THE ANTHROPOMETRIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PROFILE
OF
HONG KONG ELITE MALE COMPETITION CLIMBERS
BY
CHUENG WAI YIN
06000797
AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)
HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
DECEMBER 2009
HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
4th December, 2009
We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Mr. Cheung
Wai-Yin entitled “The anthropometric and physiological
profile of Hong Kong Elite Male Competition Climbers” be
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education And
Recreation Management.
_________________________
__________________________
Prof. Tong Kwok Keung
Prof. Chow Bik Chu
Chief Adviser.
Second Reader
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this honours project “The
anthropometric and physiological profile of Hong Kong Elite
Male Competition Climbers” represents my own work and hand
not previously submitted to this or other institution for a
degree, diploma or other qualification. Citations from the
other authors were listed in the references.
________________________________
Cheung Wai Yin
Date: 4th December, 2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratefulness to my chief advisor,
Prof. Tong Kwok Keung, for his kindness and professional
guidance throughout the whole project period. I would grateful
to have helps and suggestions from Miss. Audry Morrison, who
is nutritionist specializing in climbing nutrition and member
of the UIAA Medical Commission. I would also like to give thanks
to Mr. Binh Quach from Dr. Stephen Hui Centre for Physical
Recreational and Wellness, for guiding me in the use of the
laboratory equipments. Lastly, thank you for all Hong Kong
Climbing Team male climbers and their coach, Mr. Tang Chi-Loi
for participating in this study.
________________________________
Cheung Wai Yin
Department of Physical Education
Hong Kong Baptist University
Date: 4th December, 2009
ABSTRACT
Hong Kong climbing team succeeded a number of brilliant
and recognized achievements in national and international.
All has indicated that the elite group of climbers had
definitely anthropometric and physiological factors for
high-level performance. Although there was a number of
studying about climbers in western, the general and scientific
information about Hong Kong elite male climbers still do not
exist. In order to fill this information void, eleven
elite-level competition male climbers (age = 30.18 ± 6.23
years), who reported Onsight climbing ability from 6c to 7c+
(French Grading) or from 5.11a to 5.12c/d (Yosemite Decimal
System), were studied. The measurement included body height
and weights, sum of four skinfolds and % body fat, arm and
leg span, biiliocristal and biacromial breaths, grip strength
testing, sit and reach test, bone mineral density and aerobic
fitness assessment. The result , which compared with normal
population in Hong Kong, indicated that Hong Kong team male
climbers’ height was normal range (1.72 ± 0.06 m) but lower
body mass (58.44 ± 5.63 kg) and percentage body fat (10.96
± 3.21 %) with good aerobic power (VO2max) (44.14 ± 3.75
ml.kg-1.min-1). From western climbers, high handgrip strength
to body weight ratio (0.81 ± 0.16) and higher hip abduction
flexibility (1.42 ± 0.11 m) was measured. In general, the Hong
Kong male climbers had a characteristics of arm span longer
than height (Ape index = 1.04 ± 0.02) and broader upper body
than lower part (Biiliocristal/biacromial ratio = 0.70 ±
0.02).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Page
1. INTRODUCTION.................................
1
Statement of Problem.....................
2
Purpose of the Study...................... 3
Significance of the Study................. 3
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURES......................... 5
Factors of Affecting Climbing Performance.. 5
Anthropometric of Climbers................ 6
Height and Weight....................... 6
Body Fat............................... 7
Arm Span................................ 8
Biiliocristal and Biacromial Breadths... 9
Physiological of Climbers................. 10
Bone Mineral Density.................... 10
Flexibility............................. 12
Heart Rate and Blood Pressure........... 13
Hand-Related Strength................... 14
Maximum oxygen consumption.............. 15
Summary................................... 16
CHAPTER
Page
3. METHOD.......................................
18
Subjects.................................
18
Procedures...............................
20
Testing Setting..........................
21
Measurements.............................
22
Body Height and Weights..............
22
Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure.
23
Skinfold Thickness at Four Sites ....
23
Arm Span and Leg Span.................
25
Biiliocristal and Biacromial Breadths.
25
Grip Strength Testing................
26
Sit and Reach Test...................
27
Bone mineral density................
27
Aerobic Fitness Assessment..........
28
Method of Analysis.......................
29
Definition of terms. ....................
30
Delimitations............................
31
Limitations..............................
32
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA.............................
33
Results..................................
33
Discussions............................... 38
CHAPTER
Page
5. CONSLUSIONS.................................
51
Conclusions..............................
51
Suggestions..............................
52
Recommendation for Further Studies.......
53
REFERENCES.........................................
54
APPENDIX...........................................
60
A. Data Record Sheet............................
60
B. Consent Form to Subject....................... 62
C. Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire
(PAR-Q)(Chinese Version).....................
65
D. Conversion Chart Used to Standardize Climbing
Difficulty...................................
66
E. Comparison Between UIAA Grades and Other Grading
Systems......................................
67
F. Predication of Maximal Oxygen Consumption from Heart
Rate and Cycling Power in Men................
68
G. Age Correction Factors (CF) for Age-adjusted Maximal
Oxygen Consumption............................ 69
H. The Four Sites of Skinfold Thickness, Biacromial Breadth,
Biiliocristal Breadth, Leg Span and Arm Span.. 70
I. The Individual Report after Measurement........72
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
Page
1a. The Individual Information of Climbing Ability of Hong
Kong Team Male Climber (N=11)................. 19
1b. The Individual Information of Age, Type of Climbing,
and Climbing Experience of Hong Kong Team Male Climber
(N=11) ....................................... 20
2. The Climbing Experience, Performance and Training of
Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11) ............ 34
3. Physical Characteristics of Hong Kong Team Male Climber
(N=11)........................................
35
4. Anthropometric Characteristics of Arm Span and Bone
Breadth of Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11).. 36
5. Physiological Characteristics of Grip Strength,
Flexibility, Bone Mineral Density and Maximum Oxygen
Consumption of Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11)..37
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
Page
1. The Graphic was Shown the Tests Area of Dr. Stephen Hui
Research Centre for Physical Recreation and Wellness..21
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Since former Soviet Union has started the first organized
climbing competitions in late 1940s’, it has grown rapidly
over the past two decades. Nowadays, more than 80 countries
climbers participate for challenging gravity around the world.
In 1989, The International Mountaineering and Climbing
Federation (UIAA) arranged the first successive annual World
Cup Climbing event. In 2006 the UIAA endorsed the creation
of an International Federation to regulate competition
climbing to meet Olympic Games requirements. The Competition
Climbing also successfully takes part in Asian Indoor Games
2005 (International Federation of Sport Climbing [IFSC],
2009). All showed that climbing gained credibility and popular
internationally.
Recently, climbing becomes a new area for scientific
research topic. The early science of climbing data in this
sport was focused on biochemical aspects by Williams, Taggart
and Carruthers in 1978. All the researches were studied on
western climbers without the data from Asia. Goddard and
Neumann (1993) suggested that the anthropometric
characteristics for the climbers’ athletes are one of element
to achieve the optimal physical performance. But, how to
improve the performance of Asian climbers is not known because
no published anthropometry data for Asian competitive sport
2
climbers existed. And, there is no generalization and
scientific information about climbers in Asia for researching
too.
Since the classic studies of anthropometric climbers
profile by Giles, Rhodes and Taunton (2006) and Watts (2004)
in western, there is no other research to examine the profile
of climbers in Asia. This study attempted to fill a portion
of the information of Hong Kong elite male competition
climbers.
Statement of Problem
There is not existed, available generalized information
about Asian Elite Climbers in anthropometric and
physiological aspects for studying and researching. In Hong
Kong, National Team Ranking of Hong Kong in IFSC climbing
(boulder) 2009 placed 23rd (IFSC, 2009). Mr. Lai Chi-Wai ranked
18th in IFSC Climbing Worldcup 2007 and 2rd in UIAA Asian
Championships - Kaoshiung (TPE) 2006 (Digital ROCK, 2009a).
In further, other Hong Kong male climbers also achieved high
level performance nationally and internationally (Digital
ROCK, 2009b; Hong Kong Sport Climbing Union [SCAHK], 2009).
All indicated that the profile of Hong Kong climbing team would
able to provide relative and representative information for
improving weakness and enhancing performance. Moreover,
lacking of caring the climbing-specific injury and health
condition would be showed though climber profile. In further,
3
the profile would able to facilitate in selection of youth
athlete.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was going to establish the
anthropometric and physiological profile of Hong Kong Elite
Climbers. It provided scientific information for further
studying and potentials use in climbing field.
Significance of the Study
Research on climbing has increased recently. Currently,
all the researches focused on western countries without Asian.
And, there is absolutely different the climbers between
western and eastern. This study is able to provide the
scientific information from Hong Kong so that the data serve
as the general image of Asian climbers for further studying.
Moreover, the findings are able to offer some explanations
for the unknowns of climbing.
The anthropometric and physiological profile is able to
help local climbers and Hong Kong national climbing team to
have clear, scientific information in order to develop other
alternative training for improving the performance and
analysis the exist training system and structure. All data
can act as prediction of health condition of local climbers
for preventing the sport-specific diseases and injuries and
enhancing self-awareness.
4
The analysis of eastern and western climbers thought
anthropometric and physiological aspects may help to
determine the elements of the best climbers. Moreover, the
findings of this study would provide useful information to
compare with western climbers. All the comparison is able to
discover the advantages and disadvantages of eastern climbers
in anthropometric and physiological. All phenomenon expose
in this studying may facilitate the further research on
climbing in Asia.
5
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURES
This chapter was aimed to summarize the past literatures
related to this study. The review of literatures was mainly
divided into four sections: 1) Factors of affecting climbing
performance; 2) Anthropometric of climbers; 3) Physiological
of climbers; and 4) Summary.
Factors of Affecting Climbing Performance
In the early studying, Goddard and Neumann (1993) suggested
that four factors (power, endurance, flexibility and
co-ordination) were important for climbing. But, in 2008
Draper and Hodgson summarized that the physiological
components for climbing and identify four key components
(strength, power, endurance, and flexibility) to successful
climbing performance. Goddard and Neumann (1993) have
described a six-component model for climbing performance
which includes: (1) background conditions—talent, time and
resources; (2) external conditions—available rock types, the
nature of routes and equipment; (3) tactical
aspects—experience, knowledge and planned goals; (4)
psychological aspects—arousal, fear and ability to
concentrate; (5) technique—motor skill, coordination and
awareness of specific techniques, and (6) physiological
aspects or physical abilities—strength, power, endurance and
6
flexibility. On the other hands, Mermier, Janot, Parker and
Swan (2000) reported that climbing performance could explain
by a component consisting of trainable variables. And, it was
not necessary to have specific characteristics to be
successful in sport of climbing.
Powers and Howley (2004) concluded that genetic played an
important role for endurance sports. Although genetic might
place a part of factors for climbing performance, Horst (2003)
believed that technical, mental and physical factor
contributed towards to rock climbing equally. If one even have
prefect climbing genetic factor, the greater climbing is
necessary to have a mental and technical training in order
to achieve high level performance. Other study about twins
also indicted that the gene contributed a part of performance
(Fox, Hershberger, and Bouchard, 1996).
Anthropometric of Climbers
Currently, there were a number of studies about western
climbers in anthropometric data. The most findings focused
on the followings items:
Height and Weight
In one study of climbers in World Cup sport climbing
competition, 39 climbers (Age 13.5 ± 3.0 year) relatively
showed small in stature (Watts, 1993).A similar result was
7
showed by his study of 11 male rock climbers by Watts et al.
(1996). However, Grant, Hynes, Whittaker and Aitchison (1996)
underwent the study of comparing between elite, recreational
and non climbers. And, all result showed that there was no
significant difference for the height. But, this was because
the ability of elite climbing level was set in 5.10a, which
considered as a normal climber level.
For the body weight, the lighter body mass was found from
World Cup finalists than semi-finalists (Watts, 1993). And,
the mean of body mass in the study of elite climbers also be
similar to World Cup finalists (Giles et al., 2006). Moreover,
the torso’s centre of gravity was further away and increased
body mass in taller climbers may fatigue earlier during
climbing (Watts et al., 2003). All identified small stature
and low body weight found commonly in elite climbers.
Body Fat
Generally, elite climbers usually were with low percentage
body fat. 5% body fat was found in the subjects in study of
World Cup participants (Watts, 1993). In a different study
by Watts et al. (1996), similar result was found by
investigating a group of 11 male rock climbers. However, Grant
et al. (1996) proofed that body fat did not show different
between climbers and general population. Recently, one review
concluded that subject ability, method of assessment and
8
method applied to calculate body composition might influence
the different conclusions (Giles et al., 2006). All evidences
indicated that skilled climber have lower percentage of body
fat than the public. Someone believed that climbing may be
improvement by reduction in body fat. But, there was no date
to show the relationship between percentage of body fat and
improvement of climbing performance (Sheel, 2004). But, Booth,
Marino, Hill and Gwinn (1999) highlighted low percentage of
body fat might enhance for climbing performance.
In percentage of body fat, different researchers
implemented different kind of methods to estimate the body
fat for interesting the effect its. Recently, one study
focused on the relationship between Skinfold thickness
equations and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. The result
discovered that Durnin and Womersley’s Equation (1974) was
the most suitable for estimating percent body fat in both male
and female elite sport climbers. And, Durnin & Womersley
skinfold thickness at four sites equation would only potential
to over-or underestimate percent body fat (Male = 1 2.7 ± 4.0% ;
Female = 24.6 ± 3.9%) by about 4–5%, relative with dual-energy
X-ray absorptiometry(Male = 13.3 ± 3.3% ; Female = 25.2 ± 3.6%)
(Romero, 2009).
Arm Span
Traditionally, leg length and ape index (arm span / height)
9
might influence the climbing performance because the
performer might approach the hold in the climbing wall easily
by longer arms and legs. Mermier et al. (2000) exposed that
adult male ape index (1.00–1.08) and female (0.96–1.11)
climbers showed on values over 1.00 significantly. Although
a positive ape index meant the subject had longer arm span
against height, there was no significant different showed
between control group and elite climbers. Grant et al. (1996)
also found same result from comparison with non-climbers. One
review argued that this was because the relatively small
sample size was a main reason to produce such result. Watts
et al., (2003) explained that there was significant
relationship ape index and climbing ability because of small
variability in ape index among the studied climbers. Giles
et al. (2006) believed that a positive ape index maybe an
advantage factor for climbing performance. And, Magiera and
Ryguła (2007) concluded that there is statistically
significant to use ape index served as diagnostic value in
the prediction of climbing performance. Although Ape index
might influence the climbing performance, Morrison & Schoffl
(2007) summarized that there was a room of studying the
relationship between climbing ability and ape index.
Biiliocristal and Biacromial Breadths
Biiliocristal / biacromial ratio was an indicator of
10
triangular torso. In the studying about ninety young
competitive sport rock climbers and forty-five subjects
control group, climbers had a higher biiliocristal/biacromial
ratio than control group. And, he suggested that
biiliocristal/biacromial ratio and ape index might a factor
for climbing performance. Moreover, the higher ratio in
climbers showed the low upper body mass for enhancing climbing
ability of individual (Watts et al, 2003).
Physiological of Climbers
Climbing involved a number of physiological factors. There
was a different findings explained the physiological changing
and adaption of climbers.
Bone Mineral Density
From the studying of Caucasian sport climbers by
España-Romero et al. (in press), the first finding covered
the bone mineral density between experts and elite climbers.
According to the studying of climbing exercise in Mice by Mori
et al. (2003), the funding discovered that voluntary climbing
exercise increased bone volume and transient osteogenic
potential of bone marrow. España-Romero et al. (in press) team
also reported that the higher values of bone mineral density
found in elite climbers group. And, the reason was concluded
the effort of muscles development stimulated the osteogenic
11
effect (Vicente-Rodriguez et al., 2005). And, Aloia (1989)
tried to list out all the factors might influence to BMD,
included (a) Cigarette smoking, (b) Excess consumption of
protein, caffeine, alcohol and phosphorus, (c) Diet, (d) Low
weight relative to height, (e) Genetic factor and (f) Drug
and Pharmacology aids.
Heaney and Matkovic (1995) summarized the discussion of
the factor of gene for BMD of individuals. Although it was
very difficult to separate between environmental and genetic
factor for bone growth and development, it was sure that gene
would place a role to influence individual BMD. Moreover, the
team suggested that Asian ethnic groups inclined to have lower
BMD.
Drug and pharmacology aids also would act an influence
factor of individual BMD. The Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in Hong Kong in 2003, Lau et al. (2005)
research the relationship between the duration of steroid
therapy and BMD in men patients in Hong Kong. The
corticosteroid and ribarivin caused that male SARS patients
performed lower BMD than normal controls. All showed that the
impact of drug for individual’s BMD. Moreover, some climbers
might utilize pharmacology aids in order to enhance the
performance too.
12
Flexibility
Musnick and Pierce (2004) summarized that three main
reasons of flexibility (a. enhance performance, b. correct
muscle imbalance, c. prevent injures) for outdoor fitness.
Some specific-climbing movements, such as bridging and heel
hooking, had to a range of flexibility for performance. Watts
(2004) reported that extreme abduction and external rotation
at the hip would be performed when the tuck close to the rock
surface. And, the high step movement also helped the climbers
to find a better foot hold. In the research of Grant et al.
(1996), his team tried to use a sit-and-reach test, a
foot-raise test, and a leg-span test for measuring the
climbing-specific flexibility. The data of sit-and-reach test
did not showed the strong different between elite climbers,
recreational climbers, and non climbers. The main reason
caused such result because climbing performance did not
require the flexibility of lower back and hamstring (Giles
et al., 2006). Moreover, Minkler & Patterson (1994) reported
that there was more valid for using sit & reach measurement
to determine hamstring flexibility and lower back flexibility.
Therefore, the lower finding was recorded. For the foot-raise
test, the climber demonstrated higher score than non climbers.
For the leg-span test, elite climbers had a higher hip
flexibility than other tow groups. Similar result also found
from Mermier et al. (2000) study, hip and shoulder range of
13
motion data for male and female climbers of varying abilities
were be researched. And, the team concluded that hip flexion
and hip abduction was not good indicator for assessing
climbing ability.
Heart Rate and Blood Pressure
During climbing, the exercise heart rate was influenced
by numbers of factors. There was a number findings supported
that relationship between heart rate and oxygen consumption
(VO2) during climbing was disproportion (Booth et al., 1999;
Billat, Palleja, Charlaix, Rizzardo & Janel, 1995; Mermier,
Robergs, Mcminn & Heyward, 1997). Sheel (2004) suggested that
isometric contractions of the forearm mainly attributed
towards increase the blood pressure and heart rate rapidly
during climbing. Therefore, VO2climbpeak was unchanged when
heart rate increase. Other comment told that the higher arm
position above the heart level might cause higher heart rate
(Mermier et al., 1997). On the others hands, Kuepper, Morrison,
Gieseler, and Schoeffl (2009) summarized that heart rate and
blood pressure responses to isometric gripping performed
above heart during climbing. And, the team pointed out that
the greater overhanging route was; the greater heart rate
record was. This was because the climbers must perform the
gripping motion above heart level, which increased the heart
rate in the overhanging route. Moreover, Williams, Taggart
14
and Carruthers (1978) explained that psychological factors
placed an important role for affecting the climbing
performance. And, the stress and anxiety might direct the
higher heart rate was shown (Mermier et al., 1997). On the
other hands, Sheel (2004) believed that there was a different
affective rate on heart rate showed from elite and beginning
climbers. Janot, Steffen, Porcari and Mahe (2000) did a
research on heart rate responses of beginner and recreational
climbers. The result explained that skilled climbers had lower
heart rate and higher heart rate of beginner was performed
due to psychological arousal.
Hand-Related Strength
Handgrip dynamometry used to measure the strength of hand
isometric contraction. Grant et al. (1996) demonstrated that
there is no significant different of handgrip strength between
elite climbers, recreational climbers or non-climbers for the
right hand. But, the left hand of elite climbers performed
greater values than others. Watts (2004) explained that both
hands would be used for climbing performance and elite
climbers have a great symmetry of handgrip strength.
España-Romero et al. (in press) also showed that total
handgrip strength of elite climber had a greater finding than
expert climbers. However, one researcher explained that there
is no different between climbers and public (Mermier et al.,
15
2000). Watts et al. (1993) found that the ratio of handgrip
strength to body mass ratio was significantly high in elite
climbers. And, there was a regression equation of climbing
ability worked by strength/body mass ratio. But, the
correlation r value was low at 0.33.
Maximum oxygen consumption ( O2max)
The maximum oxygen consumption ( O2max) was recognized as
the single best indicator of one’s cardio-respiratory fitness
level (Brown, 2001). Therefore, the greater maximum oxygen
consumption was, the better cardio-respiratory fitness was.
There were few studies of climbers about
O2max from treadmill,
cycling and climbing. From the research of four high level
climbers by Billat et al. (1995), the team concluded that rock
climbing did not need to a great aerobic capacity due to the
result of low climbing
treadmill
O2
climb-peak
( equal to 45% of running
O2max). But, they suggested that aerobic system
might use when climbing difficulty increased. Sheel, Seddon,
Knight, Mckenzie and Warbuton (2003) studied a group of
competitive climbers and increasing climbing difficulty
attributed towards the utilization of whole body
O2
climb-peak.
On the other hands, the first climbing treadmill was used by
Watts and Drobish (1998) for studying climbing
O2
climb-peak
with different angles (from 80 to 102 from the horizontal)
of wall. In the result showed, the heart rate increased when
16
the angle of climbing increased. But, the climbing
O2 climb-peak
kept approximately 30 ml.kg-1.min-1. Gile et al. (2006)
believed that the lower climbing
O2
climb-peak
than running
treadmill was performed because arm-specific
O2peak have been
reached. And, Watts (2004) also suggested that utilizing
anaerobic system during climbing might perform the low
climbing
O2
climb-peak.
The relationship between climbing speed and climbing
climb-peak
O2
was study and there was a positive linear relationship
was showed when climbing speed increased, the
O2
climb-peak
followed increasing (Booth et al., 1999). And, the research
team suggested that the increase isometric contraction time
during static positions and the loading of arms from angle
of climbing wall might increase the
commented that climbing-specific
O2
O2
climb-peak
climb-peak
. Watts (2004)
test still did
not show a clear relationship with actual situation. And, he
reported that traditional
O2max test modes, treadmill, and
cycle ergometry did not suitable for climbing, which involved
upper body mainly.
Summary
As information above, there are still a number of unknowns
in anthropometric and physiological of climbers. In
physiological aspects, the oxygen consumptions during
climbing still have a room to define. And, the impact of Blood
17
Lactate (BL) on climbing performance still is unknown (Watts,
2004). But, there is lack of protocol for climbing-specific
testing to provide standardization result. All findings are
useful for development of training programme and prevent the
sport-specific injuries.
In anthropometric aspects, although Sheel (2004)
suggested that trainable variable attributed towards climbing
performance instead of specific anthropometric
characteristics, most studies only involved western,
experienced adult male and female rock climbers (Watts, 2004).
Besides, the best climbers have been relatively youth. And,
more top ranking competitive result was achieved by Asian
climbers. But, few researches have focused specifically on
those target groups.
For selection of competition climbers, Schoffl, Mockel,
Kostermeyer, Roloff, and Kupper(2006) established the
strength endurance factor for concluding the climber
performance and showing the climber’s strength endurance
level within one climbing level. All might help to exam the
selection of national team.
18
Chapter 3
METHOD
The main purpose of this investigation was to establish
the anthropometric and physiological profile of Hong Kong
elite male climbers. The method in this study was separated
into the following sections: (a) subjects, (b) procedures,
(c) testing setting, (d) measurement, and (d) method of
analysis.
Subjects
Eleven male Hong Kong Team climbers (30.18 ± 6.23 years)
volunteered to participate in the study. Prior to
participation, participants were informed of the purpose,
benefits and risks of the study and all provided written
informed consent voluntarily. The subjects also completed a
health history questionnaire and a climbing history
questionnaire (Appendix A), which used to quantify the
training and experience of the subjects. The information about
the difficulty of level, frequency, type of climbing
experience (speed, lead, boulder, dyno, etc), self reported
climbing ability ratings (highest level consistently climbed
within 12 months), and frequency of training and type of
training programmes for climbing were obtained by climbing
history questionnaire. The individual background information
of climber was showed by the followings table 1a and 1b.
19
Table 1a
The individual Information of Climbing Ability of Hong Kong
Team Male Climber (N=11)
Onsight climbing abilitya Redpoint climbing abilityb
Subject
(Yosemite
(Yosemite
Decimal Scalec/
Decimal Scalec/
French graded)
French graded)
M01
5.12c/d / 7c+
5.14b / 8c
M02
5.12b/c / 7b+
5.13b / 8a+
M03
5.12a / 7b
5.12c/d / 7c+
M04
5.12b/c / 7b+
5.13b / 8a+
M05
5.11a / 6c
5.12c/d / 7c+
M06
5.11d / 7a+
5.13a / 8a
M07
5.11c / 7a
5.13a / 8a
M08
5.11c / 7a
5.13a / 8a
M09
5.11c / 7a
5.12b/c / 7c
M11
5.11c / 7a
5.13a / 8a
M13
5.11a / 6c
5.12a / 7b
a
Onsight climbing ability is when a climber ascends a climb
on the first attempt without prior information.
b
Redpoint climbing ability is when a climber complete a route
having already made a first attempt.
c
Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) is a rating system for climbing
route in USA, which ranked from 5.2 to 5.15b.
d
French grade is a rating system for climbing route, which
ranked from 1 to 9b.
20
Table 1b
The Individual Information of Age, Type of Climbing, and
Climbing Experience of Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11)
Type
Subject
Age
Climbing experience
of
climbing
(Years)
M01
26
Bouldering
11
M02
35
Bouldering
12
M03
23
Bouldering
6
M04
37
Bouldering
11
M05
21
Bouldering
9
M06
31
Bouldering
7
M07
40
Leading
16
M08
28
Bouldering
9
M09
37
Bouldering
10
M11
29
Leading
10
M13
25
Bouldering
6
Procedures
The tests were conducted in an air-conditioned laboratory
of Dr. Stephen Hui Research Center of Physical Recreation and
Wellness in Hong Kong Baptist University, with a temperature
and relative humidity at 22 degree and 70% respectively. The
subjects were asked to rest or undertake only light training
on the day prior to testing. The followings items would be
21
measured: (1) Body height and weights, (2) Resting heart rate
and blood pressure, (3) Skinfold thickness at four sites, (4)
Arm and leg Span, (5) Biiliocristal and Biacromial breadths,
(6) Grip strength testing, (7) Sit and reach test, (8) Bone
mineral density and (9) Aerobic fitness assessment.
Testing Setting
Figure 1
The Graphic was Shown the Tests Area of Dr. Stephen Hui Research
Centre for Physical Recreation and Wellness
In the setup, the consent form (Appendix B), Physical
Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) (Appendix C) and
climbing history questionnaire (Appendix A) was completed in
the reception. The subject was directed to area two for leaving
the belongings and measuring body height and weights. Next,
the measurement of skinfold thickness, bone mineral density,
22
resting heart rate and blood pressure and biiliocristal and
biacromial breadths was undergone in the area one with
sufficient private spaces. Sit and reach test, arm and leg
span and grip strength testing were measured in the area two.
Finally, aerobic fitness assessment was taken part in the area
three in order to reduce the disturbance.
Measurements
Body Height and Weights
Body height was measured by a wall mounted stadiometer at
mid inspiration. Subjects stand erect, feet together against
a wall on a flat surface at a right angle. The heels, buttocks,
upper back and cranium should close the wall. The headboard
was slide by measurers to vertex and the measurement was record
to the nearest 0.1cm.
Body weight was recorded by TANITA TBF410 BIA scale (TANITA
Corp., Tokyo, Japan), to the nearest 0.1 kg. Before the
measurement, an electrode site was cleaned by an alcohol pad.
Subjects were instructed to be weighed without shoes and stand
in an erect and eye-front posture, with heels together at the
center of the horizontal platform. Athletic male adult setting
in scale was selected and the subject’s height and sex was
entered into monitor. 0.5kg of the clothes weight was deducted
from the body weight.
23
Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure
Both resting heart rate and blood pressure were measured
by an arm-type oscillometric TM-2655 device (A&D Company Ltd,
Tokyo, Japan). Subjects were required to sit for at least five
minutes prior to the measurement for obtain the resting stage
readings. During the measurement, the subjects were asked to
limit arm and tuck movement.
Skinfold Thickness at Four Sites
Skinfold thickness was measured to the nearest 0.2 mm using
a Harpenden Skinfold Caliper (Lafayette Instrument, USA).
According to the Durnin and Womersley (1974), the four sites
(triceps, biceps, subscapular, iliac crest) were measured.
And, the right side of the subjects’ body was measured on.
These measurements were performed twice and the final results
were in average value of the two trials. The sum of the four
sites results was calculated and applied to the Durnin and
Womersley (1974) generalized skinfold equation to estimate
the subjects’ body density. The equation was:
Body density of males =1.1765 - 0.0744 (log10 Σ4a)
Σ4a = triceps + biceps + subscapular + iliac crest skinfolds
(mm)
24
The body density was converted to percent body fat using the
population-specific conversion formula. The formula was
(4.97)/Db-4.52 (Heyward, 2002).
Triceps skinfold. The vertical skinfiold was raised by
measurer from the lateral surfaces of halfway between the
acromion process and the superior head of the radius on the
posterior aspect of the arm, with anatomical position (Schell
& Leelarthaepin, 1994).
Biceps skinfold. The vertical skinfiold was raised by
measurer on the anterior surface of the arm at the intersection
of extended mid-acromiale-rdiale line and the vertical line
in the middle of the belly of the biceps muscle (Schell &
Leelarthaepin, 1994).
Subscapular skinfold. Approaching the inferior surface of
inferior angle of the scapula, the measure point was about
20 mm below the inferior angle of the scapula and 45° to the
lateral side of the body (Schell & Leelarthaepin, 1994).
Iliac crest skinfold. The left hand of subject against the
left hip was supported while palpating the crest of ilium was
performed by measurer. The site on the most lateral aspect
of the iliac tubercle was iliac crest and line of this skinfold
25
generally runs slightly downward posterior–anterior was
measured (Durnin & Womersley, 1974; Schell & Leelarthaepin,
1994).
Arm Span and Leg Span
For arm span, subjects were measured with the back against
floor with one reference line and the arms outstretched
laterally at the height of the shoulders. Total distance from
the tip of one middle finger to the tip of the other middle
finger in the nearest 0.5 cm by anthropometry tape was measured
(Mermier et al., 2000).
For leg span, the subject was laid flat in a supine position.
Their feet were placed as far as possible voluntarily while
keeping their knees straight. The distance from medial
calcaneus to medial calcaneus was measured by anthropometry
tape in the nearest 0.5 cm (Grant, 1996).
Biiliocristal and Biacromial Breadths
Biiliocristal breadth was measured as the distance between
the most lateral points on the superior border of the iliac
crest. The measurer was stand in front of the subject and the
site was located by digits and was applied the branches of
the anthropometer used as a sliding caliper. The branches of
the caliper point upwards at an angle of about 45° from the
horizontal to compass the largest diameter between the lateral
26
aspects of the iliac crests. Firm pressure was applied to the
branches over the iliac sites by the measurer index fingers
in the nearest 0.2 mm (Schell & Leelarthaepin, 1994).
Biacromial breadth was measured as the distance between
the most lateral points on the acromion processes when
subjects stand with arms relaxed by the side. The measurer
was stand behind the subject and the site was located with
third digit and was applied the branches of the anthropometer
used as a sliding caliper. The branches of the caliper point
upwards at an angle of about 45° from the horizontal to compass
the largest diameter between acromial processes. Firm
pressure was applied to the branches over the acromial sites
by the measurer index fingers in the nearest 0.2 mm (Schell
& Leelarthaepin, 1994).
Grip Strength Testing
The Handgrip dynamometer used was from Takei Scientific
Instruments Co.,Ltd, Japan. Before the test, the handgrip size
was adjusted to the second joint of the middle finger of the
subject’s hand holding the dynamometer was bent at a 90 degree
angle.
Subjects were asked to keep their arm straight and slightly
abducted during grip strength testing. Each subject squeezed
the dynamometer with his maximal grip strength in a 3-second
period without swinging their arm around. Left and right hands
27
were tested individually. Three trials for each hand were
given and the best score in the nearest 0.5 kg was used as
the final result.
Sit and Reach Test
Before the measurements, subjects were offered sufficient
time for stretching. They sat on the mat without shoes, with
both legs extended so the bottom of the feet was fact against
the modified sit and reach box (Acuflex I, Novel Products Inc.
Addison, IL, U.S.). The hands were placed one on top of the
others, with neither set of fingers extending beyond the other.
The participants were required to stretch as far as they could
and hold the position for 3 seconds. They were allowed a
practice trial before three tests. The highest score in the
nearest 0.5 cm was recorded for analysis.
Bone mineral density
Before the measurements, the dominant foot of subject was
washed and dry. The subject was asked to sit in front of the
Ultrasonic Bone Densitometer (Achilles Plus Solo, Lunar Corp.
Madison, WI, U.S.) with minimal motion during the measurement.
After the background information of subject was inputted, the
dominant foot was put into measuring site. Spending about 10
minutes, the T scores and Z score was record.
T scores is the number of standard deviations (SD) above
28
or below the young adult mean, which ranked from -4 to 4. The
young adult mean is the expected bone mineral density (BMD)
normal value for the patient compared to others of the same
sex and ethnicity (American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons
[AAOS], 2009).
Z score is the number of standard deviations (SD) a
patient's bone mineral density compared with the average BMD
of their age, sex, and ethnicity, which ranked from -4 to 4
(AAOS, 2009).
Aerobic Fitness Assessment
Before the test, the subject was hooked up the heart rate
monitor (S625, Polar Electro, Finland) and blood pressure
monitor. And, the timing equipment was used for the test. The
seat and handle bars of cycle ergometer (839E Digital
Ergometer Testing Bike, Monark, Sweden) were adjusted for the
subject.
The
protocol
of
Astrand-Rhyming
Submaximun
Cycle
Ergometer Test (Astrand & Ryhming, 1954) was used. Subject
completed a standardize warm-up exercise before starting the
test.
The initial work rate was determined by the followings
guide:
•
Conditioned males over 40 age:
Watts)
600 kpm.min-1
(100
29
•
Conditioned males under 40 age:
600 or 900 kpm.min-1
(100 or 150 Watts)
For the initial, subject exercised at the chosen work rate.
The heart rate and blood pressure was recorded every minute.
For subject over 40 ages, if heart rate is under 120 bpm after
2 minutes of exercise, increase work rate by 150 to 300 kpm.min-1
(25 to 50 Watts). For subject under 40 ages, if heart rate
is under 130 bpm after 2 minutes of exercise, increase work
rate by 300 kpm.min-1 (50 Watts).
Until 5th and 6th minute heart rate difference was under 5
bpm, the subject was asked to cool down. If the heart rate
difference was over 5 bpm, the test was continued until heart
rate difference was under 5 bpm. And, the test did not go longer
than 10 minutes. And, the test would be stopped if the heart
rate exceeded 170 bpm (or 85% of predicted maximum heart rate).
For the cool down period, light exercise was done by subject
until the heart rate under 100 bpm. For the result, the heart
rate was used to estimate the value of oxygen consumption
(L.min-1) and multiplied by the appropriate age correction
factor in Appendix F & G.
Methods of Analysis
Data were reported as mean and ±standard deviation, as well
as minimum and maximum values of variables were analyzed by
30
the “Statistic Package of Social Science 14.0 for windows”
(SPSS 14.0) software.
Definition of Terms
For a better understanding of this study, the terms that
would be used commonly were defined as follow:
Elite Climbers
The experienced climbers are able to complete the 7a grade
route or up climbing grades in French Grade (5.12a or up
climbing grades in Yosemite Decimal Scale) within the previous
12 months (Horst, 2003).
Climbing Competition
There is three type of climbing competition existed:
1.
Lead (Difficulty): Competitors are allowed one preview and
one attempt at a clean ascent. Each climber would perform
the same difficulty route for competition. The height the
climber achieves on the wall will determine the number of
points awards for the climb (Long, 2007).
2.
Top rope (speed): The top roped Climbers can reach the top
of the route first against the shortest time (Long, 2007).
3.
Bouldering: Fast-paced events with short routes where
several climbers can operate at the same time on different
problems. Usually three attempts are allowed, with
diminishing points awards for success (Long, 2007).
31
Onsight Climbing Ability
Climbed from the ground in one go, placing quickdraws,
first attempt, no prior in-depth knowledge or inspection (Long,
2007).
Redpoint Climbing Ability
Completing a route without failing or weighting the rope,
have already made a first attempt (Burbach, 2004).
Delimitations
The results of the study would be delimited by the
followings:
1. Hong Kong team male climbers aged between 26 and 37, with
6-16 years climbing experiences participated in the study.
2. The subjects took the test in the Dr. Stephen Hui Research
Centre for Physical Recreation and Wellness located at Hong
Kong Baptist University.
3. Each subjects had to finish all the tests and measurements
within the same day, unless they were unable to finish the
some measurements because of any illness, injury or
discomfort.
4. Maximum oxygen consumption measurement was delimited by
using indirect method of Astrand-Rhyming Submaximun Cycle
Ergometer Test.
32
Limitations
The following limitations were understood for the purpose
of interpreting this study:
1.
Data were collected in different date and time.
2.
The study could not control other variables that might have
affected the maximum oxygen consumption of the athletes,
such as recovery from sickness, injury or discomfort.
3.
The performance of the subjects might vary according to
their daily life and the physical activity level.
4.
The effort and motivation of the subjects in performing
the sit and reach, arm and leg span were uncontrollable
which might influence the results of the study.
5.
Most of the tests and measurements used to assess subjects
have not been specifically designed for climbers.
6.
The Onsight and Redpoint ability was self-reported by the
climbers.
7.
The history of diseases and medication affecting bone
metabolism and family history of osteoporosis might affect
the result of bone mineral density.
8.
The Ultrasonic Bone Densitometer did not use Hong Kong or
Chinese norms for comparing with the patients’ bone mineral
density.
33
Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The main purpose of this study was to attempt the
anthropometric and physiological profile of Hong Kong elite
male competition climbers. This chapter was divided into two
main sessions, which were results and discussions.
Results
Eleven male Hong Kong Team climbers were invited to take
part in this study. Mean self reported Onsight and Redpoint
climbing ability within 12 month period were recorded
according to Watts et al. (1993) conversion chart and
converted under UIAA standard(Appendix D & E).All of climbers
have been participated climbing competitions and tournaments
in Hong Kong and international events. Some of climbers also
achieved a high level ranking in Chinese national climbing
competition. From the questionnaire, the training programme
showed that most of the climbers (N= 7) focused on climbing
technical, climbing endurance, and bouldering. One individual
spent the time on circuit training and weight climbing. Two
climbers reported that they did not spend the time on doing
any training at all.
The summary of descriptive statistics about self reported
Onsight and Redpoint climbing ability, climbing experience,
climbing frequency and frequency of training of the Hong Kong
Team male climber were showed in Table 2.
34
Table 2
The Climbing Experience, Performance and Training of Hong Kong
Team Male Climber (N=11)
Onsight climbing ability
Minimum
Maximum
Mean ± SD
6c
7c+
7a+
7b
8c
8a
6.00
16.00
9.72 ± 2.90
1.00
25.00
10.09 ± 6.57
0.00
7.00
3.18 ± 2.08
(French Grading)
Redpoint climbing ability
(French Grading)
Climbing experience (years)
Climbing frequency (hours
per week)
Frequency of training (days
per week)
35
Measurements of physical characteristics of the subjects
included age, weight, and height for BMI, sum of skinfold
thickness at four sites for the estimation % body fat of tested
Hong Kong Team male climber were summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
Physical Characteristics of Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11)
Minimum
Maximum
Mean ± SD
Age (years)
21.00
40.00 30.18 ± 6.32
Weight (kg)
50.60
70.20 58.44 ± 5.63
1.62
1.81 1.72 ± 0.06
Body mass index (kg/m2)
17.67
21.43 19.57 ± 0.89
∑4 Skinfolds (mm)
16.65
37.60 24.80 ± 6.14
5.80
17.18 10.96 ± 3.21
Height (m)
Body fat (%)
36
Table 4 illustrated the mean record of anthropometric
characteristics in arm span for Ape index, and
biliocrist/biacrom ratio by biiliocristal and biacromial
breadth in Hong Kong Team male climber.
Table 4
Anthropometric Characteristics of Arm span and Bone Breadth
of Hong Kong Team Male Climber (N=11)
Minimum
Maximum
Mean ± SD
Arm span (cm)
1.70
1.95 1.81 ± 0.08
Ape index (Arm Span/Height)
0.99
1.08 1.04 ± 0.02
Biiliocristal breadth (cm)
1.18
1.61 1.42 ± 0.11
32.10
38.50 35.09 ± 1.94
0.71
0.80 0.70 ± 0.02
Biacromial breadth (cm)
Biiliocristal/biacromial
ratio
37
Table 5 showed the descriptive statistics included mean,
standard deviation and range of physiological characteristics,
such as grip strength, flexibility, bone mineral density and
maximum oxygen consumption of Hong Kong Team male climber.
Table 5
Physiological Characteristics of Grip Strength, Flexibility,
Bone Mineral Density and Aerobic Fitness of Hong Kong Team
Male Climber (N=11)
Minimum
Maximum
Mean ± SD
Right handgrip strength (kg)
35.00
68.00 48.09 ± 9.49
Left handgrip strength (kg)
37.00
61.00 46.27 ± 8.61
Relative handgrip strength
0.63
1.19
0.81 ± 0.16
1.18
1.61
1.42 ± 0.11
Bone mineral density (T score)
-1.80
2.50
0.05 ± 1.25
Bone mineral density (Z score)
-1.80
2.90
0.72 ± 1.19
Aerobic fitness(ml.kg-1.min-1)
38.93
(kg/kg of weight)
Leg span (cm)
50.40 44.14 ± 3.75
38
Discussions
In each section, it was generally divided into three
aspects; they are (1) Background information of Hong Kong
climbing team, (2) Anthropometric characteristics of Hong
Kong climbing Team, and (3) Physiological characteristics of
Hong Kong climbing Team.
Background Information of Hong Kong Climbing Team
Body weight, height, body mass index and % body fat. Body
weight might influence climbing ability. From the review of
“Athlete Profile for Rock Climbing” by Watts (2004), small
stature and low body mass was a theoretical athlete model of
high level rock climbers. Billat et al. (1995) discovered that
climbers had on average 1.8 m in height compared with other
studies. In one research of a large group (n=90) of young
climbers (age 13.50 ± 3.00 years) by Watts et al. (2003),
climbers were also significantly shorter (158.50 ± 15.20 cm)
and lighter (47.80 ± 13.40 kg) compared with the population
of non climbers (p<0.01).
Using the physical characteristics of Hong Kong male
population (N=196) by Wong et al., (2008), Hong Kong team male
climbers showed that same height (1.72 ± 0.06 m) with the public
(1.72 ± 0.06m) and significant lighter weight (58.44 ± 5.63
kg) than the public (67.00 ± 11.00 kg) in 30 - 39 age group
(N = 47). And, Hong Kong team climbers performed lower body
39
mass index (19.57 ± 0.89 kg/m2) than the public 22.70 ± 3.10
kg/m2) in 30 - 39 age group (N = 47). From the similar climbing
background with Hong Kong team, one studying in United State
of American about 9 male climbers (climbing ability 5.11 /
7a), age 26.70 ± 7.80 years, were teller (1.75 ± 0.05 m),
heavier (66.30 ± 6.40 kg) than Hong Kong male climbers (Mermier
et al., 1997). And, the body mass index of Hong Kong team male
climbers placed slightly higher of underweight category (l8.5
kg/m2) (National Institutes of Health [NIH] and National Heart,
Lung and Blood Institute [NHLBI], 1998).
In the percentage of body fat, Hong Kong team male climbers
also demonstrated the lower body fat (10.96 ± 3.21%) compared
with normal population (20.00 ± 7.30%) (Wong et al., 2008).
And, one United Kingdom study about the % body fat of elite
climbers with Durnin & Womersley skinfold thickness at four
sites equation (14.00 ± 3.70%) heavier than Hong Kong (Grant
et al., 1996). All indicated that Hong Kong team male climbers
had relatively lower percentage of body fat.
Watts et al. (2003) explained that the work requirement
of movement along the climbing route would reduce because of
small stature and low body mass in climbers. Although the
teller individuals may able to approach more hand-holds in
the climbing wall, the longer moment arms maybe contributed
towards a biomechanical disadvantages to resistance forces
whose torso’s centre of gravity were further away. Moreover,
40
taller individuals would be relatively heavier. The heavier
body mass increased the workload of climbing the route and
maintaining the position with the holds (Watts, 2004). So,
the lighter mass of performers required a less force output
to maintain position and hand configuration. Therefore, the
taller and heavier climber could reach the level of fatigue
faster than smaller and lighter climbers.
There was advantage for climbers to keep the lower
percentage of body fat because of reduction workload for
climbing (Watts, 2004). Heyward (2002) suggested that body
fatness of males is about 10% to 20% for maintain health
condition. 6% to 10 % of body fat was classified as low and
the individuals might have an eating disorder. Some expression
considered the health of climbers, who had extremely low body
fat and maybe potential for eating disorder. There was one
individual showed only 5.80% of body fat in this study. On
the other hands, tow climbers showed 16.00% of body fat higher
than the mean of foreign climbers. Powers and Howley (2004)
suggested that genetic and environmental factors would
contribute to the body fat. Bouchard (1991) discovered that
25% of body fat and fat mass was associated with genetic factors,
and culture placed 30 %. Moreover, diet was the main factor
for percentage of body fat. According the interview of each
Hong Kong male climbers, they did not pay any attention on
diet for enhancing performance. Therefore, the mean
41
percentage of body fat of male climbers was lower than the
normal population and slightly higher than elite climbers from
oversea.
Training of Hong Kong climbing team. Without a doubt,
training placed an essential element for improving
performance of climbing. One study advised that the hours of
spending on practice was the important factor in determining
performance (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer 1993). On the
others hands, one climber in this study did not spend the time
for training and low frequency of climbing (0 to 1 hours per
week). But, he is the best climbers in Hong Kong (Onsight =
7c+, Redpoint = 8c). Goddard and Neumann (1993) suggested that
the anthropometric characteristics for the climbers’ athletes
are one of element to achieve the optimal physical performance.
But, were there other factors to contribute towards the
climbing performance.
Fox et al. (1996) found that there was a half the variation
in performance among of performer was be responsible by gene.
It was the fact that genes gifted an individual, such as length
of bones, muscle fibers, upper body power, tendon insertions,
which was the main factor to build a great climber for challenge
the rough route (Horst, 2003). But, the great genetics did
not guarantee that he would be a great climber. Horst (2003)
trusted that climbing was a kind of complex and unique, which
involved equal balance of mental, technical and physical
42
components. Mermier et al. (2000) pointed that training
variables of the total variance in climbing performance was
58.9%. And, only 0.3% and 1.8% of anthropometric and
flexibility variables explained of the total variance for
climbing performance. It showed that trainable variables
contributed towards large ingredient for climbing performance.
It trusted that the Hong Kong male climbers still have a room
of improvement by having specific and systematic training in
mental and physical.
For training background information of Hong Kong team,
seven climbers reported that they spend most of the time on
climbing technical, climbing endurance and bouldering. It
lack of the attention for mental, aerobic, anaerobic and
flexibility training. Although there was lack of the
scientific literature for developing physiological aspects
of climbing, some reviews and researchers tried to provide
a guideline by existed information. Mermier et al. (2000)
supposed increasing muscular strength, power, and endurance
was the most important aspect for performance. Discussing with
elite climbers and Hong Kong climbing team coaches, they
mentioned that problem solving skills, psychological factors,
climbing specific balance and the memory of the route were
the influential variable during the competition and
performance. Horst (2003) believed that training for climbing
should involve (1) Mental training, (2) Skills and strategy,
43
(3) Strength and Fitness and (4) Training support activities.
Moreover, periodized training schedule and psychological
management should be implemented for prevent overuse-type
injuries (Watts, 2004). All evidences indicated that suitable
and systematic training plan and all-rounded training methods
should involve for Hong Kong climbing team in order to achieve
higher record.
Anthropometric Characteristics of Hong Kong Climbing Team
Arm span and Ape index. Generally, many climbers believed
that shorter body stature and longer arm span was the good
indicator for climbing performance. From the data of western,
the arm span of Hong Kong male climber team was shorter (1.81
± 0.08m) than United Kingdom (1.85 ± 9.60m) (Mermier et al.,
2000) with same mean age group. From one study about the
ethnicity group and arm span, Rimoin, Borochowitz, and Horton
(1986) concluded that Black people tended to have longer limbs
comparing with Asian people have shorter limbs relatively.
And, there was a study about developmental growth in the
correlations between arm span and height in healthy Korean
children (N = 10 322). Yun et al. (1995) concluded that the
shortest children’s arm span never exceeded height, and the
taller boy would increase the arm span between puberty to age
17 years and remained increased. All indicated that the
shorter Asian males might have relatively shorter arm span
44
except in taller Asians males.
Ape index was the ratio of an individual's arm span relative
to their height (arm span / height). Positive Ape index
demonstrated that the individual had a greater arm span than
height. Hong Kong male climber team performed mean ape index
1.04 ± 0.02, which indicated that all the climbers had a greater
arm span than height characteristic. Although the height of
Hong Kong male climbers did not show significant different
with the normal population, other factor might contribute
toward the characteristic of longer arm span. Förster et al.
(2009) believed that there was a strong correlation between
climbing ability and the postural adaptations. And, the
“climber back”, which was a kind of scoliosis in the high level
ability climbers, might direct shorter body length and enhance
the Ape index. In this study, some climbers had such
characteristic, but there was not record and measurement about
this characteristic. Further studying is necessary to
determine the relationship between “climber back” and Ape
index.
Giles et al. (2006) suggested that positive ape index had
a benefice for approaching the climbing holds more easily.
Although Magiera & Ryguła (2007) suggested that Ape index was
able to work as prediction of climbing performance, there is
no significant different of ape index showed between control
group and elite climbers in one United Kingdom study (Mermier
45
et al., 2000). Moreover, the standard deviation of Ape index
was 0.02 in this study, which showed small variability in the
small sample size, and absence of Asian and Hong Kong control
group data for comparison. The further studying is necessary
to determine Ape index is the main factor for climbing
performance or not.
Biiliocristal and biacromial breadth. From the
biiliocristal/biacromial ratio also provided information
about triangular torso of the climbers. Comparing with only
one study from United Stated of American (Watts et al., 2003),
Hong Kong male climbers showed lower biiliocristal/biacromial
ratio (0.70 ± 0.02) than USA experienced competitive male
youth climbers (0.87 ± 0.08). The lower biiliocristal /
biacromial ratio in climbers demonstrated that border upper
body structure compared with the lower part of body. And, this
result concluded that Hong Kong male climber torso’s centre
of gravity was relatively higher. There was a disadvantage
to have such structure for climbing because of weakness of
stability (Watts et al., 2003). Working with Ape index, the
climber’s body was able to be showed by those two
anthropometric characteristics. But, there is a room of
studying to exanimate their correlation and the relationship
of climbing ability.
46
Physiological Characteristics of Hong Kong Climbing Team
Handgrip strength and ratio of body mass. Hong Kong
climbers performed a traditionally symmetry records in
handgrip strength of both hands. It believed that climbing
performance involved both hands activities (Grant et al.,
1996). Therefore, both hand strength findings were closer
enough. Besides, It was notable that Hong Kong climbers had
weaker overall handgrip strength than western (Range = 58.16
kg – 50.60 kg) (Giles et al., 2006). Even though high level
climbing performance involved high dynamic and isometric
muscular endurance and power (Watts et al., 2003), isometric
handgrip strength, which was measured by handgrip dynamometry,
did not be specificity enough to work as measurable variable
for determining climbing ability. Besides, Watts (2004)
explained that climbing performance did not involve that
motion of the handgrip dynamometry. However, the climbers
demonstrated higher handgrip strength to body mass comparison
with age and sex-matched norms (Watts et al., 1993).
Expressing the mean value handgrip strength in both hands
with relative to body mass, the higher ratio was achieved by
Hong Kong climbers (0.81 ± 0.16) compared with western
findings (Range = 0.78 ± 0.06 to 0.65 ± 0.14) (Giles et al,
2006). Such finding was showed because weight of Hong Kong
male Climbers was much lighter than foreigner climber.
Moreover, in one United Kingdom studying by Grant et al. (1996),
47
there is no significant different of handgrip strength between
elite climbers, recreational climbers or non-climbers for the
right hand. However, Watts et al. (1993) noted that the ratio
of handgrip strength to body mass ratio was significantly
higher in elite climbers. It suggested that the lower body
mass and percentage body fat may beneficial for climbing.
Therefore, Hong Kong male climbers might have such advantage
for performing climbing. But, Watts et al. (1993) found that
the correlation r value of climbing ability worked with
handgrip strength/body mass ratio was low at 0.33. And, he
mentioned muscular endurance and isometric endurance might
place more important factor for hands movement during
climbing.
Flexibility. Simulating the performance of bridging
movement in climbing, leg span was one of sport-specific
flexibility test, which measured the ability of hip abduction,
for climbing ability (Grant et al., 1996). The Hong Kong team
performed higher hip abduction ability (1.42 ± 0.11 m) than
United Kingdom (1.39 ± 4.00 m). However, Mermier et al. (2000)
concluded that range of motion of hip and shoulder did not
relate to climbing ability. But, the team suggested climbing
was determined by flexibility, leg span placed a significant
factor for elite climbing performance.
Bone Mineral Density. Hoffman (2006) summarized that
taking part in sport would increase Bone Mineral Density (BMD).
48
And, the strength and power type sports performed the highest
BMD and the endurance type sports showed the lowest BMD. One
studying about mice by Mori et al. (2003) indicated that
voluntary climbing exercise increased bone volume and
transient osteogenic potential of bone marrow in mice.
Vicente-Rodriguez et al. (2005) also reported the effort of
muscles development and greater force would increase BMD. More
evidence provided about the relationship between climbing and
BMD, España-Romero et al. (in press) discovered the high level
climber would have a higher value of BMD.
In Hong Kong, it was quite shocked that lower BMD of male
climbers were recorded (T score = 0.05 ± 1.25 and Z score =
0.72 ± 1.19). In this study, even though the high T score was
2.50, there is the lowest T score -1.8 was reported, which
mean the subject was osteopenia. One explained for the low
mean record because the ethnicity norms in Ultrasonic Bone
Densitometer did not set for Chinese. Moreover, the
correlation of estimation BMD in arches by ultrasonic might
be over- or underestimate BMD of the subjects. In further,
Saxon et al. (2005) summarized that long term loading would
decrease the osteogenic response. All might a reason to
receive low BMD record in Hong Kong male climber.
In this study, the daily diet and smoking and drinking habit
did not record for this research. It was worth on paying
attention on the athlete diet because all climbers answered
49
that they did not manage the diet, especially calcium intake.
Matkovi et al. (1979) provided strong evidence about the
relationship between diet and BMD. He discovered the women
lived the region where had high intake of dairy products showed
half number of hip fracture compared with the region have less
dairy product women. Therefore, it was important for Hong Kong
male climbers to take care of diet.
The fact of low weight relative to height of climbers, the
positive correlation between body weight and BMD was showed
in men and women (Stevenson et al., 1989). The team discovered
that the women had similar amounts of lean tissue but less
fat tissue would have osteoporosis compared with more fat
tissues woman. This was because the weight would serve as a
strain for stimulating bone formation by mechanical loading
(Hughes, 1995). Generally, the low BMI value was recorded from
high level elite climbers (Watts, 2004). In Hong Kong, the
mean of BMI was 19.57 ± 0.89 kg/m2, which was still within the
healthy range. But, it was lower than the normal population
(Wong et al., 2008). Therefore, Weight and height might
influence the BMD level in Hong Kong male climbers.
Aerobic fitness. The VO2max was the high level standard
measure of cardiorespiratory fitness (Powers and Howley,
2004). It not only served as an indicator of the ability for
individual to perform high-intensity, long term time exercise,
50
but also determined the fitness and health condition of
individuals (Hoffman, 2006). In the Hong Kong male climbers,
the mean of VO2max was 44.14 ± 3.75 ml.kg-1.min-1, which ranked
into the good categories (Hoffman, 2006). Comparing with the
normal population, the climbers performed higher VO2max than
the public (38.40 ± 7.30 ml.kg-1.min-1) (Wong et al., 2008).
Watts (2004) summarized that climbing VO2 average between
20 and 30 ml.kg-1.min-1. Giles et al. (2006) suggested that the
lower climbing VO2 than running treadmill was performed
because arm-specific VO2 have been reached. And, Watts (2004)
also suggested that utilizing anaerobic system during
climbing might perform the low climbing VO2 .According to the
overland principles of training, the intensity, duration, or
frequency of training must be highest enough to receive the
training effect (Powers and Howley, 2004). In further, for
Hong Kong climbers, climbing-specific-training served as the
main training system. And, they did not obtain the
physiological benefit by cross sectional training. Therefore,
specific climbing training might limited the VO2max of
whole-body in traditional treadmill and cycle ergometer.
51
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
This anthropometric and physiological profile of Hong Kong
elite male competition climbers provided sufficient
scientific information about climbing sport for establishing
the training system, enhancing climber’s awareness of
physical condition and evaluating the athlete selection in
Hong Kong. For the general athlete profile of Hong Kong male
elite climber:
z
Stature is normal range (1.72 ± 0.06 m) but lower body mass
(58.44 ± 5.63 kg) relatively compared with normal
population in Hong Kong.
z
Low percentage body fat (∑4 Skinfolds) (10.96 ± 3.21 %)
compared with normal population in Hong Kong.
z
Arm span longer than height (Ape index = 1.04 ± 0.02)
z
Broader upper body than lower part
(Biiliocristal/biacromial ratio = 0.70 ± 0.02)
z
High handgrip strength to body weight ratio (0.81 ± 0.16)
compared with western climbers
z
Higher hip abduction flexibility (1.42 ± 0.11 m) than
western climbers
z
Normal Bony Mineral Destiny (T score = 0.05 ± 1.25 ; Z score
= 0.72 ± 1.19)
z
Good aerobic power (VO2max) (44.14 ± 3.75 ml.kg-1.min-1)
compare with the normal population in Hong Kong.
52
Suggestions
Without a doubt, Hong Kong climbers have a room of
improvement for achieving higher level performance. Enhancing
self-awareness for improving or maintaining the body
composition enhances climbing ability by managing on diet,
taking aerobic exercise and interval training. Moreover, the
climbers should improve the flexibility by warming up and
cooling down stretching in order to prevent the injuries and
increase the range of motion. In further, having a
rich-calcium diet and maintaining quality of life increase
the bone mineral density. Taking other exercise serve as cross
sectional training for improving the aerobic power and health
condition. And, a regular training for improving climbing
ability, which included all factors of climbing performance,
is necessary.
53
Recommendation for Further Studies
Based on the study, the following recommendations are
presented for further study:
1. Although Hong Kong male climbers have higher
sport-specific flexibility, it is a point to investigate
the direct measurement of Rang of Motion for climbing
performance and health condition.
2. Female women and youth research in climbing field is very
necessary. This is because the characteristics of climbing
performance maybe influence or harmful for those
individuals growth and development.
3. It is necessary to have a deep-in research about Hong Kong
male climbers bone mineral density by including all the
factors would influence so that the health of climbers
would be secured.
4. Measurement and analysis the case of “climber back” in Hong
Kong climber maybe determine the relationship on climbing
ability.
54
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60
Conversion Chart Used to Standardize Climbing Difficulty
Yosemite rating
French Grade
Standardized
rating
5.10a
6a
1.00
5.10b
5.10c
1.25
6b
1.50
5.10b
5.11a
1.75
6c
2.00
5.11b
5.11c
2.25
7a
2.50
5.11d
5.12a
2.75
7b
3.00
5.12b
5.12c
3.25
7c
3.50
5.12d
5.13a
3.75
8a
4.00
5.13b
5.13c
4.25
8b
4.50
5.13d
5.14a
4.75
8c
5.00
5.14b
5.25
Reproduced from Watts et al. (1993)
APPENDIX E
61
Comparison Between UIAA Grades and Other Grading Systems
APPENDIX F
Predication of Maximal Oxygen Consumption from Heart Rate and
Cycling Power in Men
Maximal oxygen
consumption(L.Min-1 )
Power (kg. M. min-1;W)
HR
Maximal oxygen consumption
(L.min-1)
Power (kg. M. min-1;W)
300; 600; 900; 1200; 1500; HR
50
100 150 200
250
600; 900; 1200; 1500;
100 150 200
250
120
2.2
3.5
4.8
146
2.4
3.3
4.4
5.5
121
2.2
3.4
4.7
147
2.4
3.3
4.4
5.5
122
2.2
3.4
4.6
148
2.4
3.2
4.3
5.4
123
2.1
3.4
4.6
149
2.3
3.2
4.3
5.4
124
2.1
3.3
4.5
6.0
150
2.3
3.2
4.2
5.3
125
2.0
3.2
4.4
5.9
151
2.3
3.1
4.2
5.2
126
2.0
3.2
4.4
5.8
152
2.3
3.1
4.1
5.2
127
2.0
3.1
4.3
5.7
153
2.2
3.0
4.1
5.1
128
2.0
3.1
4.2
5.6
154
2.2
3.0
4.0
5.1
129
1.9
3.0
4.2
5.6
155
2.2
3.0
4.0
5.0
130
1.9
3.0
4.1
5.5
156
2.2
2.9
4.0
5.0
131
1.9
2.9
4.0
5.4
157
2.1
2.9
3.9
4.9
132
1.8
2.9
4.0
5.3
158
2.1
2.9
3.9
4.9
133
1.8
2.8
3.9
5.3
159
2.1
2.8
3.8
4.8
134
1.8
2.8
3.9
5.2
160
2.1
2.8
3.8
4.8
135
1.7
2.8
3.8
5.1
161
2.0
2.8
3.7
4.7
136
1.7
2.7
3.8
5.0
162
2.0
2.8
3.7
4.6
137
1.7
2.7
3.7
5.0
163
2.0
2.8
3.7
4.6
138
1.6
2.7
3.7
4.9
164
2.0
2.7
3.6
4.5
139
1.6
2.6
3.6
4.8
165
2.0
2.7
3.6
4.5
140
1.6
2.6
3.6
4.8
6.0 166
1.9
2.7
3.6
4.4
141
2.6
3.5
4.7
5.9 167
1.9
2.6
3.5
4.4
142
2.5
3.5
4.6
5.8 168
1.9
2.6
3.5
4.3
143
2.5
3.4
4.6
5.7 169
1.9
2.6
3.5
4.3
62
144
2.5
3.4
4.5
5.7 170
145
2.4
3.4
4.5
5.6
1.8
2.6
3.4
4.3
4.3
APPENDIX G
Age Correction Factors (CF) for Age-adjusted Maximal Oxygen
Consumption
AGE
CF
AGE
CF
AGE
CF
AGE
CF
AGE
CF
15
1.10
25
1.00
35
0.87
45
0.78
55
0.71
16
1.10
26
0.99
36
0.86
46
0.77
56
0.70
17
1.09
27
0.98
37
0.85
47
0.77
57
0.70
18
1.07
28
0.96
38
0.85
48
0.76
58
0.69
19
1.06
29
0.95
39
0.84
49
0.76
59
0.69
20
1.05
30
0.93
40
0.83
50
0.75
60
0.68
21
1.04
31
0.93
41
0.82
51
0.74
61
0.67
22
1.03
32
0.91
42
0.81
52
0.73
62
0.67
23
1.02
33
0.90
43
0.80
53
0.73
63
0.66
24
1.01
34
0.88
44
0.79
54
0.72
64
0.66
63
APPENDIX I
The Individual Report after Measurement
64
65