What were the main tensions between Christianity and other religious beliefs in the Roman World?
Significant Dates
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303-311 The Diocletianic (or Great) Persecution – the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the
Roman Empire.
312 Traditional date for the conversion of Constantine I who becomes the first Christian emperor.
313 The Edict of Milan – issued by Constantine proclaimed religious toleration in the Empire.
361-363 The reign of Julian the Apostate who unsuccessfully attempted to reinstate paganism.
381 Second Ecumenical Council (or the First Council of Constantinople); Arianism condemned as heretical.
391-392 Anti-pagan legislation of Theodosius I that banned sacrifice and pagan ceremonies.
408 Donatists declared heritical by Emperor Honorius.
Christians and Pagans
Paganism: a blanket term for all non-Abrahamic, polytheistic religious traditions. No unified set of
practices and included various different cults and beliefs.
Source of tension: the two religions offered two differing methods of worship:
Pagan ritual was built around outward expressions of faith such as sacrifice and the veneration of objects
(temples, idols, etc.)
Christianity invested more power in the individual through internal and personal devotion, demonstrated
by holy men (St Anthony, Simeon the Stylite, etc.)
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Between 313 and 379 members of the two religions coexisted fairly peaceably.
However, situation changed during the last decades of 4thc: under Theodosius I the state
officially imposed Christianity. Some legislation also implicitly permitted attacks on pagans.
Heightening of tensions as Christian leaders became increasingly hostile towards pagans,
eventually resulted in a ‘wave of religious violence that swept across town and countryside alike’
(Brown 1971a, p. 104).
Examples of violence directed against pagans:
➢ destruction of temples by Christian mobs often led by bishops (e.g. Alexandria in 391,
Gaza in 402).
➢ Growing tension with philosophers who were closely associated with the semi-religious
school of Neoplatonism (e.g. Hypatia murdered in 415 by a Christian mob). As a result:
replacement of classical secular education by Christian method of learning more reliant
on visual and oral techniques.
However important to remember Syncretism: the combining of different and often contradictory beliefs
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Syncretism was a significant feature of the relationship between Christianity and Paganism in the
4th and 5th centuries.
Pope Leo (451); ‘Even some Christians turn themselves towards the rising sun and bow down to
honour its shining disk’. (Maas 2010, p. 180)
Most contemporary sources (many written by or for the church) purposely emphasized
Christianization and overstated conformity to Christian ideals; has affected modern
historiography which has a tendency to straightforwardly distinguish between Christians and
pagans.
However in reality religious divisions were blurred and, therefore, tensions can be exaggerated.
Christians and Jews
Source of tension: general climate of anti-Semitism throughout the history of the Empire, Christianity
added a further theological basis for the prejudice
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Jewish worship recognised and protected by the pagan empire; this was largely maintained by 4th
century Christian emperors.
State policy largely restrained and moderate; likely this was inspired by respect for established
law rather than genuine sympathy.
Changed during the reign of Theodosius I: tensions between Christians and Jews more
widespread reflected by legislation that prohibited construction of new synagogues and expelled
Jews from all branches of the civil service.
Cause: spiritual leaders were more able to influence secular figures (e.g. Ambrose)
Christians and Heretics
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The internal divisions within Christianity were often a greater source of tension than those with
other religions.
There were numerous small sects tolerated during the period; however, any significant
departure from orthodox doctrine or practice was denounced as heretical.
Predominantly an Eastern phenomenon; however, the Arian and Donatist heresies directly
affected the Western Empire.
Arians disputed the equality of the trinity and claimed that God the son was inferior to God the
Father.
The heresy was widespread amongst the barbarian tribes particularly the Goths. Possible cause:
Germanic kings saw it as a vehicle for tribal identity particularly if the group comprised of various
ethnicities.
The Donatists were located in North Africa and had established a separate church after refusing
to welcome back those who had surrendered the scriptures during the Diocletianic persecutions.
Donatists significant to those who argue religious tensions led to the fall of Rome; Frend regards
them as an expression of nationalist tendencies, disputed by Jones: ‘the Africans never
possessed any national sentiments’ (Jones 1964, p.966)
Heretics were usually fined and had their churches confiscated; the death penalty was rarely
invoked.
End of 4th century saw a more concerted effort by the state to abolish heretical practicesbanned from public service by Theodosius I in 395.
However despite these actions many sects stubbornly survived; suggests that religious tensions
were more of an issue in theory than in reality.
Conclusions
1. Religious tensions more of an issue by the end of the 4th century, particularly following the reign
of Theodosius I.
2. Religious divisions were not always absolute and can be overstated.
3. Christian emperors usually favoured pragmatism over prejudice when dealing with other
religious groups