2021. 08. 26 – Knowing Oneself and Adolescence
Early adolescence (11-14), middle adolescence (15-17), late adolescence (18-21).
Adolescence came from Latin “adolescere” “grow”.
Granville Stanley Hall – father of adolescence who coined term. Period of storm and stress of life.
Developmental milestones:
Set of skills seen in infants and children as they grow. Abilities achieved by most by certain age
Changes experienced by middle adolescents:
Physical:
o
o
o
o
95% of adult height reached
Less concern about physical changes, increased interest in attractiveness.
Excessive physical activity alternating with lethargy
Secondary sexual characteristics develop
Emotional/social
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Conflict with family predominates due to emerging independence
Strong peer allegiances
Seeks privacy and time
Experimentation
Struggle with identity
Moodiness
Rejection of adult values and ideas
Risk-taking
Testing values and ideas
Experiment with adult roles
Importance of Relationships
Intellectual/Cognition
o
o
o
o
Growth in abstract thought reverts to concrete thought under stress
Cause- effect relationship better understood
Very self-absorbed
Becomes better in setting goals and think in terms of the future.
Late adolescence
Transition to early adulthood. Late adolescents act more “grown up”. Taking more adult
responsibility. Take more adventures that certify they are old enough to act.
Changes experienced by late adolescents:
Physical
o
o
Physical maturity and reproductive growth levelling off and ending.
Firmer sense of sexual identity
Emotional/Social
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Separation from caregivers
Better sense of self.
Peers important but can now evaluate influence & opinions than embracing without question.
More comfortable seeking adult advice
Thoughts about purpose in life.
Greater concern for others
Intimate relationships are important
Accept adult’s responsibilities
Intellectual / Cognition
o
o
o
o
Abstract thought established; future oriented; able to understand, plan, and pursue goals
Philosophical and Idealistic.
Increased concern for future
Greater insight
2021. 09. 01 - Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors & Cognitive Behavior Theory
Thoughts
Arrangement of ideas from thinking.
Cognitive. Mentally produced and possessed.
Influential. As Lao Tzu once said “If you correct your mind, the rest of your life will fall into place”.
Feelings
State of consciousness from emotions, sentiments, or desires.
Mild emotional state.
Behavior
Actions and mannerisms in conjunction with thoughts, feelings, themselves or environment.
Why is there a need to evaluate one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors?
Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interrelated, they influence and affect one another. Negative
feelings and behaviors generated by negative thoughts. Thought that person does not like you may
produce adverse feelings and hostile behaviors towards person.
Adolescent behavior characterized by self-consciousness, sensitivity, self-centeredness,
narcissism, and paranoia. You think other’s attention is centered on you. Some adolescents have
thoughts of invincibility that nothing bad will happen no matter what they do.
We have choice on how we will look at things. People around us do not cause our feelings, we are
responsible for them. We have control over feelings in same way we have control over other
choices. Negative thoughts, counterproductive feelings, and self-destructive behaviors should not
enslave us. We have power to rid ourselves of harmful thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Cognitive Behavior Theory
By Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck. Aims to assist individuals in understanding link between thoughts
and feelings and realizing how these impact behavior. Individuals have destructive thoughts and
feelings that affect functioning and relationships. Through this, individual can change thoughts
which leads to change in feeling and behavior. The key is positive interpretation of things.
When faced with negative event, it may be interpreted negatively or positively. When interpreted
negatively by thinking of undesirable thoughts, it results in negative feeling and negative behavior.
When event is construed positively, it leads to positive feeling and helpful behavior.
2021. 9. 9 – Cognitive Development & Psychosexual Development Theories
Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Individual grows through dynamic process, body’s internal system
interacts with environment. Explain how child understands world, how he thinks, reasons out,
remembers, and solves problems. Education is key element in developing one’s cognitive skills.
Schema
Concept that interprets information, interpreting new experience of one's knowledge.
Child may first develop schema for horse. She knows horse is large, has hair, four legs, and tail.
When the encountering cow for first time, she initially calls it horse. After all it fits with schema for
characteristics of horse; large animal with hair, four legs, and tail. Once she is told that this is cow,
she will modify existing schema for horse and create new schema for cow.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensory-Motor Stage; 0-2 Years Old
Child learns through sensory experiences. Knowledge based on senses and child responds to
people and things through reflex movements like sucking or grasping.
Object permanence should be attained. When object exists even if it is no longer seen.
The child begin to form mental images towards later part of this stage.
Pre-Operational Stage; 2-7 Years Old
Child improves using mental images and use symbols to represent knowledge (symbolic
thought) through language. Perceptions limited and understanding based on concrete objects.
Child may have difficulty understanding irreversibility; actions or thinking can be reversed.
“1+2” can be “2 + 1”. Child could be confused about reversed mental operations. Inability to
focus on several aspects of problem or understand cause-and-effect relationships.
Child develops egocentricity where he/she limited in understanding others’ POV.
Child develops called animism. Attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects (ex: It rains
because the sky is crying; or a child will put her doll to sleep).
Concrete-Operational Stage; 8-11 Years Old
Child more logical and perform simple operations, understand classifications (living and nonliving things), and understand reversibility (commutative property of addition; 1 + 2 = 2 + 1)
Formal-Operational Stage 11-15 Years Old
Child no longer dependent on concrete perceptual experiences in present. In dealing with
situations, past and future can be reference to know what to do. Able to analyze problems and
consider different ways of solving in systematic way.
Can deal with abstract or hypothetical situations and generate ideas through logical thinking
(Imagine Philippines were not conquered by Spaniards. What could have happened?)
Psychosexual Development Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) psychologist whose theory of human development and personality
sparked great interest and controversy due to biological orientation that focuses on psychosexual
development. He believed that early experiences very important in human development.
Instincts as main source of life energy that finds way in different parts of body called erogenous
zones “pleasure areas” sensitive to stimulations. Satisfaction of each area or zone important to
develop healthy personality.
If needs not met or satisfied excessively, fixation occurs; attachment to object or activity that may
affect development.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral; 0-1 Year Old
Oral pleasure through mouth; eating, sucking, mouthing, chewing, and biting
Fixation leads to overeating, smoking, drinking, nail biting, gossiping, cursing, thumb sucking
Anal; 2-4 Years Old
Anal pleasure to release tension through anus, eliminating and retaining feces.
Fixation leads to obsession with cleanliness or being disorganized. Child may become
perfectionist, obsessive compulsive, or careless.
Anally Expulsive – Limited self-control, defiance, hostility, disorganized / scatter brained
Anally Retentive – Rigid, obsessively organized, and subservient to authority
Phallic; 4-6 years Old
Pleasure through genitals
Child recognizes physical differences of boys and girls. Conflicts arise due to greater emotional
attachment to a parent over another. Extreme fixation result to problems with sexual identity.
Oedipus complex – Mama’s boy
Electra complex – Papa’s girl
Latency; 7-12 Years Old
Resolving fixations or conflicts in previous stages; developing academic and social skills, physical
abilities, and talents
Child develops closeness with parents if conflicts are resolved and build social ties. Sexual urges
dormant and inhibited. Repress sexual desires to focus on academics and athletics, etc. Samesex friendships develop.
Genital; 12+ Years Old
Begins at puberty, involves development of genitals and libido begins used in sexual role. Sex
role identity formation
Sexual interest awakened. Maturation of reproductive system, production of sex hormones and
reactivation of genital zone as area of sensual pleasure.
2021. 9. 14 - Developmental tasks and Challenges during Adolescence & Significant Others
Aspect
Middle Adolescence
Late Adolescence
Physical
Most have passed through puberty. Main concern; Females fully developed while males
physical and sexual attractiveness.
still grow.
Females mostly completed physical development.
Males still physically maturing.
Identity /
Concept
Self- Sense of identity not yet established
Have firmer sense of identity but still
explores self, family, relationships,
Identity crisis prevalent due to confusion brought
career, and education.
about by diverse body changes.
Low self-esteem and poor self-concept but has
high expectations.
Emotional
Behaviour
Social Attitude
Peer
Relationships
Family
Relationships
Romantic
Relationships
Moody, Sensitive, secretive, rebellious, stubborn
and inconsistent.
Desire to be recognized, liked, and be successful in
endeavors.
Love of competition.
Eager to make new friends as friendships are
“everything” to them.
Strong peer influence may lead to risky behaviour.
Develop closer ties with peers, relationship with
family deteriorates.
Conflicts with family arise due to assertion
Rebellious behaviour leads adolescents to do
opposite of what parents want.
Desire for independence brings complains that
parents intervene with their decisions.
Slowly begins to be interested in romance and
emotional intimacy.
Dating starts at 14-16
Early romance tends to be short
Increased interest in sexual attractiveness.
More interest in other sexualities
Increased emotional stability.
Increased capacity for others’ care.
Peer group fades in importance and is
replaced few good and trusted
friends.
Conflicts decrease with age and
family starts to be influential again.
Turn back to family and listen to
family advice.
Development of more serious
relationships.
Love, fidelity, and commitment
essential to successful relationship
Sexual
Females become interested in moral
Relationships
and physical concerns of sex
Clearer sexual identity. Continue to
explore sexuality and become wiser
in sexual decisions.
Decision-Making / Prone to making poor decisions and risky Increased independence and selfIndependence
behaviour
reliance.
Immature adolescents choose irresponsible Able to compromise and make
decisions and that may lead to violence
independent decisions.
Take pride in reaped success.
Cognitive
Development
Develop abstract reasoning skills. Regresses to
concrete thinking when bombarded with
dilemmas and stress.
Able to adjust to school demands, effective
reasoning, problem solving and future planning.
Values / Morality
Develop sense of values, moral reasoning, prosocial attitudes, and honesty.
Concern for exhibiting ethical behaviors
Regard for future Beginning to mature cognitively and ethically,
Career / Goals
many remain to be risk takers as they feel
invincible. Hungry for happiness and freedom,
carefree and irresponsible.
Poor concept of cause and effect.
Desire to fit in makes wise and future-oriented
choices.
Poor capacity to set clear career goals.
Development of abstract, complex
thinking.
Able to know how behaviour affects
long-term health.
Cognitively
and
intellectually
matured.
Learn to think about possibilities and
others POV.
Continued
interest
in
moral
reasoning. Select role models, imbibe
moral ideas, and adopt personal
value system.
Matured understanding of justice
and morality.
Question and assess beliefs acquired
during childhood and restructure
these to personal ideologies.
Greater capacity for setting goals.
Concerned
for
future,
less
participation in risky behaviors.
Think about careers and effort to
gather info, skills, and training related
to desired career.
Challenges in middle to late adolescence
Middle adolescence expected to accomplish following challenges and tasks:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Creation of stable identity
Emotional maturity
Control impulsive emotions and establish good behavior
Improve decision-making skills, and personal ethical and values system
Consider career and future goals.
Establish autonomy from parents or family, healthy romantic relationship, better relationship
with parents/family, and regard for one’s safety by avoiding participation in risky behaviors.
Late adolescence expected to accomplish following challenges and tasks:
o
o
o
o
Finish studies
Enter workforce and responsible romantic partnership
Find role in society or niche in world
Prepare to build own family and become responsible parent
By facing challenges in middle and late adolescence, adolescents may be able to clarify and manage
demands of teen years. Challenges may also make them aware of need to equip themselves with
confidence, abilities, good interpersonal skills, high self – esteem, and coping skills to achieve
smooth transition from adolescence to adulthood.
Significant / Relevant Others
First use of “significant other” is by U.S psychiatrist Harry Stack Sullivan in his book; The
Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry.
Social Psychology, person that guides and takes care of child during primary socializations. Protects,
rewards, and punishes child as way of aiding child’s development.
Psychology, individual who pronounced importance in person’s life or well–being.
Sociology, person/s with strong influence on individual’s self–concept. In social or business
situations, “significant other” pertains to someone that offers support to another person.
Nowadays, “significant other” refers to all people important in person’s life to affect emotions,
behavior, and sense of self.
Parents
Father or mother; begets or gives birth to / nurtures and raises child; plays role of guardian.
Provide secure, safe and loving home environment for family
Create atmosphere of truthfulness, goodness, mutual trust, and respect;
Form culture of open communication
Allow age-appropriate independence and confidence
Develop relationship that encourages children to talk
Teach accountability, responsibility, industriousness, obligation, accepting and respecting
limits, prudence, judiciousness, and obedience to authority, morality, spiritually and religion.
Siblings
Brother or sister. Unique role in one another’s lives. Grow up in same household, and have large
amount of exposure each other.
Extensive contact and companionship during childhood and adolescence; especially outside
supervision of parents or other adults; provides opportunity for them to form one another’s
behavior and socio-emotional development and adjustment.
Promote positive development and adjustment problems. Reflect overall condition of
cohesiveness within family.
Teacher
Person who delivers educational program, assesses student participation in educational program,
and administers consistent and substantial leadership to educational program
Act as guide, counselor, adviser, guardian, and even as parent. In context of being significant other,
teacher should be regarded as mentor.
As changes take place, teachers help adolescents develop balanced personality. As educators, they
help students progress cognitively/academically.
Help adolescents by understanding problems and helping them find solutions. Inspire adolescents
by acting as models or ideal persons.
Community Leaders
Designation by secondary sources for person perceived to represent community.
Leadership in, for, and by community.
Based on place (local) represent community of common interest, purpose or practice
Form of general leadership. May be individual or group, voluntary or paid. Barangay, city, or
municipal political leaders considered as community leaders, some not elected to their positions.
Unelected community leaders have no legal powers, but have influence to people in area.
Friends
In context of being a significant other, it is a person who one knows and has a bond of mutual
affection, exclusive of sexual or family relations
Someone you know well and like a lot, but neither family member nor romantic partner.
2021. 09. 29 – Emotions
Adapted from French émouvoir in 1979, (to stir up).
Conscious mental reaction subjectively experienced as strong feeling towards specific object and
accompanied by physiological and behavioral body changes.
Synonyms: feeling, sentiment, reaction, passion, excitement, and sensation.
Feelings represent emotions, subjective or personal. Emotions are intense, internal feelings.
Moods are less specific, have longer durations, but less intense than emotions.
Emotions have shorter duration, but are more specific reactions.
Emotions and their counterparts:
joy – sadness, fear – anger anticipation – surprise, disgust – trust.
Robert Plutchik created the wheel of emotions.
Eight Basic Emotions
Joy
Happiness. Synonymous to gladness, delight and bliss. Intense forms are ecstasy, and elation.
Sadness
Being unhappy, gloomy, or lonely. Synonyms are grief, sorrow, desolation, and melancholy.
Fear
Scared, frightened, or anxious. Related words are dread, distress, horror, fright, and terror.
Anger
Being mad, irritated, or annoyed. Stronger version is rage or fury.
Disgust
What we feel when something is wrong, erroneous, or dirty. Synonyms are revulsion, antipathy,
and aversion. Stronger forms are abhorrence and hatred.
Trust
Confidence and belief. Stronger form is Admiration, weaker form is acceptance.
Anticipation
Looking forward to something. Related words are hope and expectation.
Surprise
When something we do not expect happens. Also means amazement, disbelief, or shock.
Positive emotions
Sources of motivation and enjoyment. Make life exciting, colorful, and stimulating. These emotions
are expressed in words, facial expressions, and actions.
Negative emotions
May cause sleep disturbances, restlessness, loss of appetite, inefficiency, and moodiness. Some
express negative emotions by attacking source of frustration.
Usually hidden or replaced with other emotions. One way to hide negative emotions is through
regulation where people modify emotional reactions, the coping processes that increase or
decrease intensity of the moment. Adolescents have capacity to do this as changes in neurology of
brain enable them to regulate emotions. Frontal lobes of brain responsible in holding back thoughts
and reactions to emotions and enable persons to inhibit unpleasant emotions and re-evaluate
current situation
Other ways of hiding emotions are by suppression and masking. Examples are denying (not
believing that one is actually feeling emotion) and avoiding (doing activities not related to emotion;
overeating, drinking alcohol, taking drugs, or sleeping). Masking or concealing emotions done by
replacing negative emotions with positive or more favorable emotions (replacing sadness with joy,
disgust with interest, and fear with trust).
Negative emotions are unpleasant and usual tendency for person is to hide them. Not showing
one's true emotions may be advantageous and offer quick fix, in the long run, when done
frequently, it may be harmful to individual. Process is not actually removing negative emotions and
this may a person to behave in ways he or she cannot control. Repressed emotions may cause
anxiety, depression, tension, and other illnesses. Unresolved negative feelings tend to accumulate
over time and affect great portion of one's life.
Positive and negative emotions, especially when intense, may entail physiological changes; increased
heartbeat, rapid breathing, sweating, blood rushing to face, and release of adrenaline / epinephrine
(hormone released in response to fear, anger, panic, etc.).
Ways to Manage Emotions
Understand and identify emotion, know its source, stop and contemplate, and figure out best way
to proceed in solving problems related to emotion.
Evaluate situation. Put positive spin.
Think before you act.
Learn effective communication. Verbalize emotions rather than expressing them physically.
Put things in proper perspective and order. Be sure that your manner of expressing emotion is
appropriate to situation and source of emotion.
Practice controlling emotions and expressing emotional reactions in constructive ways.
2021. 10. 6 – The Brain: Parts, Functions, and Processes / Brain Lateralization
Hindbrain
Responsible for instinctive, autonomic behavior that serves survival functions.
Medulla
Controls vital functions; respiration, blood circulation, digestion, and heart rate.
Cerebellum
Regulates posture, balance, and muscular coordination.
Pons
Bridge between medulla and other parts; regulates movement, sleep and arousal.
Reticular Activating System
Regulates attention, movement, sleep, waking, and reflexes.
Mid Brain
Conduction and switching center, enables responses to happen (muscle movements, auditory and
visual system processing).
Forebrain
Intellectual activity and consciousness.
Cerebrum
“Executive center” of brain, responsible for remembering, learning, and thinking, language, and
emotion. Largest part of brain.
Thalamus
Relays sensory information.
Hypothalamus
Secretes hormones and controls physiological functions (temperature, hunger, and thirst)
Corpus Callosum
Connects the two hemispheres.
Pituitary Gland
“Master gland”, secretes hormones and controls endocrine system.
Brain Lateralization
Theory of brain lateralization developed by Nobel-Prize winners Roger Sperry and Robert Ornstein.
Each side of brain has different functions.
Left Brain Dominant
Organized, logical, detail-oriented, processes ideas in step-by-step manner, favors rigid schedules
and deadlines, auditory learners, and better at using words rather than visuals to remember.
Right Brain Dominant
Disorganized, intuitive, believers of imaginations and fantasies, emotional, unable to make clear
priorities, creative, unpredictable, lack time management, risk-takers, visual learners.
In 1861, French Physician Pierre Paul Broca made research on brain function lateralization thru
male patient with aphasia. Autopsy made after patient’s death and lesion was seen on area in left
hemisphere where he believed language function resides. Discovery known as Broca’s area which
involved in control of speech.
*Aphasia is impairment of language, affecting production / comprehension of speech and ability
to read or write. Difficulty saying words correctly
In 1873, Carl Wernicke, German neuro-anatomist, pathologist, and psychiatrist studied patient with
stroke. Patient had sound speech and hearing ability. Patient could not understand things conveyed
to him or comprehend written words. Wernicke made experiment after patient’s death. He found
lesion in rear parietal/temporal region of patient’s left brain hemisphere. He concluded that this
region which is close to auditory region of brain was involved in speech comprehension known as
Wernicke’s area (responsible for understanding language).
How to Enhance Brain Functions
Mental stimulation
Brainy activities stimulate new connections between nerve cells and may help generate new
cells, developing neurological "plasticity" and building up functional reserve that provides
hedge against future cell loss.
Reading, taking courses, "mental gymnastics" such as word puzzles or math problems,
experimenting with things that require manual dexterity and mental effort such as drawing,
painting, and crafts.
Physical exercise
Using muscles also helps mind. Regular exercise helps increase number of tiny blood vessels
that bring oxygen-rich blood to region of brain responsible for thought.
Exercise spurs development of new nerve cells and increases synapses. This helps brain to be
more efficient, plastic, and adaptive, which translates into better performance in aging animals.
Lowers blood pressure, improves cholesterol, helps blood sugar and reduces mental stress,
Improve diet
Mediterranean diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, fish, nuts, unsaturated oils (olive oil) and
plant sources of proteins to less likely to develop cognitive impairment and dementia.
Improve blood pressure
High blood pressure in midlife increases risk of cognitive decline in old age. Use lifestyle
modification to keep pressure as low as possible. Stay lean, exercise regularly, limit alcohol to
two drinks a day, reduce stress, and eat right.
Improve blood sugar
Diabetes is important risk factor for dementia. Prevent diabetes by eating right, exercising
regularly, and staying lean.
Improve your cholesterol
High levels of LDL (Low-density Lipoprotein) "bad" cholesterol associated with increased risk of
dementia. Diet, exercise, weight control, and avoiding tobacco will improve cholesterol levels.
Consider low-dose aspirin
Observational studies suggest low-dose aspirin to reduce risk of vascular dementia.
Avoid tobacco in all its forms.
Don't abuse alcohol
Excessive drinking is major risk factor for dementia. If you choose to drink, limit yourself.
Care for emotions
Anxious, depressed, sleep-deprived, or exhausted people score poorly on cognitive function
tests. Poor scores don't necessarily predict increased risk of cognitive decline in old age, but
good mental health and restful sleep are important.
Protect head
Moderate to severe head injuries increase risk of cognitive impairment.
Build social networks
Associated with lower risk of dementia, lower blood pressure, and longer life expectancy.