub-station:
a. location of outdoor sub-station indicating the distance
with respect to the nearest building,
b. primary and secondary lines,
c. fencing or enclosure,
d. top, front and side views showing pertinent distances,
e. grounding system,
f. specification
g. single line diagram
h. legend
i. design computation.
(4) Indoor Sub-station:
Transformer vault walls, roof, flooring, doorways,
ventilation and drainage including items, b, d, e, f, g, h and i
of outdoor sub-station requirements.
Module 3
Building Construction and Facilities
Types of Building Constructions
1. The height of buildings used as places of employment
shall be as provided in Table 45a.
2. Existing buildings not in conformity with Table 45a shall
be given five years to comply with the Standards. 3. The
number of stories provided in Table 45a may be increased
by two if approved automatic sprinkler protection is
provided. This provision may be applicable to existing
buildings if the discrepancy is only in the number of stories.
Segregation
❖Processes involving serious explosions and flash-fire
hazards shall be located in segregated buildings and only a.
minimum number of workers required in the process shall
be allowed inside at any given time
Exits
1. At least two exits shall be provided in every floor and
basement of every workplace capable of clearing the work
area in five (5) minutes.
2. Additional exits shall be provided if the travel distance
from any occupied space in a high hazard occupancy
exceeds twenty-three (23) meters.
3. In moderate or low-hazard occupancy, the travel distance
shall not be more than thirtyone (3 1) meters for industrial
establishments, sixty-one (6 1) meters for business
establishments and thirty and one-half (30.5) meters for
mercantile and commercial establishments.
4. If approved automatic-sprinkler protection is installed,
the travel distance in high hazard occupancy may be
increased to twenty-five (25) meters and for moderate or
low-hazard occupancy may be increased to forty-six (46)
meters.
5. The width of the exits shall be computed by dividing the
total occupants of a floor or a storey (maximum allowable)
by sixty (60) in industrial and commercial establishments by
forty-five (45) in service establishments, and by seventy-five
(75) in places of assembly and the quotient multiplied by
fifty-five (55) to get the width of the exit in centimeters.
6. On every floor, except the ground floor, one of the exits
shall lead to an inside stairway or a smoke-proof tower,
while the other exits shall lead to inside stairways,
smokeproof towers or horizontal exits.
Stairways
1. Stairs, platforms, stairways and landings in buildings of
any type of construction over three (3) stories in height
used as fire exits shall be constructed of incombustible
materials.
2. Building over three (3) stories in height of non-fireresistant construction and with roofs having a slope of less
than 1 in 4, at least one stairway shall extend through the
roof.
3. All stairways used as fire exits shall lead directly to the
street or through fire resistant passages with a width of at
least equal to the aggregate width of all exits discharging
through such passages.
4. All approaches to fire exits shall be cleared of any
obstruction and properly marked to make the direction of
egress clear.
Fire Doors
1. Stairway enclosures, fire exits, and partitions shall be
provided with fire doors of the self-closing type and easily
opened from either side towards the line of travel in leaving
the building except the last floor which should open away
from the exit.
2. Doors giving access to stairways shall not open directly on
stairs but shall open on landings leaving a path of travel
equal to at least the width of the door at any point during
its swing.
3. Doors swinging on both sides, vertical-sliding doors,
rolling shutters and revolving doors shall not be allowed as
exits.
4. Where for practical reasons swinging doors are not
suitable, horizontal sliding doors may be used.
5. Doors from stairways to the outside of the building shall
have a width equal to at least the effective width of the
stairs.
6. Doors leading into or out of any building or floor shall not
be locked or fastened during period of occupancy.
Installation of Facilities
❖Installation of building facilities like hot water pipes,
chimneys, or heat producing appliances shall be ad provided
in this Standards
Storage
1. Significant quantities of commodities with fire hazards
greater than ordinary combustible commodities shall be
separated from the main bulk by fire walls.
2. Commodities which may be hazardous when combined
with each other shall be stored separately to prevent
contact with each other.
3. Water absorbed during firefighting operations shall be
considered in the determination of safe floor loads.
Fire-Fighting Facilities
Water Supply
1. Where connection from a public water supply system is
not available, an adequate private water supply reservoir
capable of supplying all firefighting systems for eight (8)
hours shall be provided. 2. Supply system, including tanks or
reservoirs and pumps, shall be located and protected that
their operation or use will not be impaired by a fire in the
workplace.
Hydrants
1. Hydrants shall be of the same types and sizes as those
used by the local public fire department and located or
protected that they will not be exposed to mechanical
damage from vehicles.
Hose
1. Hose couplings, outside hydrants or standing nipples shall
be of the same type and size as those used by the local
public fire department.
2. Hose shall be thoroughly drained and dried after each use
and tested at frequent intervals or at least once every four
(4) months.
Portable Extinguisher
1. General Requirement
a. all places of employment, including those where
automatic-sprinkler protection system is installed, shall be
provided with portable fire extinguishers for protection
against incipient fires;
b. portable extinguishers shall be maintained in fully
charged and operable condition and kept in their
designated places at all times when not in use;
c. approved fire extinguishers shall be used;
d. extinguishers shall be installed on hangers or brackets
conspicuously located in unobstructed areas readily
accessible in the event of fire;
2. Selection of Extinguishers
a. Extinguishers for Class "A" hazards, such as wood, cloth,
paper, rubber and other similar ordinary materials, shall be
selected from foam, loaded stream, multipurpose dry
chemical and water types;
b. Extinguishers for Class "B" hazards, fires in flammable
liquids, gases and greases, shall be selected from carbon
dioxide, dry chemical, foam, loaded stream and
multipurpose dry chemical;
c. Extinguishers for Class "C" hazards, fires which involve
energized electrical equipment where the electrical nonconductivity of the extinguishing media if of importance,
shall be selected from carbon dioxide, dry chemicals, and
multipurpose dry chemicals;
d. When the electrical energy is disconnected. Class "C" fire
may be treated as either Class "A" or Class "B";
e. Extinguishers for protection of Class "D" hazards fire in
combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium, shall be of types
approved for use on the specific combustible metal hazard.
Only suitable dry powder extinguishers shall be used for
metal fires;
f. Toxic vaporizing extinguisher is not recommended for any
type of fire;
g. Extinguishers which need to be inverted to operate are
not recommended for use;
h. Soda acid fire extinguishers are not recommended for
use.
3. Distribution of fire extinguishers:
a. Extinguishers for light hazards Class "A" fires, where the
amount of combustible or flammable materials present are
of such quantity that fires of small size may be expected in
offices, schoolrooms, churches, assembly halls and other
similar places shall be located that a person will not travel
more than thirty (30) meters from any point to reach the
nearest extinguisher.
b. Extinguishers for ordinary hazards Class "A" fires, where
the amount of combustible of flammable material present
are such that fires of moderate size may be expected in
mercantile storage and displays auto showrooms, parking
garages, light manufacturing warehouses not classified as
extra hazard, school shops and other similar places shall be
provided meters of floor area or a greater fraction thereof;
c. Extinguishers for extra hazard Class "B" fires, where the
amount of combustible or flammable materials present is
such that fires of severe magnitude may be expected in
woodworking auto repair, air craft servicing, warehouses
with high piled (5 meters or over) combustible processes,
such as flammable liquid handling
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
1. This requirement shall apply to liquids with a flash point
of not more than 93.30C.
2. Liquids of flash points above 93.3oC which may assume
the characteristic of lower flash points liquids when heated
shall be covered by this provision.
Tank Storage
1. Tanks used for flammable and combustible liquids shall
be built of steel.
2. Tanks may be built of materials other than steel for
underground installation or if required by the properties of
the liquid stored shall be designed to specifications
approved for the purpose.
3. Unlined concrete tanks may be used for storing
flammable or combustible liquids having a gravity of 40
degrees or heavier.
4. Tanks located above ground or inside buildings shall be of
non-combustible construction.
Design and Fabrication
1. The design and specification used in the construction and
installation of tanks shall be as provided under applicable
regulations of the American Petroleum Institute and the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels Code, which are adopted
for this purpose
2. Plans for fabrication and fabrication processes shall be
approved and supervised by the Bureau.
Installation of Outside Tanks
1. Every above ground tank for the storage of flammable or
combustible liquids, except those liquids operating at
pressures not in excess of 2.5 psig. and equipped with
emergency venting which will not permit the pressure to
exceed 2.5 psig., shall be located in accordance with Table
45b.
2. Every above ground tank for the storage of flammable or
combustible liquids, except those liquids with boil over
characteristics and unstable or combustible liquids
operating at pressures exceeding 2.5 psig. and equipped
with emergency venting which will permit pressure to
exceed 2.5 psig. shall be located in accordance with Table
45 c.
Drainage, Dikes and Walls of the Above Ground Tanks
1. The area surrounding a tank or group of tanks shall be
provided with drainage to prevent the accidental discharge
of liquid to adjoining property or reaching waterways. When
the tanks under consideration do not constitute a hazard to
adjoining property, the Regional Office or authorized
representative may waive or suspend this provision.
2. The volumetric capacity of the drainage shall not be less
than the amount of the full liquid content of the largest tank
within the diked area.
Installation of Tanks Inside of Buildings
❖Tanks shall not be installed inside buildings except service
or supply tanks with a capacity of not more than six (6) gals
Installation of Underground Tanks
1. The distance from any part of tanks storing liquids having
flash points below 37.770C (1000F) to the nearest wall of a
building, basement or pit shall not be less than 30.50 cm. (1
ft.); and the property line, not less than 91.50 cm. (3 ft.).
2. The distance from any part of a tank storing liquids having
flash points at or above 37.770C (IOO0F.) to the nearest wall
of a building basement pit or property line shall not be less
than 30.50 cm. (1 ft.)
3. Underground tanks shall be set on firm foundations and
surrounded with at least six (6) inches of non-corrosive inert
material well tamped in place. Tanks shall be covered with a
minimum of two feet of earth or four inches reinforced
concrete slab on top of one foot of earth.
4. Vent pipes shall terminate outside of buildings and higher
than the fill opening. The size of the vent shall depend on
the filling or withdrawal rate to prevent the pressure in tank
to exceed, 2.5 psig.
Service Stations
1. Tank used in automotive service stations shall be buried
as provided in Rule 1945.06 but with at least six inches thick
reinforced concrete slab over one foot of earth.
2. There shall be only a maximum of three tanks in one
service station containing 6,000 gallons per tank and a total
aggregate of 18,000 gallons.
3. Above ground tanks used in automotive stations shall be
as provided in Rule 1945.05.
4. There shall be no smoking or open flames in the area and
the motors of all equipment being fueled shall be shut off
Processing and Bulk Plants
❖All buildings, installations and operations in processing
and bulk plants shall be as provided in Rule 1 1 60 and the
Philippine Electrical Code
Other Installations
❖All other tanks installed not in conformity with this Rule
shall reduce their contents to comply with the distance
requirements. Those to be installed shall be with the prior
approval of the Department
Combustible Solids
Nitrate Motion Picture Film
1. Nitrate picture film shall be stored or handled in buildings
of fire-resistant construction.
2. All rooms where nitrate motion picture films are stored or
handled, except motion picture projection rooms and film
vaults, shall be separated from each other and from all
other parts of the building by partition of suitable stability
and fire-resistance
3. Opening in partitions shall be protected by approved fire
door of a type suitable for the purpose. 4. Rooms in which
nitrate motion picture films are handle through which
workers pass, shall be provided with a minimum aisle of 80
cm. (31.24) width.
5. Explosion vents shall be provided in rooms or vaults used
for storing and handling nitrate films.
6. There shall be at least 3.25 sq. m. of floor area allotted to
each worker in every room and not more than 15 persons
shall work at any one time in a room where nitrate film is
handled.
Pyroxylin Plastics
1. Buildings used in the fabrication of pyroxylin plastics shall
be of fire-resistant materials. However, budding for factory
use may be of non-fire-resistant construction but shall not
exceed four stories or 17 meters in height.
2. All portions of buildings used in whole or in part for the
fabrication of pyroxylin plastics shall be provided with
adequate aisle space and have at least two exits remote
from each other.
3. No pyroxylin plastic shall be stored within I meter from
steam pipes, chimneys and other heating apparatus nor
within 6 meters from any manufacturing operations.
Heating equipment containing ignition sources shall not be
permitted in any room used for storage.
4. Smoking is prohibited in any establishment handling and
storing pyroxylin plastics and conspicuous "No Smoking'
signs shall be posted in prominent places.
5. Firefighting equipment of the right type and number shall
be provided.
Magnesium
A. Melting and Casting:
1. Melting operation shall be done in buildings of noncombustible materials preferably with a high roof for
adequate ventilation.
2. Pots and crucibles shall be inspected regularly and
discarded as soon as there is any evidence of possible
failure. Safety run-off containers shall be provided for
melting pots and crucibles.
3. Ladles, skimmers and sludge pans must be thoroughly
predried and not before contacting molten metal.
4. Flame-resistant clothing, high foundry shoes, and
adequate face protection shall be used by employees
working in melting and casting operations.
B. Rough Finishing and Castings:
1. Provisions shall be made for the proper removal of dust
produced by grinders and for the immediate quenching of
sparks produced. Cuttings from band saws should be swept
up at regular intervals to prevent excessive accumulation in
the work area.
2. Work benches and other equipment shall be noncombustible materials. If wood tabletops or other fixtures of
wood or combustible materials are considered necessary,
these shall be treated to render them fire retardant and
free from cracks or recesses in which magnesium dust can
accumulate.
3. Operators shall wear caps and hard finished or fireresistant outer clothing without pockets or cuffs.
C. Heat Treating:
1. Thermocouples used to operate the temperature devices
shall be properly maintained to prevent overheating,
2. Furnace should be tested initially and at regular intervals
to locate undesirable high temperature areas. 3. Furnace
shall be properly and tightly constructed. Gas or oil-fired
furnaces shall be provided with combustion safety controls
4. Magnesium to be put in a heat-treating furnace should be
carefully freed of magnesium turnings, chips and sawdust.
D. Machining Magnesium:
1. Tools used for machining shall not be allowed to ride on
the metal without cutting.
2. When holes with depths greater than five times the drill
diameter are being drilled in magnesium, a high helix drill
(45) degrees shall be used to prevent the packing of chips
causing resultant frictional heating and possible flash fire in
the fine chips.
3. Machinery used for machining and drilling shall be
provided with pans to catch the chips or turnings so
installed that the pans can be readily withdrawn from under
the machine in case of fire.
Titanium
A. Buildings
1. Buildings in which reaction chambers and furnaces are
used in the processing of titanium, shall be fire-resistant or
of noncombustible materials.
2. The main building shall have adequate ventilation and
doors at more than one location shall be remote from each
other. Dry rooms shall be of fire-resistant materials.
3. Floors in furnace rooms and dry rooms shall be of
noncombustible materials, preferably of concrete, brick or
steel plates.
B. Storage:
1. Containers of titanium tetrachloride shall be stored in a
cool, well-ventilated dry place away from the areas of acute
fire hazards. Containers shall be labeled plainly and stored
carefully to avoid mechanical injury.
C. Mechanical Equipment:
1. Furnaces and reaction chambers shall be inspected and
checked regularly to detect defects and leaks. No
equipment found to be defective shall be used until the
damaged parts are replaced or repaired and properly tested
to ensure safe operation.
2. Furnace setting must be kept dry and free of iron scales.
3. Fuel supply lines shall have the control valves at an
accessible location remote from the reactors.
4. Benches, stands, and tables used in furnace rooms where
special fire hazards exist shall be of noncombustible
materials.
D. Fire Prevention
1. The process that produces titanium sponge shall be
carried out in enclosed oxygen- free containers.
2. An inert-gas dispensing system shall be installed for
processing inert-gas requirement.
3. All pipes, fittings, and valves in the inert gas-dispensing or
distributing system shall be checked to ensure an
uninterrupted flow of gas to the reactors.
4. All containers used to receive molten metal shall be
thoroughly dried before using. All metals added to melting
pots containing molten metal shall be thoroughly predried.
5. Good housekeeping is essential.
E. Fire Protection:
1. Only extinguishers of the type developed especially for
combustible metal fires shall be used for controlling and
containing small titanium fires.
2. Portable fire extinguishers of appropriate size and type
shall be provided at locations where the presence of
ordinary combustibles constitute the principal hazard.
3. Where automatic sprinkler protection is provided, a
deflecting shield or hood be provided for the furnaces,
reactors or other places where hot or molten may be
present.
F. Safety Precautions for Personnel:
1. Special clothing of the type worn by foundry workers,
including high foundry man shoes, shall be worn by
employees engaged in tapping operations at the furnaces in
titanium sponge plants
G. Casting:
1. All titanium furnace crucibles molds shall be designed to
avoid the contact of molten metal with water.
2. When titanium is being cast, provisions shall be made to
retain spilled metal under vacuum or inert gas protection
and contact with water shall be prevented. 3. As in other
casting operations, molds shall be predried and heated to
remove volatiles before molten metal is poured into them.
H. Forging:
1. Fire protection in forging areas may be of the type
generally provided for fires in ordinary combustibles,
electrical or oil fires.
Zirconium
1. Good housekeeping shall be maintained. Periodic
cleaning, collection of dust at the point of operation and
removal of dust and fine scrap from the premises shall be
considered important steps in any fire prevention program.
2. Machining operation shall be conducted under controlled
conditions to prevent dust dispersion and excessive heating
that may lead to ignition of the zirconium.
Electrical Installation
❖All electrical installations shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Rule 1210
Emergency Systems
❖Emergency lighting system shall be provided to
automatically light emergency exits in case of failure of the
main electrical power line
Alarm Systems and Fire Drills
Sounding Devices
1. All buildings having two or more stories in height shall be
equipped with fire alarm system and signals of distinctive
quality and pitch clearly audible to all persons inside the
building.
2. Hand-operated sending stations of fire alarm boxes shall
be provided on every floor and located that the travel to
reach a station is not more than thirty (30) meters for
industrial and commercial establishments with moderate or
low hazard occupancy.
3. Fire-alarm stations shall be conspicuous, readily
accessible, and in the natural path of escape from fire.
4. Hand operated sending stations of fire alarm boxes shall
be provided on every floor and located such that the travel
to reach a station is not more than sixty-one (61) meters for
business establishments with moderate or low hazard
occupancy.
Fire-fighting Drills
1. Every place of employment depending on the magnitude
of potential fires and the availability of assistance from the
public fire department shall organize a fire brigade to deal
with fires and other related emergencies.
2. The members of the fire brigade shall be physically
qualified for the job and properly trained on fire-fighting use
of hose, line, ventilation of buildings, salvage operations,
rescue operations, first aid, and other related activities.
Fire Exit Drills
1. Fire-exit drills shall be conducted at least twice a year
year to maintain an orderly evacuation of buildings, unless
the local fire department requires a higher frequency of fire
drills.
2. Fire exit drills shall only include evacuation of persons and
shall not include salvage operation.
3. In buildings where the population is of a changing
character, the fire-exit training of the regular employees
shall include the proper procedure to direct other occupants
to safety.
Module 4
Background of Industrial Hygiene
 The environment and its relation to worker health were
recognized as early as the fourth century BC when
Hippocrates noted lead toxicity in the mining industry. In
the first century AD, Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar,
perceived health risks to those working with zinc and sulfur.
He devised a face mask made from an animal bladder to
protect workers from exposure to dust and lead fumes. In
the second century AD, the Greek physician, Galen,
accurately described the pathology of lead poisoning and
recognized the hazardous exposures of copper miners to
acid mists.
 In 1556 the German scholar, Agricola, advanced the
science of industrial hygiene even further when, in his book
De Re Metallica, he described the diseases of miners and
prescribed preventive measures. The book included
suggestions for mine ventilation and worker protection,
discussed mining accidents, and described diseases
associated with mining occupations such as silicosis.
 Industrial hygiene gained further respectability in 1700
according to Geigle Safety Group (2020) when Bernardo
Ramazzini, known as the "father of industrial medicine,"
published in Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial
medicine, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (The Diseases of
Workmen). Industrial hygiene received another major boost
in 1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg published a pamphlet on
occupational diseases and injuries among gold miners
 In England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a result of
his findings on the insidious effects of soot on chimney
sweepers, was a major force in getting the British
Parliament to pass the Chimney-Sweepers Act of 1788. The
passage of the English Factory Acts beginning in 1833
marked the first effective legislative acts in the field of
industrial safety. The Acts, however, were intended to
provide compensation for accidents rather than to control
their causes
 The U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of
legislation relating to safeguarding workers' health: (1) the
Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966, (2) the
Federal Coal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969, and (3)
the Occupational Safety and Health 45 Act of 1970 (Act).
Today, nearly every employer is required to implement the
elements of an industrial hygiene and safety, occupational
health, or hazard communication program and to be
responsive to the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) and the Act and its regulations
Overview of Industrial Hygiene
 Industrial hygiene is concerned with identifying,
evaluating, and controlling real or potential workplace
environmental stressors or hazards that can affect the
wellbeing of workers and community members. It is
sometimes called Occupational Hygiene, Occupational
Health or Workplace Health.
 The role of an industrial hygienist is to “anticipate health
and safety concerns and design solutions to prevent them.
They are the guardians of workplace safety, applying
science to identify and solve health and safety problems.
Industrial hygienists also unite management, workers, and
all segments of a company behind the common goal of
health and safety.
Key Components of Industrial Hygiene
 Ergonomics: The goal of ergonomics (the study of people
at work), is to reduce stress and eliminate injuries
associated with bad posture, overuse of muscles, and
repeated tasks.
 Noise: Long-term exposure to noise – both wanted and
unwanted sound – can lead to hearing loss for workers.
Noise issues can be addressed in several ways, including
designing a facility to minimize noise, separating workers
from noisy machinery
 Temperature: Both high and low temperatures can cause
problems for workers. If temperatures are too high, workers
are vulnerable to heat stroke or heat exhaustion; heat
stroke is a medical emergency that requires immediate
attention.
 Indoor air quality: Indoor air quality can be impacted by
many factors, including pollution from machines or tools
inside the building, highway pollution outside the building,
dusts from mechanical processes, or gasses
 Chemical exposure: Chemical hazards can take many
forms, from liquid to fumes to dusts, and can be absorbed,
inhaled, or ingested into a worker’s system. Some common
chemicals that can potentially be hazardous are cleaning
products, gasoline, and pesticides.
 Radiation: There are two types of radiation – non-ionizing
radiation and ionizing radiation. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
and laser radiation are the types of non-ionizing radiation
most likely to cause safety concerns, usually burns, for
workers; UV radiation is a problem for outside workers,
such as gardeners.
 Biological hazards: Living organisms such as fungi, viruses,
and bacteria, can enter the body and cause both acute and
chronic infections. Workers who deal with plants or animals
and laboratory or medical workers are particularly at risk for
biological hazards, but all workers can be at risk for hazards
such as mold, and bacteria that cause Legionnaire’s disease
 Eliminating or Controlling Hazards: Once hazardous
conditions have been identified there is a systematic
approach to eliminating or minimizing the potential hazard.
Industrial Hygiene and OSHA
The OSH Act sets forth the following requirements relating
to industrial hygiene:
 Use of warning labels and other means to make
employees aware of potential hazards, symptoms of
exposure, precautions, and emergency treatment
 Prescription of appropriate personal protective equipment
and other technological preventive measures.
 Provision of medical tests to determine the effect on
employees of exposure to environmental stressors.
How Are OSHA and Industrial Hygiene Related?
❖OSHA develops and sets mandatory occupational safety
and health requirements applicable to the more than 6
million workplaces in the U.S. OSHA relies on, among many
others, industrial hygienists, or IHs, to evaluate jobs for
potential health hazards. More than 40% of OSHA's
compliance officers are IHs.
Important IH responsibilities include:
 Identifying, measuring, and analyzing workplace health
hazards and exposures (chemical, physical, biological,
ergonomic) that can cause sickness, impaired health, or
significant discomfort.
 Recommending hazard control strategies to
eliminate/reduce hazards and employee exposure to
hazards.
Worksite Analysis
To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job
hazards and recommending controls, industrial hygienists
must be familiar with the characteristics of all hazards.
Major job risks can include air contaminants, and chemical,
biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards. A worksite
analysis is an essential first step that helps an industrial
hygienist determine what jobs and workstations are the
sources of these potential and existing hazards.
Recognizing and Controlling Hazards
 Elimination removes the hazard. This strategy eliminates
the hazard from the workplace. This should be the top
priority for all safety professionals including industrial
hygienists.
 Substitution reduces the hazard. This strategy should be
used if it is not feasible to eliminate the hazard. The idea is
to replace the hazard with a less hazardous substitute.
 Engineering controls remove/reduce the hazard through
design. This strategy involves the design or redesign of
tools, equipment, machinery, and facilities so that
hazardous chemicals are not needed or that exposure to
those hazardous chemicals are not possible.
AT 102 Auto (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Internal Combustion Engines
Automotive engines are internal-combustion (IC) engines
because the fuel that runs them is burned internally, or
inside the engines
There are two types:
Reciprocating means moving up and down, or back and
forth. Most automotive engines are 2 reciprocating. They
have pistons that move up and down, or reciprocate, in
cylinder. These are pistons engines.
Rotary engines have rotors that spin, or rotate. The only
such engine now used in automobiles is the Wankel engine
Piston-Engine Basics
Two Kinds of Piston Engines
The two kinds of piston engines are the spark-ignition
engine and the compression-ignition (diesel) engine. The
difference between them are
 The type of fuel used.
 The way the fuel gets into the cylinders.
 The way the fuel is ignited
❖The spark-ignition engine usually runs on a liquid fuel
such as gasoline or an alcohol blend. The fuel must be highly
volatile so that it vaporizes quickly. The fuel vapor mixes
with air before entering the engine cylinders. This forms the
highly combustible air-fuel mixture that burns easily. The
mixture then enters the cylinders and is compressed.
❖The piston compresses the air to as little as 1/22 of its
original volume. Compressing the air this much raises its
temperature to 1000 F (538C) or higher. A light oil called
diesel fuel is then sprayed or injected into the hot air. The
hot air or heat of compression ignites the fuel.
Engine Construction
❖Spark-ignition and compression-ignition piston engine
similar in construction. Both have pistons that move up and
down in cylinders. The same action takes place in each
cylinder, usually at equally-spaced intervals of crankshaft
rotation
❖In a four-cylinder spark-ignition engine each cylinder is
about 4 inches [102 mm] in diameter. The cylinder head
covers the top of the cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder is
open. As the engine runs, the pistons slide up and down in
the cylinders
Pistons and Piston Rings
❖Pistons are made of aluminum alloy (aluminum mixed
with other metals). They weigh about 1 pound [0.454 kg].
The piston is slightly smaller than the cylinder which allows
the piston to slide up and down. This is a sliding fit
❖Excessive blowby reduces engine power, wastes fuel, and
pollutes the air. To prevent excessive blowby, piston rings
are installed on the pistons. The rings are split at one point.
This allows them to be expanded slightly, slipped over the
head of the piston, into ring grooves cut in the piston
There are two types of piston rings:
1. Compression rings – These form a sliding seal between
the piston and the cylinder wall.
2. Oil-control rings (or oil rings) – These scrape off most of
the lubricating oil splashed on the cylinder wall, and return
the oil to the crankcase.
Reciprocating to Rotary Motion
❖The reciprocating motion of the piston must be changed
to rotary motion to turn the drive wheels. A connecting rod
and a crank on the crankshaft make this conversion. The
connecting rod connects the piston pin in the piston to a
connecting-rod journal, or crankpin, on the crankshaft. The
piston pin allows the connecting rod to tilt back and forth
Engine Valves
❖Most engines have two holes, or ports, in the upper
enclosed end of the cylinder. (Some engines have more than
two ports.) One port is the intake port. The other is the
exhaust port. Air- 8 fuel mixture flows into the cylinder
through the intake port. Burned gases leave the cylinder
through the exhaust port. The two ports are open only part
of the time. The rest of the time they are closed by the
intake and exhaust valves. The valves are plugs with long
stems that open and close the ports in the cylinder head.
When a valve moves up into its port, the valve seals tightly
against a valve seat. In this position, the valve is closed,
sealing the port
How the Engine Operates
During the intake stroke of a spark-ignition engine, the
piston is moving down. The intake valve is open. Air-fuel
mixture flows through the intake port and into the cylinder.
The fuel system supplies the mixture. As the piston passes
through BDC, the intake valve closes. This seals off the
upper end of the cylinder.
Compression Stroke
❖After the piston passes BDC, it starts moving up. Both
valves are closed. The upward moving piston compresses
the air-fuel mixture in to a smaller space, between the top
of the piston 14 and the cylinder head. This space is the
combustion chamber. The mixture is compressed into 1/8 or
less of its original volume. This is like taking a quart of air
and squeezing it into about half a cup. The amount that the
mixture is compressed is the compression ratio. It is ratio
between the original volume and the compressed volume in
the combustion chamber.
Power Stroke
❖As the piston nears TDC at the end of the compression
stroke, an electric spark jumps the gap at the spark plug.
The heat from the spark ignites the compressed air-fuel
mixture. The airfuel mixture then burns rapidly, producing
high temperatures of up to 6000 F. These high temperatures
cause very high pressure which pushes down on the top of
the piston.
Exhaust Stroke
❖As the piston approaches BDC on the power stroke, the
exhaust valve opens. After passing through BDC, the piston
moves up again. The burned gases escape through the open
exhaust port. As the piston nears TDC, the intake valve
opens. When the piston passes through TDC and starts
down again, the exhaust valve closes. Another intake stroke
begins and the whole cycle – intake, compression, power,
and exhaust – repeats
Valve Action
❖In many engines, each cylinder has two valves. One is an
intake valve, the other is an exhaust valve. Some engines
have more than two valves. These are multivalve engines.
They 16 have three, four, five, or six valves per cylinder. The
valve train is the series of parts that open and close the
valves. The action starts at the crankshaft. The crankshaft
drives the camshaft through gears, sprockets and chain, or
sprockets and a toothed timing belt.
Engine Operation
Multiple-Cylinder Engines
❖The actions in the spark-ignition engine can be divided
into four parts. Each part consists of a piston stroke. This is
the movement of the piston from BDC to TDC, or from TDC
to BDC. The complete cycle of events in the engine cylinder
requires four piston strokes. These are intake, compression,
power and exhaust. The crankshaft makes two complete
revolutions to complete the four piston strokes. This makes
the engine a four-stroke-cycle engine. It is also called a
fourstroke or four-cycle engine.
Intake Stroke
❖A single-cylinder four-cycle engine has only one power
stroke every two crankshaft revolutions. The engine delivers
power only one-fourth of its running time. This is during the
power stroke. During the other three strokes the piston is
not delivering power to the crankshaft. For a more even
flow of power, automotive engines are multiple-cylinder
engines. In general, the more cylinder in an engine, the
smoother it runs.
Flywheel and Drive Plate
❖The flywheel also serves as the driving member of the
clutch in cars with a manual transmission. In addition, the
flywheel (and also the drive plate) has a ring of teeth on its
outer rim. A small pinion gear on the starting motor meshes
with the ring-gear teeth when the starting motor operates.
Some engines have a dual-mass flywheel or tandem-mass
flywheel. This is basically two separate flywheel – a primary
flywheel and a secondary flywheel. The primary flywheel
attaches to the crankshaft flange. As the crankshaft rotates,
engine power is transmitted from the primary flywheel,
through torsional springs, to the secondary flywheel.
Module 2
Engine Types
Number and Arrangement of Cylinder
American passenger-car engines have four, six,
eight or ten cylinders. Imported cars offer a greater variety.
They use engines with three, four, five, six, eight, and twelve
cylinders. Cylinders can be arranged:
1. In a row (in line).
2. In two rows or banks set at an angle (V type).
3. In two rows of banks opposing each other (flat, pancake,
or horizontally-opposed type).
4. Like spokes on a wheel (radial type).
Three-Cylinder Engines
Two- and three-cylinder engines are popular in other
counties. The engine has an overhead camshaft and
produces 60 horsepower (hp) [45 kilowatts (kw)] at 5500
revolutions per minute (rpm). To save weight, the camshaft
and crankshaft are hollow. The cylinder block is aluminum
alloy with cast-in cylinder liners of cast iron. The camshaft is
driven from the crankshaft by a toothed timing belt. The
ignition distributor is driven directly from one end of the
camshaft.
Four-Cylinder Engines
Four cylinders can be arranged:
1. In a line. The camshaft in the cylinder block is driven by a
timing chain from the crankshaft. The valves in the cylinder
head are operated through valve lifters, pushrod, and
rocker arms. An engine with this type of valve train is often
called an overhead-valve (OHV) engine or a pushrod engine.
An electronic distributorless ignition system fires the spark
plugs.
2. In a V (V-type). The V-4 engine has two rows of two
cylinders each, set at an angle to form a V. The crankshaft
has only two connecting-rod journals. Connecting rods from
opposing cylinders attach to the same journal. This type of
engine is difficult to balance with counterweights on the
crankshaft.
3. Opposed (flat or pancake). – The Volkswagen Beetle has
an opposed (flat or pancake) air-cooled engine. It is
mounted in the rear and drives the rear wheels. The liquidcooled engine mounts at the front of the car and drives the
front wheels. Sprockets and toothed timing belts turn the
two camshafts.
 A V-type engine has the cylinders set in two rows (or
banks) of two cylinders each. The two rows are at an angle
to each other. For years, most V-type engines had the two
rows of cylinder separated by 90 degrees. Many newer Vtype engines separate the cylinder rows by only 60 degrees.
Five-Cylinder Engines
Several manufacturers have made five-cylinder in-line
engines. Mercedes makes a fivecylinder diesel engine. The
engine mounts longitudinally. The transaxle sends power to
both the front and rear drive axles. A five-cylinder
turbocharged spark-ignition engine mounts transversely and
drives the front wheels. A separate oil circuit supplies
lubricating oil to the turbocharger bearings. Small nozzles
direct a spray of cooling oil onto the underside of the
pistons. This helps carry away (or dissipate) the heat
produced by the highpower output of each cylinder
Six-Cylinder Engines
1. SIX-CYLINDER IN-LINE ENGINE – A six-cylinder inline
spark-ignition engine valves are operated by pushrods from
the camshaft in the cylinder block. The oil pump mounts on
the side of the block and is driven by a gear on the
camshaft.
2. V-6 ENGINE – The V-6 engine has two rows of three
cylinders each, set at an angle. The angle between the banks
is usually either 60 degrees or 90 degrees. The engine has
four camshafts, two in each cylinder head. A timing chain
turns the idler sprocket. It then drives the timing belt which
rotates the four camshafts.
3. OPPOSED SIX-CYLINDER ENGINE – Ferrari, Porsche, and
Subaru make opposed sixcylinder engines with overhead
camshafts. The layout of the engines is similar, with one
more cylinder added to each bank.
V-8 Engines
The V-8 engine has two four-cylinder rows, or banks, set at a
90-degree angle. The engine is like two four-cylinder
engines mounted on a single crankcase and using a single
crankshaft. The crankshaft has four crankpins. The V-8
engine has the camshaft in the cylinder block. Pushrods
operate the valves. The double-overhead-camshaft V-8
engine used in the Chevrolet Corvette. There are four valves
per cylinder, for a total of 32 valves in the cylinder heads
Twelve- and Sixteen-Cylinder Engines
These engines have been used in passenger cars, buses,
trucks, and industrial equipment. The cylinders are most
often in two banks (V or opposed). Some designs have three
banks (W type) or four banks (X type)
Engine Classifications
Arrangement of Valves and Valve Trains
Engine valves allow the engine to breathe. The intake valves
open to admit air-fuel mixture (air only in diesel engines) to
the engine cylinders. The exhaust valves open to allow
burned 37 gases to exit or exhaust from the engine
cylinders. Cams on the rotating camshaft operate the valve
train, which opens the valves
There are several different arrangements of valves and valve
trains. Differences that affect engine classification include:
1. CAMSHAFT LOCATION – The camshaft is either in the
cylinder block or on the cylinder head
2. TYPES OF CAMSHAFT DRIVE – Camshafts are driven by
timing gears, sprockets and timing chain, or sprockets and
toothed timing belt. Some engines use a combination of
timing chain and timing belt to drive the camshafts
3. TYPES OF VALVE TRAIN – Most automotive engines use
one of two basic types of valve train. These are overhead
camshaft and camshaft in block or overhead valve. In each
type, the rotating cam lobe actuates the valve train to open
the valve. The camshaft in the cylinder block may also drive
the ignition distributor.
4. NUMBER OF VALVES PER CYLINDER – Some engines have
more than two valves per cylinder. Some have three, four,
five, or even six valves in each cylinder. The purpose of
these added valves is to allow the engine to breathe more
freely. the added valves allow more air-fuel mixture to enter
and the burned gases to exit more freely.
Engine Rotation and Cylinder Numbering
Most automotive engines, both spark-ignition and diesel,
have standard rotation. This means that the crankshaft
rotates in a counterclockwise direction, as viewed from the
flywheel or output end of the engine. The cylinders in an
engine are numbered. In most engines, they are numbered
in the sequence in which the connecting rods attach along
the crankshaft. Cylinder number 1 is usually the cylinder
farthest from the output end of the crankshaft. Using this
method, the engine can be installed either longitudinally or
transversely without affecting cylinder numbering
the radiator to remove excess heat. They have metal fins on
the cylinders to help carry away excess heat. The small oneand two-cylinder engines in power lawn mowers and similar
equipment are air-cooled
Classification by Cycles
Piston engines operate on either the two-stroke cycle or the
four-stroke cycle. Automotive engines are four-stroke-cycle
engine. Every fourth piston stroke is a power stroke. In the
twostroke cycle, every other piston stroke is a power stroke.
This provides a power stroke during each crankshaft
revolution. The two-stroke-cycle engine produces twice as
many power strokes at the same crankshaft speed (rpm) as
the four-stroke-cycle engine.
Classification by Fuel
Spark-ignition engines usually burn gasoline or gasohol. This
is a blend of gasoline and alcohol. Some spark-ignition
engines, especially in buses and trucks, burn liquified
petroleum gas (LPG) or compressed natural gas (CNG).
Diesel engines usually burn a light oil called diesel fuel.
Flexible fuel vehicles can burn gasoline or alcohol-blend
fuels
Adiabatic Engines
Adiabatic means “without loss of heat.” In the standard
piston engine, most of the heat energy in the fuel is lost.
Instead of producing power, the heat leaves the engine
through the lubricating system cooling system, and exhaust
gas. The hotter an engine runs, the higher its efficiency.
More of the heat energy in the fuel is then used to move
the car.
Rotary Engines
In rotary engines, rotors spin to produce power. There are
two types, only one of which is now used in passenger cars.
The two are the gas-turbine engine and the Wankel engine.
There has been much research on gas turbines, but so far,
no practical automotive engine has resulted. In the gas
turbine, burning air-fuel mixture spins a power turbine that
is geared to the car wheels. The gas turbine is used
successfully in airplanes, helicopters, and electric generating
systems. In these installations, it operates mostly at
constant speed.
Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence in which the cylinder deliver
their power strokes. It is designed into the engine. The
crankpin and camshaft arrangement determine the firing
order. In most engines, the firing order evenly distributes
the power strokes along the crankshaft. Firing orders for the
same type of engine may differ. Two firing orders for in-line
fourcylinder engines are 1-3-4-2 and 1-2-4-3. Many engine
service jobs require that you know the cylinder numbering
and firing order. Some engines have cylinder-numbering
identification,
firing
order,
and
direction
of
ignitiondistributor rotation cast into or imprinted on the
intake manifold.
Wankel Engine
The Wankel engine has rotors that spin in oval chamber
shaped like a fat figure 8. It is a rotary-combustion (RC)
engine because the combustion chambers are in, and
therefore rotate with, the rotors. The engine operates on
the four-stroke cycle. The four actions – intake,
compression, power, and exhaust – are going on at the
same time around each rotor while the engine is running.
The “strokes” of intake, compression, power, and exhaust
follow continuously in each rotor chamber. This occurs as
long as the engine is running
Classification by Cooling
Module 3
Almost all automotive engines are liquid-cooled. The liquidcooled engine circulates coolant between the engine and
Piston-Engine Construction
Cylinder Block
The cylinder block is the foundation of the engine. All other
engine parts are assembled in or attached to the cylinder
block. Most block are cast from gray iron (cast iron) or iron
mixed with other metals such as nickel and chromium.
Some blocks are cast from aluminum alloy. The block is a
casting that has large holes for the cylinder bores. It also has
water jackets and coolant passages
Machining the Block
After the cores are removed, the block is cleaned and
machined. Then:
1. Holes are drilled for attaching various parts.
2. Cylinder are machined and finished.
3. If the camshaft is to be in the block, camshaft-bearing
holes are bored.
4. Surfaces to which parts attach are machined and finished
5. Oil passages are drilled.
6. Valve-lifter bores are machined (pushrod engines).
7. Coolant passages are cleaned out.
Parts Attached to and Installed in Block
1. The crankshaft, with main bearings, is attached to the
bottom of the block. (In the shop, the block is normally
upside down while the crankshaft is installed.) The
crankshaft fits into bearings in the main-bearing caps and
block.
2. The pistons, with rings installed and connecting rods
attached, are installed. (In the shop, the block is turned
upright for this job.) The connecting rods, with rod bearings,
are attached to the crankpins on the crankshaft.
3. Other parts, are installed.
4. The cylinder head with valves and camshaft (on OHC
engines) is assembled.
5. After bearing adjustment and installation of the head and
oil pump, the oil pan is attached.
Oil Pan
The oil pan is a plastic or metal. It is shaped to fit on the
bottom of the block. A gasket is installed between the pan
and block to seal the joint and prevent oil leaks. The bottom
of the block plus the oil pan forms the crankcase. They
enclose, or encase, the crankshaft. The oil pan holds from 3
to 9 quarts [3 to 8 L] of oil, depending on the engine.
Aluminum Cylinder Block
Many engines have cylinder blocks made of aluminum alloy.
Aluminum weighs much less and conducts heat more
rapidly than cast iron. Aluminum blocks have either castiron cylinder liners or are cast from an aluminum alloy
containing silicon particles. Both types of cylinder blocks are
used in automotive engines. This reduces vehicle weight
and improves fuel economy
Aluminum Cylinder Block without Liners
Mercedez-Benz, Porsche, and others use aluminum blocks
that have silicon particles in them. Silicon is a very hard
material. After the block is cast, the cylinders are honed.
This procedure uses rotating abrasive stones to enlarge the
cylinder to their final finished size. Then the cylinders are
threated with a chemical that eats away (or etches) the
aluminum surface. This leaves only the silicon particles
exposed.
Cylinder Head
Heads are cast from cast iron or aluminum alloy. They are
machined to take the various parts that are attached to or
installed in the heads. The cylinder head forms the top of
the combustion chamber. The piston and rings form the
bottom. Each of the basic combustion-chamber shapes
produces a specific effect. The wedge increases the
turbulence of the burning mixture, but has high exhaust
emission.
Cylinder-Head Gasket
A head-gasket seals the joint between the cylinder head and
the cylinder block. The gasket is placed between the head
and the block. Tightening the head bolts forces the soft
material pf the head gasket to fill any irregularity. These
seals the joint.
Swirl-Type Combustion Chamber
Another way to improve turbulence is to use a high-swirl
intake port and a masked intakevalve seat. This
arrangement causes the incoming air-fuel mixture to move
rapidly in a circular pattern. Several other arrangements
also produce high swirl and turbulence. One uses a small jet
valve, or auxiliary intake valve. It admits a jet or stream of
air into the combustion chamber.
Precombustion Chamber
A precombustion chamber is a separate small combustion
chamber where combustion begins. A primary intake valve
opens into the main combustion chamber. An auxiliary
intake valve opens into the precombustion chamber. Both
intake valves open at the same time. The auxiliary intake
valve admits a rich mixture. The primary intake valve admits
a rich mixture. A spark-ignition engine using a
precombustion chamber is a stratified-charge engine.
“Stratified” means in layers. Ignition begins in a layer or
pocket of rich mixture which is surrounded by a leaner
mixture
Exhaust Manifold and Exhaust System
The exhaust manifold is a set of tubes. It carries exhaust gas
from the cylinder head to the exhaust system. The manifold
attaches to the head so the exhaust ports in the head align
with the tube openings. An in-line engine needs one exhaust
manifold. The two exhaust manifolds are connected
through a crossover pipe. This forces the exhaust gas from
both banks to flow through the catalytic converter and the
muffler.
Intake Manifold
The intake manifold is also a set of tubes. These tubes carry
air or air-fuel mixture from the throttle valves to the intake
ports in the cylinder head. On in-line engines, the intake
manifold attaches to the side of the cylinder head. On Vtype engines, the intake manifold is between the two banks
of cylinder. Some in-line engines have the intake and
exhaust manifolds on the same side of the cylinder head.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a one-piece casting or forging of heattreated alloy steel. Counterweights placed opposite the
crankpins balance the crankshaft. The crankshaft for some
V-6 engines have spread out or splayed crankpins. A splayed
crankpin is split into two parts. Each connecting rod has its
own crankpin. This reduces out-of-balance conditions
Vibration Damper
This force tries to push the crankpin ahead of the rest of the
crankshaft. Then, as the force on the crankpin recedes, the
crankshaft untwists. This twist-untwist action repeats with
every power stroke. The action tends to create an oscillating
(back and forth) motion in the crankshaft. This is torsional
vibration. It can break the crankshaft. A vibration damper
(or harmonic balancer) helps control torsional vibration. The
damper mounts on the front end of the crankshaft.
Engine Bearings
Bearings are placed in the engine where there is rotary
motion between engine parts. These bearings are usually
sleeve bearings that fit like sleeves around the rotating
shafts. The part of the shaft that rotates in the bearing is a
journal. Crankshaft and connecting-rod bearings are split
into two parts. Each bearing half has a steel or bronze back
with up to five linings of soft bearing material. The bearing
wears, and not the more expensive crankshaft or other part.
NSTP 2 CWTS2 (Prelim Reviewer)
Module 1
Community Development, Involvement, and Participation
•The term community is derived from the Latin word
“communis” or “communitas” which means common,
public, or shared by. It is a physical place; however, it is also
used to refer to people or social groups who are living in a
same place, having face-to-face contact with one another,
with shared interests and characteristics or mutual relations
• Development is associated to the realization of potential
and growth, or making something more effective.
• Community development is an outcome and a process for
managing community change that involves citizens in
identifying the issues to be addressed, allowing them to
share their visions and participate in the implementation of
activities for the betterment of the community
• A few more concepts that relate to the attainment of
community development are community participation or
community involvement. Community involvement refers to
the power of people to bring “positive, measurable change
to both the communities in which [they] operate and to
[their] business”
• Community participation pertains to the involvement of
people in a community in projects that may solve their
problems within their localities. People are not forced to
join in respect to their human right and observance of the
principle of democracy; however, they are welcome to
participate in those kind of projects
Volunteerism
• Volunteerism is an act and practice of deliberately
rendering time, skills, and services over time for the benefit
of others and good causes without expecting a tangible
compensation. Some of the many areas that volunteerism
can serve are medical, environmental, educational, human
rights, peacekeeping, elections, and relief operations
• Volunteerism does not provide monetary profit to its
volunteers, it can bring them sense of confidence, selfgratification, and opportunities to interact with the world.
Furthermore, it helps them acquire social skills that will be
beneficial in other facets of their lives, especially when
dealing with other people at work or in their everyday lives
Community Service
• The higher educational institution (HEI) defined
community service as a tool in “[improving] the quality of
life of community members, particularly low-income
individuals, or [in solving] particular problems related to
their needs”. It can be delivered in various institutions such
as government and non-government offices, private
companies, or in any place where the assistance is needed.
Activities that are considered examples of community
service:
1. First-aid training or health care, preschool storytelling,
social welfare, social services, trauma counselling, group
dynamics, crime prevention, recreation, street cleaning, and
community improvement;
2. Serving in the youth corps as defined in the NSTP Act of
2001;
3. Assisting students with disabilities; and
4. Tutoring, supporting educational and recreational
activities, and counselling
Module 2
Governance
•The concept of governance is nothing new. In fact,
considered to be as old as human civilization, it is even
described as an “essential prerequisite for human
development”. Simply put, governance pertains to the
ability of the state to serve its citizens and manage the
resource endowment of the State. It is further defined as
the “interactions among structures, processes, and
traditions that determine how power is exercise, how
decisions are taken, and how citizens or other stakeholders
have their way”
Principles of Good Governance
Characteristics should be seen and demanded from
government authorities:
1. Accountable – A government official is answerable to the
people and required to take responsibility for the decision
s/he has rendered. His/her actions are also publicized in a
systematic, complete, comprehensive, and complete way.
2. Participatory – A government authority should practice
participatory management, wherein the public is allowed to
involve themselves in decision making process, through
their 9 representatives. In this sense, acts are created and
policies are implemented, in partnership with the citizens,
social partners, civil society, and private sectors.
3. Transparent – It is the government’s obligation to share
access to documents or information with the citizens that
are necessary in making informed decisions concerning the
nation, as long as it will not endanger the State.
4. Based on the rule of law – Government authorities should
closely follow the Constitution and its laws. Law
enforcement and decision-making should never be impartial
5. Efficient and effective – The services rendered by the
government officials to the public meet the needs of their
constituents and address the issue at hand. Thorough
analysis of the needs and having clearly-defined objectives
are the tools in achieving the desired goals for the benefit of
the people
6. Responsibility – The administration’s actions and
decisions should create legal certainty and eliminate
arbitrary rulings (or course of action that is only based on
personal discretion, and not on reason, legal judgment, or
facts). Responsible government authorities should be ready
to defend their actions and decisions any time because
these were implemented according to legality
7. Reliability and predictability – Local authorities should
gain the confidence and trust of the people through their
abilities and willingness to manage, and address the long
term needs or issues, by observing known and legal
procedures
8. Openness – The administration’s procedures, acts,
actions, and omissions should be available for checking or
external monitoring and evaluation according to predefined
criteria
9. Coherence – Developed policies, in accordance to the
needs of the people, by the government authorities should
be easily understood by the citizens. Political commitment
and sense of responsibility are also necessary in the
implementation of the policies
Youth Involvement in Good Governance
•Youth participation does not only refer to their practice of
exercising their powers to vote. It also means “participating
in youth representative bodies, and structuring their
organizations to be active and able to advance both youth
interest and those of their communities”. Their participation
in democratic (1) political, (2) economic, (3) social, and (4)
cultural affairs should be encouraged, in accordance to their
rights, without any discrimination. They can participate in
the decision-making process, and even initiate their own
community projects.
Benefits of encouraging young people to engage themselves
in good governance and community participation include:
 Being prepared for future responsibilities in terms of
community management;
 Making positive differences in their lives and communities;
 Encouragement of taking responsibility for their own
actions;
 Obtaining knowledge on democracy and rights;
 More representative decision making processes;
 Having new approaches and ideas in solving local
concerns;
 Accurate identification of the needs of young people in
the community;
 Provision of better services to young people;
 Improvement of the situation of youth in the local
context; and
 Prevention of social problems.
Module 3
Leadership
•Leadership is the art and process of influencing others to
obtain the necessary support and cooperation in community
affairs. It is also the ability to facilitate individuals and
collective efforts to accomplish desired goals. It appears in
two forms:
1. Formal leadership – employed by people who are
appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in
organizations; and
2. Informal leadership – exerted by people who become
influential due to their special skills that meet the needs of
others.
Traits and Foundations of Leadership
 High concern for task – The leader “plans and defines the
work to be done, assigns task responsibilities, sets clear
work standards, urges task completion, and monitors
performance results”
 High concern for people – The leader “acts with warmth
and supportiveness toward followers, maintains good social
relations with them, respects their feelings, is sensitive to
their needs, and shows trust in them”
 Cheerfulness – Optimism
 Generosity – Kindness; having the habit of sharing the
good, and looking for ways to help and serve
 Magnanimity – Nobility; having great ideals and ambitions
of doing good
Traits
❖Energy and adjustment or stress tolerance - Physical
vitality and emotional resilience
❖ Prosocial power motivation - A high need for power
exercised primarily for the benefit of others
❖Achievement orientation - Need for achievement, desire
to excel, drive to success, willingness to assume
responsibility, concern for task objectives; craving for power
as a means to achieve a vision
❖Emotional maturity - Well-adjusted, does not suffer from
severe psychological disorders; recognition of own strengths
and weaknesses; orientation to selfimprovement
Qualities of a Good Leader
Leaders have the power to shape communities,
organizations, and nations. In order to become good
leaders, they must possess qualities that help them guide
and influence people, and make positive transformational
change in the society. A good leader should be someone
who
 Enables people to feel and become empowered;
 Inspires values of caring;
 Ensures that learning and competence matters
❖Self-confidence - General confidence in self and in the
ability to perform the job of a leader
 Creates an atmosphere where work is stimulating,
challenging, and fun;
❖Integrity - Behavior consistent with espoused values;
honest, ethical, trustworthy
 Helps people foster a sense of unity;
❖Perseverance or tenacity - Ability to overcome obstacles;
strength of will
❖Cognitive ability, intelligence, social intelligence - Ability
to gather, integrate, and interpret information; intelligence,
understanding of social setting; extensive knowledge
concerning the job or the organization
❖Task-relevant knowledge - Knowledge about
company, industry, organization, and technical aspects
the
❖Flexibility - Ability to respond appropriately to changes in
the setting
Listed below are the virtues that are considered the
foundations of leadership
 Prudence – Wisdom; knowing the right thing to do and
doing it the right way
 Justice – Fairness and righteousness; giving each other
what s/he deserves (or his/her due)
 Fortitude – Resilience; overcoming the difficulties and
pressures of life
 Temperance – Self-discipline; bringing desires and natural
inclinations under the control of reason
 Industry – Diligence; working hard even under pressure
 Loyalty – Faithfulness; remaining true to friends and
principles especially in times of difficulty
 Responsibility – Being accountable and ready to answer
the consequences of one’s actions and decisions
 Helps members develop a sense of security and trust
among one another;
 Displays reliability and integrity;
 Exhibits honesty and trustworthiness; and
 Thinks of ways to help members develop a set of
intentions, outcomes, goals, and directions
Leadership Styles
1. Authoritarian/Autocratic leadership – In authoritarian
leadership, the leader announces his/her decision, dictates
policies and procedures, and decides on the goals to be
achieved, with no feeling of responsibility or accountability
to share the reasons with the group members. Completion
of tasks by the group members are done under close
supervision from the leader. This type of leadership is best
applied when there is a little time for brainstorming, or
when the leader has extensive knowledge and expertise on
the matter as compared to the rest of the group members
2. Participative/Democratic leadership – In participative
leadership, the leader offers guidance to the group and
allows the involvement of key people in decision making
and problem solving process, but retain the final say. Group
members feel that they are really part of the team; thus,
they become more committed to the group
3. Laissez-Faire/Delegative Leadership – In delegative
leadership, the leader imposes minimal direction and
supervision. S/he will provide the necessary instruments to
complete a project. However, s/he will only offer little to no
guidance, and leaves the decision making up to the group
members. The responsibility is still on his/her hands, but the
power to decide is handed over to the group