Human Growth & Development Final Study Guide
CSL/PSY 560
 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, including key events in each stage.
(Theory introduced in Ch. 2 and further explored in Ch. 7)
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMEMT
STAGE
AGE
DESCRIPTION
Object Permanence and Separation anxiety develop.
Sensorimotor
0-2yrs
Children are explorers… they explore through their senses, active
experimentation and coping through the five sense: ex. Eating snow, putting
everything in their mouth
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operations
2-7yrs
7-11yrs
11+
Ego-centric thinking, use language (words and images), not logical
reasoning yet, can play pretend, imagination and intuition is strong, cannot
form complex thought, but are starting to develop conversation
Concepts attached to concrete situations.
Logic Applied, has objective/rational interpretations, Rules learned easily,
but not as independent concepts.
Child can understand conversations.
Conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications
Child begins to relate consequences to actions they take
Abstract thinking, the world of ideas, becomes accessible
Logic is more mature: ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored
 Understand definitions related to language development (i.e. syntax, phonology, babbling, holophrasing, etc.)
 Universal grammar: common rules and properties of language that becomes a system to allow infants to learn any
of the language, structural rules are innate to humans independent of sensory experience, the older they get and
the more they are exposed they adopt a specific syntactic rule called, mental grammar.
 Syntax: rules that arrange words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. Systematic rules for
forming sentences
 Semantics: Understanding the meanings of sentences requires knowing the semantics (aspect of language
centering on meanings)
 Babbling: 4-6 month engage in vocal play and babble sounds, 7-12months, use babbling consonant-vowel
combinations with an increasing variety of consonant sounds. Use intonation, and these sound combinations begin
to sound like familiar words
 Pragmatics: rules for specifying how language is used appropriately in different social contexts.
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 Prosody: How the sounds are produced. Melody of speech because it includes pitch or intonation. (right side of
brain shows activity when processing speech) (left side of brain shows activity when listening to speech)
 Phonemes: basic units of sound that can change the meaning of a word. Languages also specify how phonemes can
be combined.
 Phonology: sounds and signs in spoken language that are concerned with systematic organization
 Morphemes: Basic units of meaning that exist in a word
 Holophrasing: use of a single word (such as Ok) that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought. EX. The
word “food” can be used to say “give me food” the word “up” can be used to convey “pick me up”
Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory (definitions, percentages, and Strange Situation experiment).
Researchers: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth
Attachment- A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion and is characterized by affection and a
desire to maintain proximity
Attachment: is defined as the basic bond between a child and his/her caregiver
: care-seeking infant behavior and adult’s caregiving hormone, oxytocin.
Infants construct expectations about relationships via internal working models.
Attachment Theory: based primarily on ethology. Asked how attachment might have helped ancestors adapt to their
environment.
Strange Situation: Ainsworth and her colleagues conducted a test to assess the security of attachment in infants and
young children. This experiment looked to see separation and stranger anxiety and determine the distinct types of
attachment styles shown between children and their primary caregiver. The Strange Situation experimental procedure
was developed by Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues in the 1970s. The method was developed in order to measure the
quality of infant attachments in 1-2 years old. The experiment consisted of 8 distinct yet continual episodes that gradually
escalate the amount of stress infants experience as they respond to the attitude of an adult stranger and the departure
and return of their caregiver. Through these episodes, the researchers found 4 types of infant attachment: secure,
resistant, avoidant, and disorganized-disoriented.
Secure attachment (60-65%): may be upset when mother leaves, can be comforted by stranger; seeks mother when
she returns, goes back to playing. (infants will develop secure internal working models that they are loveable), they are
also friendly and outgoing with strangers when caregiver is near
Avoidant (15%): An insecure infant caregiver bond. Appear to be uninterested in exploration or play. They do not appear
to notice when their caregiver comes or goes. They also tend to avoid or ignore strangers. These infants seem to have
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shut down their emotions and distanced themselves from their parents, almost as if they were denying their need for
affection or had learned not to express their emotional needs.
Resistant (10%): (anxious/ambivalent) 1 year old/ insecure attachment characterized by anxious, ambivalent
reactions; caregiver not secure base for exploration/stronger separation anxiety is displayed than the securely attached
infant. When the caregiver returns the infant is ambivalent the infant may try to remain near the caregiver, but does not
calm down instead the infant may seem to resent the caregiver for having left they may resist if the caregiver tries to
make physical contact and may even hit and kotch the caregiver in anger. These infants are also wary of strangers, even
when their mothers are present.
Disorganized-disoriented attachment (15%): Confused when caregiver leaves; unsure what is happening when
caregiver returns. They also tend to be wary of strangers. Confused; may approach or avoid caregiver or do both
Separation Anxiety: baby is wary or fearful when separated from parent (peaks at 14 and 18 months) Over time, this
type of anxiety becomes less frequent and less intense especially when children feel safe in their home environment and
trust that the caregiver will return.
Stranger Anxiety: wary or fearful reaction to the approach of an unfamiliar person (typical among children ages 818months) (typically declines as the child approaches the age of 2 years old)
ATTACHMENT: A strong, two-way emotional bond, usually referring to relationship between child and mother or primary
caregiver.
 Protects child while providing child freedom to explore
 Strong attachments likely to be formed if adult sensitive to needs of child
 Promoted by spontaneous hugging, smiling, eye contact, and vocalizing.
Secure attachments in infancy tend to lead to sociability, higher self-esteem, better relationships with siblings,
fewer tantrumming or aggressive behaviors, better classroom behavior, more empathy for others, fewer
behavioral problems at later ages, and better attention spans/confidence in problem solving.
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development:
 Preconventional Morality: very rule focused
o Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation (infancy)
 Avoidance of physical punishment and deference to power (How can I
avoid punishment? It is ok to do as long as I do not get caught.)
o Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (pre-school)
 Exchanges of favors or blows “you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”
 Justice is: “do unto others as they do unto you” “What’s in it for me”
 Conventional Morality: blind acceptance social convention and need for social
approval
o Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation (school-age)
 Individual acts to gain approval of others; good behavior is that which
pleases or helps others within the group
o Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (school-age)
 Respect for rules, laws, and properly constituted authority; defense of
the given social and institutional order for its own sake; authority figures
seldom doubted
 Postconventional Morality: stage reflects complex, internalized standards
o Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation (teens)
 Mutual benefit, reciprocity. Morally right and legally right are not always
the same. Utilitarian rules that make life better for everyone
o Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation (adulthood)
 Morality is based on principles that transcend mutual benefit
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Parenting styles Ch 15
 Authoritarian Parenting: Many rules and expectations, extremely strict, few
explanations and little sensitivity to the child’s needs and perspectives…. High
demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness. BECAUSE I
SAID SO!
o Acceptance-responsiveness: the extent to which parents are warm,
supportive, sensitive to needs, and provide affection and praise
o Demandingness-control: how much control over decisions lies with the
parent opposed to with the child. (rules/limits) (permissiveness-restrictiveness)
controlling demanding parents set rules and expect their children to follow
them and monitor their children closely to ensure that the rules are followed.
 Authoritative Parenting: Reasonable demands; consistently enforced with
sensitivity to and acceptance of the child, more flexible style; parents are
demanding and exert control, but they are also sensitive to their children.
Rules may have exceptions/rationales. They are reasonable and democratic in
their approach; although they are in charge, they communicate respect for their
children High and high.
 Permissive parenting (indulgent): High in acceptance-responsiveness, low in
demandingness-control. Are child-centered; there are few rules, encourage
children to express impulses and feelings. These parents fail to set any
standards for behavior, are tolerant of all behaviors, and give in to their child's
desires. In other words, these parents are low in the control dimension but high in
the warmth and support dimension. They let their kids do whatever they want, such
as eat ice cream and cookies for dinner or go to bed at 2:00 am after watching scary
movies all night. Children with indulgent parents tend to be aggressive, impulsive,
and selfish.
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 Neglectful parenting (disengages/uninvolved): low demandingness-control
and low acceptance-responsiveness. They do not seem to care much about their
children and may be hostile. Neglecting parents are not involved in either control or
love; they are absent. In other words, neglecting parents are either not at home or
simply do not give their children any attention at all, either good or bad. These
parents are low in both parenting dimensions.
Changing family dynamics p. 472-473
 More single adults: more adults living as singles (never married, divorced, and
widowed). 28% population has grown
 More postponed marriages: adults are getting married later: women married at
around age 26 and men at 29. Previous years the ages were closer to 20 for women
and 23 for men
 More unmarried parents: more women are giving birth without needing to be
married.
 Fewer children: adults are having fewer children
 More working mothers
 More divorce: increased divorce rates (between 40%-50%)
 More single parent families: more births to unmarried women means more single
parent families.
 More children living in poverty: because there are more single parents, less
income.
 More remarriages: more divorces, more remarriages.
 Reconstituted families = blended families
 More years without children
 More multigenerational families
 Fewer caregivers for aging adults
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (helpful chart p. 269).
Includes three components: analytic, practical, and creative intelligence
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 Practical intelligence: “street smart,” means successfully solving problems in
everyday life – adapting to the environment, selecting environments in which you
can succeed, shaping your environment to fit your strengths.
 Creative intelligence: the ability to invent new ideas and solutions when dealing
with new situations. Effectively dealing with novel problems and automating
responses to familiar problems – creating, inventing, discovering, imagining.
o Novelty: this concerns the ability of a person to deal with the problem for the
first time
o Automation: this concerns the ability of a person to automatically perform the
repeated tasks
 Analytical intelligence (componential): “book smart” selecting mental
processes, thinking critically, and analytically – planning, evaluating, analyzing,
monitoring, comparing, and contrasting, filtering information… These persons can
think outside the box because of abstract thinking and evaluation skills are more
able to see the solutions not normally seen, because of their abstract thinking and
evaluation skills. Ex. Kylie always scores high on standardized tests. It is because of
her ability to evaluate and analyze materials using abstract thinking to achieve
solutions.
Understand the basic idea of evolutionary theory views the history of a species
in terms of the inherited, adaptive value of physical characteristics of mental
activity and behavior
 Change over time occurs through the process of natural and sexual selection.
 In response to our environment, we adapt both physically and psychologically to
ensure our survival and reproduction.
 Sexual selection: evolution has shaped us to provide a mating advantage rather
than just a survival advantage and occurs through two pathways: intrasexual
competition and intersexual competition.
 Gene selection theory: the desire for gene replication.
Gene-environment correlations p. 83
 Gene-environment correlation: ways in which a person’s genes and his
environment or experiences are systematically interrelated: passive, evocative,
and active (people with different genes have different experiences). Geneenvironment interactions tells us that people with different genes react differently
to the experiences they have
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o Passive Gene-Environment: since parents provide children with their genes
and a home environment compatible with those genes, the children will be
exposed to this environment. Ex: Sociable parents transfer their sociable
genes to their children, which creates a highly social home environment.
o Evocative Gene-Environment: child’s genotype evokes certain kinds of
reactions from other people. The smiley sociable baby is more likely to also
receive smiles and hugs and social stimulation – and more opportunities to
build social skills – than the wary, shy baby who makes you fear he will
scream or cry
o Active Gene-Environment: genotypes influence the kinds of environments
they seek. The individual with a genetic predisposition to be extraverted is
likely to go to every party, invite friends over, join organizations.
‘Teratogens – definition and common occurrences/impacts (helpful chart p. 107)
Teratogens: any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a
developing fetus. They can cause deformities, blindness, brain damage, or even
death.
Teratogens are classified into four types: physical agents, metabolic conditions,
infection, and finally, drugs and chemicals
Teratogens are:
 An agent or factor which causes malformation of an embryo
 Occurrences: alcohol, antiepileptic drugs, antidepressant drugs, over the
counter pain/fever reducers, chemotherapy drugs, marijuana, narcotics, sex
hormones, stimulants, tobacco
 Allergens are chemicals that stimulate overactivity in the immune system. When
you are exposed to allergens, your body goes into overdrive, triggering an immune
response to try and get rid of the allergen. Therefore, pollen and dust cause
symptoms that are like being sick.
 Neurotoxins are chemicals that attack the nervous system. These include heavy
metals, like lead and mercury, as well as pesticides and chemical weapons.
Neurotoxins can lead to symptoms like slurred speech, loss of muscle control and
even death.
 Endocrine disrupters are chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system in
organisms and most often come from prescription drugs and chemicals in plastics.
The endocrine system is also known as the hormone system, and this part of your
body is what regulates growth, development, sexual maturity, brain function and
even appetite.
 Toxicants that disrupt hormone functioning can lead to some serious problems
because they so closely resemble real hormones in your body. Reptiles and
amphibians are especially sensitive to endocrine disrupters and exposure often
leads to feminization of male animals. But if you look closely, you will see that the
name of the toxicant describes the effect it has on organisms, which helps us
understand these toxicants better.
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 Only 15% of newborns have minor problems, and even fewer, 5%, have more
significant anomalies due to teratogens.
 Critical period: the effects of a teratogenic agent are worst during this period when
an organ system grows most rapidly.
 Dosage and duration: the greater the level of exposure and the longer the
exposure to a teratogen, the more likely severe damage can occur
 Genetic makeup: susceptibility to harm is influenced by the unborn child’s and the
by the mother’s genetic makeup. Some fetuses are resistant to teratogens and
some mothers are able to detoxify teratogens.
 Environment: the effects of teratogen depend on the quality of both the parental
and the postnatal environments.
- Timing of environmental insult rather than type of insult may determine
which organ is affected
o Their effect is exacted during the period of organogenesis, before 12
weeks of fetal development
o When a fetus is exposed to an environmental insult later in gestation,
it may suffer from a growth delay or some other disease, but generally
not a malformation
o Deformations occur in growth is restricted., but organogenesis is
normal i.e. postural cramping due to lack of amniotic fluid
How does self-esteem vary throughout development?
 Individuals with high self-esteem tend to have better physical and mental health,
better career and financial prospects, and lower involvement in criminal behavior
than those with low self-esteem.
 Harter discovered that self-esteem becomes more differentiated or
multidimensional with age
o By mid-elementary school, children differentiate among five aspects:
 Scholastic competence
 Social acceptance
 Behavioral conduct
 Athletic competence
 Physical appearance
 Reasons children develop higher self-esteem:
o Self-esteem is heritable (inherited)
o Environment can also play a role
o These things below lead to higher self-esteem:
 Warm, democratic parents
 Helping children succeed at important tasks
o Self-esteem is stable over the elementary school years
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Skinner and difference between reinforcements and punishments (helpful chart on p. 43)
Skinner’s Main Ideas
What’s This?
Main Idea
Operant
conditioning
A type of learning in which future behavior is determined by the consequences of past behavior. In general, if a
behavior results in something that the organism finds pleasant, it is likely to be repeated. Conversely, if
behavior is followed by unpleasant consequences, then it is unlikely to be repeated.
A reinforcement is a consequence that strengthens a behavior or makes it likely to be repeated. Note that
reinforcement is not always the same as a reward. A reward is an example of positive reinforcement (the
Reinforcement
presentation of a pleasant stimulus). However, behavior can also be strengthened if it leads to the removal of
something unpleasant (negative reinforcement).
Punishment
Shaping
A punishment is a consequence that weakens a behavior or makes it less likely to be repeated. It can involve the
presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or the removal or a pleasant one (sometimes these are referred to as
positive and negative punishment).
A process used to teach complex behaviors. A complex behavior is broken down into a series of simple
behaviors. These are taught one by one using reinforcement and punishment and gradually combined to create
the desired complex behavior. Shaping is often used to teach tricks to animals.
The process by which a person or animal learns that a behavior only brings reinforcement under conditions. For
Stimulus
example, a cat may learn that meowing results in the presentation of food (positive reinforcement) but only
control
when there is a person in the kitchen. It therefore only meows when a person is there – the behavior (meowing)
is under stimulus control (a person is in the kitchen).
Skinner Operant Conditioning: A student's behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the
consequences it produces. A learner first behaves in a way and then comes to associate this action with the positive or
negative consequences that follow it.
 Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
o Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
o Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
o Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
 Positive reinforcement: positive - something satisfying or desirable has been added to the setting,
reinforcement – the behavior is strengthened. Example: a child receives candy after they finish cleaning their
room.
 Negative reinforcement: occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something unpleasant is
removed from the situation. (escaping unpleasant events) Example: the annoying sound in the car that goes off
when seatbelt is unfastened but turns off when the seatbelt is fastened.
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- Positive punishment: This works by presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is shown, making
the behavior less likely to happen in the future. The following are some examples of positive punishment:
EXAMPLES:
- A child picks his nose during class and the teacher reprimands him in front of his classmates.
- A child wears his favorite hat to church or at dinner, his parents scold him for wearing it and make him remove the
hat.
- During a meeting or while in class, your cell phone starts ringing, you are lectured on why it is not okay to have
your phone on.
- Negative punishment: is for negative punishment, try to think of it as taking away a certain desired item after the
undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. It occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed
following the behavior (a misbehaving child loses the privilege of watching TV, or If a child does not follow directions or
acts inappropriately, he loses a token for good behavior that can later be cashed in for a prize.)
Extinction: Behavior is ignored or no longer reinforced, tends to become less frequent.
Gardner’s types of intelligences: Gardner rejects IQ score is a measure of human
intelligence and argues there are 8 intelligences:
1. Linguistic: (word-smart) language skills, such as those see in the poet’s
facility with words
2. Logical (number/reasoning smarts) abstract thinking and problem
solving shown by mathematics and computer scientists and is
emphasized by Piaget.
3. Musical: (sound-smart) based on an acute sensitivity to sound patterns
4. Spatial: (picture-smart) most obvious in talented artist who can perceive
things accurately and transform what they see.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic: (body-smart) the skillful use of the body to create
crafts, perform, or fix things: dancers, athletes, and surgeons
6. Interpersonal: (people-smart) social intelligence, social skill,
exceptional sensitivity to other people’s motivations and moods:
salespeople and psychologists.
7. Intrapersonal: (self-smart) understanding of one’s feelings and inner life
8. Naturalist: (nature smart) expertise in the natural world of plants and
animals
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Understand the causes and implications of early/late development in children
(especially p. 147- 148)
Boys:
 Early-developing boys are judged to be socially competent, attractive,
and self-assured, and they enjoy greater social acceptance by their
peers
 There are some negative aspects of being an early-maturing boy, namely
increased risk of earlier involvement in substance use and other
problem behaviors such as bullying, aggression, and delinquency
 By comparison, late maturation in boys has more negative effects. Latematuring boys tend to be more anxious and less sure of themselves, and
they experience more behavior and adjustment problems. As a group,
they even score lower than other students do, at least in early adolescence,
on school achievement tests. However, on the positive side; late-maturing
boys are less likely to drink alcohol during adolescence
 Their body images are more positive than those of girls, and they are
more likely to welcome their weight gain and voice changes.
 Nevertheless, they hope to be tall, hairy, and handsome, and they may
become preoccupied with their physical and athletic prowess. Boys who
experience slow growth and/or short stature can experience a rocky
emotional road during adolescence as the smallest kid in the class, the
last picked for sports, and the one least likely to be noticed in a romantic
way by peers who are more developed.
 Their smaller size often means that others perceive them as younger and
less mature.
Girls:
 An early-developing girl may not gain much status from being larger and
more muscled.
 Since girls develop about 2 years earlier than boys do, an early-developing
girl may be subjected to teasing or bullying for being the only one in her
grade who is developed.
 Early maturation appears to be more of a disadvantage than an advantage
for girls.
 The early-maturing girl expresses higher levels of body dissatisfaction than
her prepubertal classmates and may engage in unsafe dieting and
exercising because of this discomfort.
 Early maturity alters girls’ social environments, propelling them into
socializing with older peers
 As a result, they are likely to become involved in dating, smoking, drinking,
having sex, and engaging in minor troublemaking at an early age. Girls who
experience puberty earlier than their peers report higher levels of
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depression at least for the period that they are feeling different from their
peers
 Girls approaching or experiencing puberty tend to become self-conscious about
their appearance and worry about how others will perceive them, fear judgment.
Essay Portion:
Know Erikson’s theory well including stages, crisis, and outcomes.
 Focused on life span development, inner dynamics of personality and
proposed that the personality evolves through systematic stages.
 Places less emphasis on sexual stages, looking into relationships of not only
parents but peers, teachers, schools, broader culture
 Placed less emphasis on unconscious, irrational and selfish id and more on
the rational ego and its adaptive powers
 Held a positive view of human nature, seeing people as active in their
development, rational, and able to overcome the effects of harmful early
experiences
 Puts more emphasis on development after adolescence
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Be able to apply Erikson’s theory and one other theory from Chapter 2 of
Sigelman and Rider to a case
Theorist
Psychoanalytic
Theory: Freud’s
Psychosexual Theory
Psychoanalytic
Theory: Erikson’s
Psychosocial Theory
Learning Theory:
Skinner’s Behavioral
Theory
Learning Theory:
Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive
Developmental
Theory: Piaget’s
Constructivism
Nature–
Activity–
Continuity– Universality– Context
Message
Nurture
Passivity
Discontinuity Specificity
Biologically based sexual b. More
instincts motivate
nature
b. Passive a. Discontinuous
a. Universal
behavior and steer
(biology (humans are (stage like)
development through five drives
influenced by
psychosexual stages, oral development; forces beyond
to genital.
early
their control)
experience in
the family
influences it,
too)
Humans progress
a. Universal (although
through eight
c. Nature
a. Active
a.
stages may be
psychosocial conflicts, and nurture
Discontinuous expressed differently
from trust vs. mistrust equally
(stage like) in diverse cultures)
to integrity vs. despair.
Development is the
product of learning from e. Mostly
b. Passive c. Continuous
b. Context specific
the consequences of one’s nurture (humans are
(habits
(direction of
behavior through operant
shaped by
gradually development depends on
conditioning.
environment) increase or
experiences)
decrease in
strength)
Development is the
a. Active
product of cognition, as d. More
(humans c. Continuous b. Context specific
illustrated by
nurture influence their
observational learning
environments)
and human agency
Development proceeds
b. More
through four stages of
nature
a. Active a. Discontinuous
a. Universal
cognitive development, (maturation
(stage like)
from sensorimotor to interacting
formal operations
with
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Nature–
Activity–
Nurture
Passivity
experience
guides all
through the
same stages)
Theorist
Message
Systems Theories:
Bronfenbrenner’s
Bioecological Model
Development takes
many directions
c. Nature
depending on
and nurture
transactions between a equally
changing person and a
changing environment
a. Active
Continuity– Universality– Context
Discontinuity Specificity
b. Both
b. Context specific
continuous and
discontinuous
1.
Infancy (0-1yr.): Trust vs. Mistrust Coming to trust the mother and the environment -- to associate surroundings
with feelings of inner goodness. Security & Affection: Success leads to trusting their parents love and affection
Failure leads to viewing the world as inconsistent and unpredictable
2. Early Childhood (2-3yrs.): Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Developing the wish to make choices and the self-control
to exercise choice Budding Independence: Success leads to taking on new tasks, and pride in doing things
independently. Failure leads to doubting their ability to do things on their own.
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3. Preschool Years (4-5yrs.): Initiative vs. Guilt Adding planning and “attacking” to choose; becoming active and on
the move Independence: Success leads to planning tasks and learning the difference between right and wrong
behaviors. Failure to acquire the skills of this stage leads to guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
4. Grammar School Years (6-12yrs.): Industry vs. Inferiority Becoming eagerly absorbed in skills, tasks, and
productivity; mastering the fundamentals of technology Competency: Success leads to a better sense of pride &
work Failure leads to doubting of their abilities What they need: Positive reinforcement & encouragement
5. Adolescence (13-18yrs.): Identity vs. Role Diffusion Connecting skills and social roles to formation of career
objectives Who am I? Success leads to a solid sense of self, values, morals, and role in society Failure leads to
confusion about who they are and where they fit in
6. Young Adulthood (19-30): Intimacy vs. Isolation Committing the self to another; engaging in sexual love/romantic
relationships: Success leads to comfortable relationships with commitment, care and safety Failure leads to
loneliness and fear of close relationships or commitment
7. Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation Needing to be needed; guiding and encouraging the younger
generation; being creative Contribution: Success is measured in what they have contributed to their work, society,
community and family (generativity) Failure is measured in their lack of contributions
8. Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair Accepting the timing and placing of one’s own life cycle; achieving wisdom
and dignity Assess life’s worth: Success leads to wisdom Failure leads to bitterness and regret What they need: To
look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment
Be comfortable discussing how developmental concerns might impact
diagnosis, conceptualization, goal setting, and treatment
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- Developmental concerns can explain psychological distress and help work with
prevention and prediction.
- Development can take a variety of paths depending on the complex interplay of
multiple influences.
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