2.1 Review of Theoretical Literature 2.1 Language and Society Social relations and power are hidden elements within social interaction. They are interpreted and understood through the language used. The language represents the power in social life through the interaction between hierarchal positions. In the case of assuming that the language between social powers is neutral which is an assumption is supported by many scholars but Roger Fowler has a different point of view in this regard. He suggests in his writings, that there is no neutrality in any social interaction, rather each communication between different positions is based on purpose. Many reasons could be expressed through using different linguistics features such as persuading readers in a certain point of view or, influencing others (Discourse& Society, 1993) 2.2 Language And Power Many scholars such as Van Dijk (2001) examined the Dominance and Power in all walks of life whether in the major of linguistics or other disciplines. Viewing Power and linguistics as topics, Power is a way far from linguistics. It is relating to Sociology. While the field of linguistic in comparison between critical discourse analysis and other topics such as sociolinguistics, Critical discourse tends to have political agenda. It highlights the way that illegitimate dominance is used and embedded within news text or other texts. Many Scholars believe that field of discourse analysis has the privilege of perpetuation, and it could be involved in many disciplines. Based on this distinctive aspect of CDA, it is considered the most active element in research on social issues, and that makes critical discourse analysis flexible to combine it with other methods regarding humanities and social science. (Shalabi. 2009). Theoretically, to link power to critical discourse analysis, there must be a deep understanding of the interaction process between modals such as attitudes, knowledge, ideologies, and everything that accompanied the social mind representations. And a comprehensive cognition of the macro and micro levels of the social structure. (Discourse& Society, 1993) Social power could be measured by obtaining valuable tangible assets such as wealth in a form of cash, properties, gold, or a high-rank social position that takes many forms in a certain society. Power in other words means the control or superiority of one group over others which means other members are inferiors to the superiors. The power restricts the movement of people by influencing their minds. It takes multiple forms, it could be practiced directly or indirectly by following many strategies such as manipulation, persuasion, or dissimulation or it could be practiced through everyday talks and written text that seem to be neutral. All of these forms might be taken for the interest of the superior group. Discourse analysis comes as help- hand for those in need of understanding some hidden ideologies in a variety of texts and talks by shedding the light on the people who abuse the law, rules, and the inequality and rights of people. (Discourse& Society, 1993) To separate between a legitimate power that is based on justice and acceptable rules and misused power. We replaced the word power with the word dominance such as the dominance of white over blacks, men over women, or wealthy people over poor. The role of Critical discourse is to manage the legitimacy of domination, acceptance, and consensus (Herman and Chomsky, 1988) (Discourse& Society, 1993) Social dominance, which takes many forms of cultural, political, economic dominance, could be occurred within the same group members or dominance by outsides groups that are supported legally, and by the mass media, and it might force a hierarchy of powers. Some members called an elite work as a delegate for other groups some authority of planning or decision making to ensure attaining their ideologies. These Elites have exceptional access to discourse. (Discourse& Society, 1993) 2.3 Domination strategy Access strategy considers as a source of power or domination to access the significant commination events. It is an ambiguous analytical strategy (Van Dijk, 1989b, 1993b) (Discourse& Society, 1993) According to this notion, the language users or communicators may have more or less freedom or more access to the audience than others in expressing their opinions or agendas. Based on this idea there are a few people who could share their ideas freely. In a certain conference that is attended by hundreds of members, the journalists have limited contribution. There is a direct relationship between the access and social power as much influence that represented in audiences, members, contexts, talks, events, and conferences as much these members are elite and effective. And the priorities set for them in news media. On the other hand, lack of power could be measured by passive access to discourse: in other words, these members have limited communications in their everyday life such as family members, friends, or colleagues. (Discourse& Society, 1993) 2.4 Society and Language The management of access employs to reach the mind of the targeted publics. This concept is called social cognition. It is social because it is shared by groups of members who set the basis of social interaction and monitor the reaction and the social communication. Social cognition is in turn helps to connect both domination and discourse. These shared members constitute the contents by speculating beliefs. The norms organized such values and beliefs into ideologies, such as a freedom of a press, which consider the basic foundation of social cognition that serves the interest, principles, and objectives of a certain group. (Johnson- Laird, 1983: Van Dijk, 1987b; Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983 (Shalabi,2009). Here we come close to the core of critical discourse analysis:’’ that is, a detailed description, explanation, and critique of the ways dominant dis- courses (indirectly) influence such socially shared knowledge, attitudes, and ideologies, namely through their role in the manufacture of concrete models.’’ (Discourse& Society, 1993, P10) 2.5 The language And Media The media considers the most powerful source of information around the world. It refers to Radio, television broadcast, press, and World Wide Web. It acts as the manufacture of producing information and circulation of social meanings, and it has the authority to prioritize the importance of news that occurred in different places around the world through using a certain language. Based on the way the language covered the news, people will discuss the covered events that occurred in a certain spot in the world. Although there are huge sources of information, this excessive information does not necessarily represent comprehensive opinions, as it allocates certain people who have an authoritative power to represent a particular group. 2.7 Health And Media Studying Media is essential for medical sociologist as the information collected from the sociologists are very helpful to direct the vision of health care towards deepening the comprehension of the sickness for people who experienced it. Thus the medical field has been essential to all parts of life was away from the public before, so that new information of illness has come to dominate the minds in certain health care fields – perhaps especially so in primary care and in nursing (Armstrong 1983a, 1984). ((Language, Society and Power,2004, P) Mass media is a huge provider for information that regarding health issues, and people rely on these outlets when they get sick. These information can be provided by the media including attributes of what it is like to be sick, what causes illness, health, and cure, how health care providers behave, and the nature of health policies and their impact. Some Particular stories may be promoted by certain interest groups trying to exert domination over overpopulations. Mass media presentations of health issues are not ‘true. Even at their best, they are partial truths. Sometimes we may even feel they are collections of lies! And misinformation. The people who are responsible for producing mass transmitting messages concerning health have specific agendas, and this is might affect what is shown. As a local audience, we must decide to trust or distrust media messages in much the same way as we decide to trust or distrust medical advice or other expertise. Most importantly that we should be interested in which stories that regarding health care and health policy get informed and which are suppressed, and in how members of the media audience respond to transferred health messages. Another part of TV news’ surveillance role includes informing and educating the public on health issues. Evidence suggests that local TV newscasts produce a moderate amount of health information (107, 139, 140), but a closer examination shows that this coverage is missing. Local TV news health tends to be limited to serve personal interests. Local TV news tends to assign huge attention to cancer in comparison to national TV news, local TV cancer coverage is shorter. There is a very low possibility to report on preventive measures, and less potential to reference national organizations that make clear recommendations on prevention. According to newspapers, local TV can provide some new research findings regarding cancer, but they do not provide the local with some details that help the audience to have a sufficient understanding of the disease or the factors that causes. This missing information can increase fateful beliefs and leads to an excess of information. ‘’Indeed, studies using both cross-sectional and longitudinal data have found that greater local TV news viewing (but not exposure to print or online news) predicts higher confusion and fatalism about the causes of cancer and what can be done to prevent it (72, 92).’’ (Sarah E. Gollust,2019, P5) Missing and inaccurate information leads to underestimating the quality of local TV coverage. Although uncommon and flagrant errors have been recognized [such as coverage from 2002 suggesting that lemon juice may prevent the transmission of HIV, based on imprecise reporting of a laboratory-based study (miscommunication of core messages, missing information, and shortage of broader contextual detail are much more possible. For example, 46% of local TV news reports about the November 2009 US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) mammogram recommendations provide a false indication about the recommendations of avoiding screening the women of 40s. (Sarah E. Gollust,2019) News coverage tends to highlight conflict and dispute such as in announcing conflicting nutrition research (Sarah E. Gollust,2019) such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine (89)] to draw attention, which can also lead to bad consequences and confusion among the public (In addition, there is a tendency to report misinformation regarding funding which impact on the public interpretations of the news. 2.8 Critical Discourse Analysis And Van Dijk Modal . The main function of Critical Discourse Analysis is to examine the relationship of power, dominance, and inequality that emerged in discourse. A critical discourse analysis of language acts as a critical factor as the embodiment of particular power. A text produced a particular ideology. The development of critical discourse analysis give the rise to various theories and approach which also used in the research field. Fowler, Hodge, and Kress, Trew (1979) conducted the theory of functional grammar to apply critical discourse analysis. The theory elaborated that the language has three essential functions, namely; building and maintaining all processes of occurrences in the world (The Ideational Function); expressing the manner of the speaker toward the proposition that is already compiled, and explaining the relationships between speakers and listeners (interpersonal function), and presenting the coherencies and adequate language via text (textual function). Fowler, Hodge, and Kress Trew (Fairclough, N: 1995, h. 10), applying, the analysis of the three functions of language to explain the ideology in discourse. The analysis was applied only in text, namely; analyzing the vocabulary that used in the text; nominalization; and the choice of the sentences are used. , The Critical Discourse Analysis approach of van Dijk, defined as its approach to social cognition, includes an analysis of the cognition of discourse in terms of the creation of discourse makers and linguistic analyses. It is contributed in more depth to disjoint relationships of power and domination that were produced in the discourse. Van Dijk, dividing the materials of the discourse into three parts, as follows: text, social cognition, and social context. The text is divided into three parts, i.e. macro-structures, microstructure, and superstructure. Macrostructure is the external frame structure discourse with consideration to schematic superstructure discourse. Microstructure involves the linguistic elements that are used in discourse. Van Dijk installed four linguistic elements that are investigated in the microstructure, i.e. the element semantic difference, syntax, stylistic and rhetorical. Social cognition is present to the link between the text and the context. Social cognition deals with mental processes and cognition maker discourse in the production process of discourse. The existence of social cognition analysis submitted to the makers of discourse will further clarify how the discourse produced and context as what affected him. An analysis of the social context is done through the study of intertextuality, i.e. linking a discourse with the discourse of the related existing before and after. The link between social cognition, text, and social context are reflecting the tendency of a discourse. The advantage of the process analysis of the discourse made by van Dijk is how it connects between the text and the context of social cognition through the production of the discourse. Van Dijk's statements are similar to the ones by Fairlough that were mentioned in his book Critical Discourse. In his book he Analysis used intermediaries in bridging between text and context, by practicing discourse. Critical discourse analysis approach to three models clarify that discourse consists of text, discourse, and socio-culture practice. The measures of the text simultaneously have three functions, such as representation, relationships, and identity. The function of representation is closely related to how social reality is shown in text form. The practice of discourse regarding Fairclough is accompanied with regarding how to produce discourse, a discourse in the form of mass media relates to how the media (News author) create a text. This relates to the personal interest of the author as a newsmaker. (Habibie,2016), Sociocultural practice is classified into three divisions: situational (situation builders discourse), institutional (institutional influence), and social (social influence society). The contrast between van Dijk and Fairclough is shown in the analysis of the text. Although Fairclough has already done his analysis of the linguistic elements completely, he did not classify these elements. By reviewing the Critical emphasis that individuals could not consider as neutral subjects in the text. because the thoughts are deeply connected and influenced by the social power that exists in society. Therefore, the analysis of the discourse in this view is used to unpack the power that exists in every process of language. Depicting discourse as social practice leads to dialectical relations between discursive events with particular situations, institutions, and social structures that constitute it. The practice of discourse can also view the effects of ideology, for example, it can create and recreate the power relations that do not draw between social classes, men and women, the majority and minority groups through which differences represented in social position are illustrated. (Alvons Habibie,2016), 2.9 The Studies tackled Diseases Using Critical Discourse Analysis One of the studies that interested in dealing with communicable diseases is ‘’Retelling Ebola’s Outbreak Narrative" through Media Coverage of the 2014 West African Epidemic’’. This study covered The 2014 Ebola Virus Disease epidemic. At that time Ebola was unprecedented in magnitude, has been the concern of worldwide media attention. The way media coverage of the epidemic emerges anxieties of an inter-related world to reinforce prominent generalizations of Africa as dangerous and chaotic? The study compares this media coverage to the model Ebola “outbreak narrative,” using critical discourse analysis to contextualize representations of Africa within an increasingly linked world. The study assumes that media coverage reproduces a constructed Western understanding of Africa that will last long after the epidemic is brought under control (Millear, 2015). Media coverage of the Ebola epidemic is an appropriate situation to which critical discourse analysis can be applied, as inherent in any media coverage or commentary is a particular set of power relations, common and accepted cognitions of particular geographic places, and preconceived ideas of how information can and should be presented. An analysis of media coverage of HIV/AIDS, Sophie Wertheimer utilized critical discourse analysis to investigate how media coverage shed the light on the fantasies about disease and health regarding black people, placing media-produced disease discourse within a larger context. Wertheimer draws on van Dijk, who writes that “media discourse is the main source of people’s knowledge, attitudes, and ideologies, both of other elites and ordinary citizens” (as cited in Wertheimer, 2007, p. 31) ( Millear,2015, P19). Thus, referring media coverage of the Ebola outbreak to critical discourse analysis allows us to determine the prevailing ideas and interpretations, particularly as they concern disease and Africa, which are both informed by, presented, and repeatedly reproduced through media coverage. Therefore, critical discourse analysis is an ideal tool for this research question and this situation (Millear, 2015). The second study that uses discourse analysis is ‘’An Analysis of Denmark’s Public Health Policy Concerning Overweight among Pregnant Women using discourse analysis’’. This study tackles condition of overweight during pregnancy which has been categorized as a chronic disease according to a Danish public health report, indicating a discursive shift from its previous classification as a risk factor for both maternal and fetal health. This study analyses the relationship between governmentality and the certain kinds of subjects created through this governing. Foucault illustrates governmentality as follows: “This contact between technologies of domination of others and those of the self I call governmentality” (Foucault, 1988: p. 19) (Advances in Applied Sociology, 2017, No.6). Governmentality is a term of governance, which has a significant purpose to increase the right order, tranquillity, safety, health, wealth, and happiness.
