JigJiga University
4 October 2021
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CHAPTER I:
PSYCHOLOGY: CONCEPT AND NATURE
• Introduction: What is psychology?
• What is your prior knowledge about psychology? Or
what do you think is psychology? Discuss with your
classmate!
• Definition: there are two types of definitions- literal
and conceptual/subject matter definitions.
• Literal definition of psychology: The word psychology
came from two Greek words.
• Psyche = "the breath of life" or "the soul as separate
from the body" and is generally accepted today as
"the mind"
• Logos = "the study of‖, explanation
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Cont…
• Hence the literal definition is given ad - ―psychology is the study
of the mind‖.
• Conceptual definition of psychology:
• The conceptual definition of psychology has evolved with the
history of psychology itself. Accordingly the first definition of
psychology was:
Psychology is the science/study of consciousness.
• The second definition was then appeared by 1920 with behavioral
psychologist & it says:
•
Psychology is the science of behavior.
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Cont…
• By early1960’s humanistic psychology, which considers the subjective
mental process emerged as an alternative approach and the definition
has changed.
•
Nowadays the most accepted definition of psychology is:
• Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes.
• Broad definition of psychology:
Psychologists study a broad range of behaviors (examples autistic
behaviors and students’ test anxiety).
Psychology is the systematic & scientific study of behavior and
mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s
physical state, mental state, and environment.
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Cont…
• Below are some of the major concepts in the definition of
psychology
• A. Behaviors refer to overt or observable actions or responses in
both humans and animals. Behaviors might include eating,
speaking, laughing, running, reading, and sleeping.
• B. Mental processes, which are not directly observable, refer to a
wide range of complex mental processes, such as thinking,
imagining, studying, and dreaming.
• C. Organisms; both Humans and may other animals are included
in the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Cont…
• D. Physical state relates primarily to the organism‘s
biology - most especially the state of the brain and
central nervous system.
• E. Mental state the unconscious and conscious brain
activity can be studied.
• F. All organisms function in an environment that is
constantly presenting them with problems and
challenges that must be solved.
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Goals of Psychology
• Psychology has four main goals. These are:
1. Description: tells “what” occurred
2. Explanation: tells “why” a behavior or mental process occurred
3. Prediction: identifies conditions under which a future behavior
or mental process is likely to occur
4. To change: applies psychological knowledge to prevent
unwanted behavior or to bring about desired goals
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History of psychology: How psychology has
emerged as a discipline?
• Before the emergence of Psychology as a discipline, the subject of
behavior and mind was studied under fields of philosophy and
Physiology. Particularly, the development in the field of
physiology has contributed a lot for the emergence of psychology.
Philosophy is a means of exploring and understanding the general
nature of many aspects of the world.
Physiology is the scientific study of living organisms and of lifesustaining functions and processes, primarily through
observations
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Cont..
• Psychology has emerged in Leipzig, Germany where Wilhelm
Wundt (1832–1920), the ―father of psychology,‖ set up the first
psychology laboratory in 1879 to study conscious experiences.
• Wundt is credited with making psychology an independent science,
separate from philosophy.
• Wundt wondered, ―What happens when we
experience
sensations, images, and feelings?
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Some branches of psychology/Division of
psychologists:
Biopsychology/ Neuroscience
Gender/Cultural Psychology
Clinical & Counseling
Health Psychology
Psychology
Industrial/Organizational
Cognitive Psychology
Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Social Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Educational & School
Forensic Psychology
Psychology
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1.1 Schools of thought in psychology
• Definition of school of thought: A particular idea or set of ideas
held by a specific group; doctrine; a group sharing common point of
view.
• When psychology was first established as a science separate from
biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain
the human mind and behavior began.
• The different schools of psychology represent the major theories
and approaches that exist within psychology.
• In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively
with one single school of thought.
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cont…
• School of thought can also be called perspectives or approaches
in psychology.
• For easy understanding the schools of thought in psychology we
can categorize them in to two groups.
•
These are the old schools of thought in the early history of
psychology and the current/contemporary schools of thought.
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1.1.1. The early schools of thought:
 there are three perspectives/approaches under this group.
 These are the structuralism, functionalism and the gestalt
psychology approaches.
• I. Structuralism
• Structuralism was the first school of thought and it was advocated
by Wilhelm Wundt the, founder of the first psychology lab in
Germany.
• The other schools of thought/theories began to emerge immediately
after structuralism.
• As its name implies, structuralism is focused on breaking down
mental processes into the most basic components.
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Cont…
II. Functionalism
 functionalism originated in the United States.
 Functionalism was formed in 1890s as a reaction to the structuralist school of
thought and was heavily influenced by the work of William James.
 functionalist thinkers are interested in the role that these mental processes play.
 William James published the first psychology book called “Principles of
Psychology‘ in 1990 from this group.
 Although functionalism does not exists today as a school of thought in
psychology it gave birth to the branch of psychology called Evolutionary
psychology.
 Major functionalist thinkers also include John Dewey and Harvey Carr.
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Cont..
III. Gestalt psychology
• Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology emphasizing the
study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by
analysis into parts.
• It was led by Max Wertheimer, and focused not on how we feel,
but on how we experience the world.
• Gestalt psychologists studied thinking, learning, and perception as
whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts.
• Their slogan was, ―The whole is greater than the sum of its parts‖.
• The German word Gestalt means ―form, pattern, or whole.‖
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1.1.2. The contemporary/ current approaches in psychology.
I Biopsychological/Neuroscience approach

Biological psychology attempts to understand behavior by carefully
studying anatomy and physiology, especially of the brain
(neurobiology).

It focuses on how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and
sensory experiences.

According to this approach, all of our feelings and behaviors have an
organic root. In other words, they come from the brain, body chemistry,
neurotransmitters.

It states that behavior has a biological basis.

The behavior of both people and animals should be considered in terms
of biological functioning.
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cont..
• ii. Evolutionary approach
• Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists‘ basic
assumption, namely that many human psychological systems,
including memory, emotion, and personality, serve key adaptive
functions.
• Evolutionary psychologists use evolutionary theory to understand
many different behaviors including romantic attraction,
stereotypes and prejudice, and even the causes of many
psychological disorders.
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Cont..
• iii. Behavioral approach
• Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s.
•
It was based upon the work of thinkers such as John B. Watson
(considered the father of behaviorism), Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner.
• Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by
environmental causes rather than by internal forces.
•
Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior.
•
Theories of learning including classical conditioning and operant
conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research in behavioral
psychology.
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Cont..
• Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of
learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning.
• Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli
shape our behaviors.
• It is based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained,
and changed
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iv. Psychoanalysis/ Psychodynamic approach
• Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by an Austrian
doctor, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
• This school of thought emphasizes the influence of the
unconscious mind on behavior.
• Psychoanalysis focuses on understanding the unconscious
motivations that drive behavior.
• It also underscores the importance of early childhood experiences
as influences on adult personality.
• Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three
elements: the id, the ego and the superego.
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v. Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies
mental processes including how people think, perceive,
remember and learn.
• As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience,
philosophy and linguistics.
• Cognitive psychology began to emerge during the 1950s, partly as
a response to behaviorism.
• Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how
internal processes impacted behavior.
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Cont…
• Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it has guided
research in such varied fields as language, problem solving, memory,
intelligence, education, human development, social psychology, and
psychotherapy.
• vi. Humanistic psychology
• Humanistic psychology developed as a reaction to psychoanalysis and
behaviorism in the late 1950‘s.
• Humanistic psychology focused on individual free will, personal growth and
the concept of self-actualization.
• Humanists are interested in psychological needs for love, self-esteem, belonging,
self-expression, creativity, and spirituality.
• Such needs, they believe, are as important as our biological urges for food and
water.
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Cont…
• Humanistic school of thought is similar to the Gestalt psychology, which
emerged in Germany in late 19th century, and which suggests that “we
experience things as unified wholes‘
•
vii. Sociocultural approach
• Sociocultural psychology is the study of how the social situations and
the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and
behavior.
• Social-cultural psychologists are particularly concerned with how people
influence each other‘s behavior.
• They believe that behavior and mental processes must be studied in the
light of the social and cultural context in which they take place.
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1.2. Psychology as a science
• Scientific disciplines are usually classified into two: the Physical
Sciences and the Social Sciences.
• Because psychology encompasses human and social issues as well
as biological and physiological ones, it is categorized as both a
natural and social science.
• As a natural science, psychology is concerned with the laws of
nature.
• As a social science, psychology involves the study of the laws of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of humans and other organisms.
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Cont…
• The Scientific Method
• The scientific method is a form of critical thinking based on careful
collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, precise
definition, controlled observation, and repeatable results.
In its ideal form, the scientific method has six elements:
1. Making observations
2. Defining a problem
3. Proposing a hypothesis
4. Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
5. Theory building
6. Publishing results
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1.3 Methods of Psychology
• Psychologists study the behavior of both humans and animals, and the
main purpose of the research is to help us understand people and to
improve the quality of human lives.
• Psychological research may be either basic or applied in orientation.
• Some psychological research is basic research and some are applied
research
• Basic research is research that answers fundamental questions about
behavior. Example of questions studied by this method include: how
nerves conduct impulses from the receptors in the skin to the brain,
• Applied research is research that investigates issues that have
implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday
problems.
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Quiz
only 15 munities
1.What is the psychology?
2. Can you name the father of experimental psychology? Who is s/he?
3.List the six elements of scientific method?
4.A psychological approach/theory which focuses on the study of the structure of mind is?
A. gestalt B. functionalism C. structuralism D. A& B
5. A psychological approach which emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
A. gestalt B. functionalism C. Psychoanalysis D. Psychodynamic E . C& D
F. none
6. A psychological perspective which considers the study of the whole person is:
A. gestalt B. functionalism C. structuralism D. A & C
7. Which of the following psychological approach is not the old one?
A. gestalt B. functionalism C. structuralism D. humanistic
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Jigjiga University
4 October 2021
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CHAPTER 2
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
• What is personality?
• Literal meaning:
• The word personality originated from the Latin word persona meaning person.
• Personality:
• Personality is made up the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that make a person unique.
It arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.
internally based characteristic way of acting and thinking
It is the totality of the person and not merely external looks,
It develops out of the constant interaction between man and environment
10/4/2021
Chapter One, Introduction to AGEX
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Cont..
• Personality Traits
• What is Trait:
A trait:- is a way in which one individual differs from another.
The tendency of an individual to behave in a consistent manner in
different situations.
According to trait theory, it is personality traits that primarily determine
behavior.
• Personality Trait is:
Stable qualities that a person shows in most situations.
See examples of personality traits on the next diagram. continued and
has persisted as the designation for the work.
4 October 2021
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2.2 Development of personality and Factors of personality
• A. Personality Development
• Personality development:- is the development of the organized pattern
of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person who he/she is.
• It occurs by the constant interaction with others and with the surrounding
environment.
• It is the improvement of behavioral traits such as communication skills,
interpersonal relationships, attitude towards life and restoring our
ethics.
• How personality traits develop?
• B. Factors of personality development
• Main factors that are contributing to the development and shaping of a
personality:
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Cont….
• Heredity – genetic factor determines many our characters (‗nature
factor‘)
• Environment – acquisition of values, beliefs and expectations due to
socialization, interaction with others, parents‘/caregivers behavior
with him/her, the contribution made by school and unique
experiences encountered along the life. (―nurture factor‖)
• Unique Situation
Eg : being abused during childhood or experienced some horrified
life threatening event/witness a tragic event – can leave mental
scars that make one to be fearful, less trusting, less confident etc.
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Theories of personality development
• A number of different theories have emerged to explain different
aspects of personality.
• Some theories focus on explaining how personality develops while
others are concerned with individual differences in personality.
Trait Theories:
Psychodynamic Theories:
Humanistic Theories:
Social-Cognitive Theories:
• 1. Trait theory of personality
• Trait theorists assume that personality traits are relatively enduring
(stable).
• they expect to see carryover in personality over years
• Trait theorists emphasize the continuity of major dimensions of
personality like the big five types.
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cont…
• Give what type behavior is reflected by each of the following
personality traits! Reading assignment!
 Extraversion Vs Introversion
 Neuroticism Vs Emotional Stability
 Agreeableness Vs Antagonism
 Conscientiousness Vs Impulsiveness
 Openness to experience Vs resistance to new experience
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Cont..
• extraversion: people with this trait are:
 1. Active and interactive in social gatherings
 2. Gregarious, unreserved
 3. sociable
 4. Easily excited by things
• Introversion: people with this trait are:
 Passive
 Quiet and in most cases spend their time lonely.
 cautious ,very careful when doing things.
 reserved and do not interact easily with other people
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2. Psychoanalytic Theory
• Sigmund Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory was one of the first, and one of the
most influential, theories of how the personality develops from childhood to
adulthood.
Focus on the inner workings of personality, especially internal conflicts and
struggles=focuses on nature, not nurture
For Freud, biological instincts guide human development
Basic ideas of the theory
Forces contained within us, which we are not aware of trigger our behavior.
These hidden forces, shaped and consolidated by childhood experiences, play an
important role in directing our behavior.
Freud termed this process the Unconscious.
Before learning Freud's theory of personality, we must first understand his view
of how the mind is organized.
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Cont….
• Freud divided personality structure into three different types.
 1. The Id:
• It is inborn/innate; irrational, immoral & self-serving
• Personality that is present from birth
• Entirely unconscious
• Operates according to the pleasure principle
• The id is the source of all psychic energy
•
Primitive and unconscious part of personality
• Its main goal is to reduce tensions created by primitive drives and get
maximum satisfaction of the biological needs. (Example: hunger, sex)
•
Infants/babies are all id.
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Cont..
 2. The Ego:
• Operates according to the reality principle
•
It is executive of personality.
• All decision making processes of the personality are done by the
ego.
•
Mediates between id and superego
•
It Makes decision
• It Controls action
• It allows thinking and problem solving approach when the
personality faces problems.
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Cont..
• 3. Superego:
• Moral ideals and conscience
•
It helps to integrate broad moral values of society learned through
socialization
•
It prevents us from doing immoral things.
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Interaction of the three
• With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict
might arise between the id, ego and superego.
• Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to
function despite these dueling forces.
• A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage
these pressures, while
• those with too much or too little ego strength can become too
unyielding or too disrupting.
• According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance
between the id, the ego, and the superego.
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
1.Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
• 1. Oral Stage: Ages 0-1.
Most of infant‘s pleasure comes from stimulation of the mouth.
Mouth is the sensitive part of the body for pleasure.
by sucking and latter biting
If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits/behabior will develop.
• 2. Anal Stage: Ages 1-3.
Occurs when parents are toilet training the children
Attention turns to process of elimination
Anus is the sensitive part of the body
The first time children encounter authority= id must be controlled
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Cont..
• Child can gain approval or express aggression by letting go or
holding on.
•
Ego develops
• Harsh or lenient toilet training can make a child either:
messy/disorder OR over conformity/ exaggerated self control
• 3. Phallic Stage: Ages 3-6.
• Child now notices their genitals.
• Physically attracted to opposite sex parent, at least sensually.
• Children develop a sexual feeling.
• This is called OEDIPUS complex for boys and ELEXTRA
complex for girls.
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Cont..
• The children start to construct psychic defense against their feeling and to cope
with the anxiety.
• Through the defense the tries to like his father and the girl her mother
• Superego develops based on events of the phallic stage
• 4. Latency: Ages 6-Puberty.
 Not very important in personality development
 Psychosexual development is dormant= sexuality is represses and the child
learns more about the world.
 Same sex friendships and play occur here.
 Ego expands at this stage.
• 5. Genital Stage: Puberty-adulthood.
 Realization of full adult sexuality occurs here.
 Sexual urges re-awaken, mature heterosexual interest appear.
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Cont….
• The clients' own knowledge and ingenuity, individually and
collectively, are recognized as a major resource;
• solutions to local problems are to be developed in partnership
between agent and clients.
• Since the scale at which extension support is required is thus
often larger than the individual farm
• extension workers need new skills of negotiation, conflict
resolution, and the nurturing of emerging community
organizations.
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Cont..
• 3. Humanistic Theories of personality
Focus on private, subjective experience and personal growth.
The concept of ‗Self‘ is more important
Each individual has a unique potential.
Self esteem (having positive or negative regard for oneself) is
important in shaping ones personality.
Over estimating and under estimating one‘s own capabilities may
result in social and psychological problems like superiority and
inferiority complexes.
Individual needs (need for recognition) have an effect on ones
personality.
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Cont…..
• Abraham Maslow: personality gradually develops towards
self-actualization
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Cont…
• 4. Social-Cognitive Theory
It is also called social learning theory.
Personality is a set of behavioral tendencies shaped by interaction
with other people in specific social situation.
Attribute difference in personality to socialization, expectations,
and mental processes.
reject the opinion of universal stages of personality development =
reject psychosexual stages and universality of traits.
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Cont…
 They question the existence of enduring personality traits that
show themselves in a variety of situations and over long stretches
of life span.
They emphasize that people change if their environments
change.
 Promotion of group needs valued (promotion of individual needs is
shameful)
Valued traits: honesty, generosity, sensitivity
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2.3. TYPES OF PERSONALITY
• Personality types are group of individuals with similar personality
traits.
• Personality type theories have fallen out of favor in psychology.
• One example of personality types is Type A and Type B personality
theory.
• Developmental psychologist Jerome Kagan is a prominent
advocate of type theory.
•
The other important theorist is Carl Jung, with his theory of 4
basic functions of psyche: sensation, intuition, thinking, and
feeling.
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Type A and B personalities
• Type A Personality
 Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly.
 Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place.
 Strive to think or do two or more things at once.
 Cannot cope with leisure time.
 Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of
how many or how much of everything they acquire.
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Cont…
• Type B Personality
 Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying
impatience.
 Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or
accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the
situation.
 Play for fun & relaxation, instead of exhibiting their superiority at
any cost.
 Can relax without guilt.
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Cont…
• The 9-types personality
• Perfectionists – are realistic, conscientious and principled.
• Helpers – are warm, concerned, nurturing and sensitive to
other people‘s needs.
• Achievers – are energetic, optimistic, self assured and goal
oriented
• Romantics – have sensitive feelings and are warm and
perceptive
• Observers –have a need for knowledge and are introverted,
curious, analytical and insightful.
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Cont..
• Questioners – are responsible and trustworthy.
• Adventurers – are energetic, lively and optimistic. They want to
contribute to the world.
• Asserters – are direct, self-reliant, self confident and protective.
• Peacemakers – are receptive, good-natured and supportive.
They seek union with others and the world around them
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2.4 Assessment of Personality:
•
Personality is a potentially important predictor of work behavior.
•
In job interviews, companies try to assess a candidate‘s
personality and the potential for a good match.
• Personality test are used for such purposes.
• Through personality assessment we can identify:
•
Value system
• Emotional reaction to a critical situation
•
Moods and characteristic behaviour traits.
•
Maturity in handling a crisis.
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Jigjiga University
4 October 2021
55
Chapter 3
LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURAL PSYCHOLOGY
• 3.1 Cognitive Process
• The word cognition refers to perception of the world around us.
Cognitive psychology:
Is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes
Cognition includes how people think, perceive, remember, and learn.
The focus of cognitive psychology is on how people Acquire, process and
store information.
There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as
improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and
structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.
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3.2. Thinking and Reasoning
What do we do when we think?
Mentally/cognitively processing information!
Thinking consists of cognitive arrangement/manipulation of
information from environment & symbol stored in long term
memory.
Thinking is the form of information processing that goes on during
the period between a stimulus event and the response to it.
a set of cognitive process that mediate between stimuli and
response.
Thinking involves the mental manipulation of information in forming
concepts,
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Cont..
• Reasoning
• Dictionary definition
Reasoning: is the action of thinking about something in a
logical, sensible way.
E.g. "he explained the reasoning behind his decision at a
media conference"
You may have information about something, but you need
complete image of it.
Reasoning is the set of processes that enables us to go
beyond the information given.
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Cont…
Reasoning is associated with thinking, cognition,
and intellect.
The psychology of reasoning is the study of how
people reason.
It is the process of drawing conclusions to inform
how people solve problems and make decisions.
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Types of reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
Allows us to draw conclusions that must hold given a set of facts
(premises).
an inference by reasoning from the general to the specific.
Premise 1: All Ethiopians are poor.
Premise 2: Kebede is an Ethiopian. Conclusion
• Inductive reasoning
Allows us to expand on conclusions
Conclusions need not be true given premises.
Category-based induction
Analogical reasoning
Mental models
Adjust the above example to make it Inductive reasoning!
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3.3. Habituation and learning
• Habituation: is a basic form of respondent learning, in which:
there is a decrease in the strength of a given action
after repeated presentation of a stimulus that elicits the response.
• Importance:
• Habituation is an early form of learning that is adaptive for children
to acquire for normal development.
We need to learn to selectively attend to information that is
important and to ignore information that isn‘t.
• Habituation serves as a useful paradigm for understanding early
infant development
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Learning
• One of the most important mental functions of humans, …
It relies on acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by
perceived information.
Learning leads to the development of new knowledge, skill, values,
understanding, preferences, etc
Increases individual/group experience
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• Defining Learning
Cont..
• Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state
based on experience.
Relatively permanent change: Can be altered with future learning
Behavior: Some response to a situation or event
Mental state: knowledge, attitude, belief, strategy
• What is NOT “learning?”
Instincts: behaviors that occur as a result of the organism‘s
genotype
Reflexes: behaviors that occur as a result of an automatic
reaction to some environmental change or condition
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Three components of learning
1. Learning is a change in the behavior-environment relationship
2. The change is “relatively‖ permanent”
3. Learning is due to experience with the environment.
• Learning is:
• A Process- change that occurs as a result of an organism‘s
experience
Acquisition – phase of acquiring a new skill.
• A Product- long-term changes in an individual‘s behaviors that
result from a learning experience.
Performance- stable behavioral patterns or ―steady-state‖ behavioral
occur following a period of acquisition.
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What role does learning play in human development?
• Learning is a process in development!!!
We are hard-wired to acquire knowledge and skills through our
interactions with the environment.
Learning serves as the mechanism by which we acquire information
and act on our environment.
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Types of Learning
Associative learning involves a connection between two elements or
events.
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Non-associative learning involves change in the magnitude of
response to environmental events.
Habituation
Sensitization
• Non-associative learning
Habituation
Ability to discontinue response to highly repetitive stimuli
The response to steady or repeated (harmless) stimulus decreases over
time.
Example: You don‘t hear power generator after it‘s been running awhile.
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•
Cont…
Sensitization
Increase in responsiveness as result of repeated application of
stimulus
The experience of one stimulus heightens the response to a
subsequent stimulus.
Example: People are ―jumpy‖ following natural disasters, like
earthquakes.
• Associative learning: includes classical learning and operant
conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
Refers to reflexive or respondent learning
Here reflexive actions are strengthened in relation to stimuli from
the environment.
Basic Procedure
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Cont…
-
68
Cont…
• Instrumental learning (operant conditioning):
• A learning procedure whereby the effects of a particular behavior in a
particular situation increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) the
probability of the behavior.
• Association between a stimulus and a response
• Not automatic
• Operant Conditioning: Learning New Behaviors
B.F. Skinner‘s ―Radical Behaviorism:
The factor controlling an organism‘s behavior was the consequence
of that behavior.
There was no need to hypothesize internal processes.
The only appropriate object of study is overt, observable behavior
The laws governing ―learning‖ via operant conditioning were the
same for all organisms.
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Key concepts in Operant Conditioning
• 1. Reinforcement: ―Any condition that follows and strengthens a
behavior.‖
Positive Reinforcement: an event that occurs after a response that
increases the likelihood of that response occurring again
Negative Reinforcement: removal of an aversive condition that increases
the likelihood of that response occurring again
• Primary and Secondary Rein forcers
If the rein forcer is based on a natural biological need or drive it is a
primary reinforcer
Food, Water, Sex, Oxygen
If the rein forcer is a related to but in reality not based on a natural
biological need, it is a secondary or conditioned reinforce e.g. Money,
Praise, Grades
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Cont…
• 2. Extinction: similar to Extinction in Classical Conditioning—
removing the reinforcement tends to terminate the behavior
• 3. Punishment is any condition that follows and reduces the
likelihood of a behavior
 Positive Punishment: a condition that occurs following a behavior and
reduces the likelihood of that behavior
 Negative Punishment: removal of a desirable condition following a
behavior that reduces the likelihood of that behavior.
• Informal learning
• 4. Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day
situations.
• 5. It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, play,
exploring, etc.
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Cont….
• Formal learning
• 6. Formal learning: is learning that takes place within a teacher-student
relationship, such as in a school system.
• 7. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning,
but rather the way it is directed and organized.
• 8. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and
objectives of the learning.
• Non-formal learning
Non-formal learning: is organized learning outside the formal learning system.
For example: learning by coming together with people with similar interests and
exchanging viewpoints, in clubs, associations, organizations, workshops.
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Cont…
• Active learning
Active learning: occurs when a person takes control of their learning
experience.
• Adult learning = you will learn this in the next semester!
• Domains of learning
• An American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom has suggested
three domains of learning:
9. Cognitive – To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
10. Psychomotor – To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
11. Affective – To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate,
worship, etc.
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Cont…
• Laws and Processes of learning
Laws of learning are also called principles of learning.
• 12. They are general principles applicable to the learning process.
• 13. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn
most effectively.
• 14. some of the laws are: readiness, exercise, effect were the first 3
laws of learning.
• 15. Other Laws include:
primacy, recency, intensity, freedom and requirement.
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Learning process
-
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cont….
• THE LEARNING PROCESS
Purposeful Process
Internal Experience
Active Process
Multidimensional
Individual Process
• Factors affecting learning process
1. Personal factors:
Sensation and perception-depends on the five sense organs
Age and maturation
Emotional conditions: joy, happiness, sadness,
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cont……
Need
Interest
Motivation
Intelligence
Attitude and aptitude
2. Environmental factors
Surrounding
Physical facilities
3. Social factors
Access, inequality, social position,
Social status etc
Teacher-student relationship
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Jigjiga University
4 October 2021
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• Sensation
Chapter 4
Sensation And Perception
perception
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Cont….
• What is Sensation?
•
Sensation: is your window to the world
•
Sensation: activity in the sense organ
•
Sensation: Process of detecting physical energies with sensory
organs
• The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical
objects.
•
It occurs when energy in the external environment or the body
stimulates receptors in the sense organs.
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Cont…
•
Perception: interpreting what comes in your window.
• 6. Perception: activity between brain and sense organ
•
Perception: Mental process of organizing sensations into
meaningful patterns.
• Perception: The process by which the brain organizes and
interprets sensory information.
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The process of perception
• Perception is essentially the interface between the outer and inner
worlds.
Social targets and the contextual stimuli of the outer environment
create signals (visual, auditory, etc.) that can be sensed.
the perceiver receives these signals and converts them into
psychologically meaningful representations that define our inner
experience of the world.
Once a meaningful percept is achieved, it serves as input to higher-
order cognition, including inferences about the target‘s goals and
intentions.
This interpretation of target input then guides the perceiver‘s
response.
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Bottom-up & Top-down processes of perception
• The process of perception is governed both by ―bottom-up‖
sensory input and by ―top-down‖ imposition of meaning.
Bottom-Up Processing: Analyzing information starting at the
bottom (small units) and going upward to form a complete
perception
Top-Down Processing: Preexisting knowledge that is used to
rapidly organize features into a meaningful whole
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Determinants of perception
• Attitudes and Expectations:
May affect perception of events
Cross-Racial Perceptions:
Better at identifying members of their own race than of other races
Accuracy-Confidence:
Confidence is not a good predictor of his/her accuracy
Post-Event Information:
perception not only what was actually seen but also information
obtained later on.
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Illusions
• What is an Illusion?
Use the concept of sensation & perception to answer this question.
Most of the time the interpretation of the received energy is consistent
with the object/signals.
Sometimes, however, our interpretation is incorrect.
These misinterpretations are called illusions.
Illusion: Misleading or distorted perceptions of stimuli that actually
exists.
What happens if illusion occurs in interpersonal communication?
Hallucination: When people perceive objects or events that have no
external basis in reality.
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Cont…
• What Do Yousee in the following Müller-Lyer illusion?
Which line among the three is longest?
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Cont….
An optical illusion: visually perceived images that differ from
objective reality.
Cognitive illusions: assumptions about the world, leading to
"unconscious inferences"
We perceive something that does not correspond to what is actually
out there—what exists in the real world. Illusions fool us.
Many common perceptions involve illusions although people are
not aware of it.
A good example of an illusion which we simply take for granted is
the motion picture.
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Cont..
• There are two illusions involved when we go to see a movie.
The first is that there is really nothing moving as we experience the film.
What is moving is a series of still photographs on a reel of film.
Each is exposed for only a very short time and our eyes and brain to not
see the separate still shots but see figures on the screen moving quite
naturally.
The second part of the movie illusion is the sound.
When an actor speaks we fully accept that the words are coming from his or
her mouth.
The fact is that the sounds are actually coming from speakers well off to
the side of the screen and possibly even in back of us.—a misperception,
and therefore an illusion.
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Cont…
• Cognitive illusions are commonly divided into four.
1. Ambiguous illusions:
are pictures or objects that elicit a perceptual "switch" between the
alternative interpretations.
2. Distorting or geometrical-optical illusions:
Are characterized by distortions of size, length, position or
curvature.examples are the famous Müller-Lyer illusion.
3. Paradox illusions:
are generated by objects that are paradoxical or impossible, such as
the Penrose
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Cont…..
• triangle. The triangle is an illusion dependent on a cognitive
misunderstanding that adjacent edges must join.
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Cont…
• 4. Fictions:
Is when a figure is perceived even though it is not in the stimulus?
• Describe what you can perceive in the following figures.
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Cont…
• Factors of illusion
• 1. Our own perception
Selective perception is a result of personal factors on perception.
What a person perceives often reflects that person's past learning
and present state of mind, as well as what is actually ―out there‖.
• 2. Cultural orientation
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Implication for rural extension
• Sensation is how people are exposed to the external world.
Perception is how people put the external world in to their mind
and they interpreted it.
How farmers sense an innovation? How they percept it?
How illusion influences the perception of new technology?
The success of any extension work depends on how the
clients/farmers perceive the new knowledge or technology.
Add more from your understanding of the topic.
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CHAPTER 5
MOTIVATION, EMOTION AND FRUSTRATION
• 7.1. What is Motivation?
Motivation: is internal state that activate and gives direction to
thoughts.
Biological motives: internal physiological state, Internal factors
and external cues/signals
Psychological Motives:
Desire for novel stimulation
Needs as related to one’s happiness and well-being
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Cont…
• Primary Motives
• Biological needs
Food, water, warmth, safety, and sex
Homeostasis – biological thermostats regulated by homeostasis
mechanisms
Hunger – regulation of food intake
Thirst: Regulation of Water Intake
• Psychological Motives: Desire for novel stimulation
Needs - as related to one‘s happiness and well-being
need to maintain optimal level of arousal in nervous system
 Affiliation motivation
All humans have need to be social
Theories on need for affiliation
Need gained through learning experiences
Affiliative behaviors positively reinforced
Need for emotional comfort in trying times
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Types of motivations
• Intrinsic: motivated by inherent nature of an activity (i.e. make
oneself feel good)
Affected by how praise is given
• Extrinsic: Motivation is external to the activity, not inherent (get a
raise in pay)
Must be desired by the person to be a motivator
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Motivation and Performance
• .
Motivation and Performance
Environment
Motivation
Effort
Performance
Ability
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Achievement Motivation
• Psychological need to succeed in school, work,
and other areas of life
• Controversy on how individuals define
success
• Elliot and Church‘s study
• Masterygoals (intrinsically motivated)
• Performance-approachgoals (work harder
to gain respect of others)
• Performance-avoidancegoals (worker
harder to avoid being looked down on by
others)
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Major Types of Motivation Theories
• Content Theories of Motivation
WHAT motivates us
Process Theories of Motivation
WHY and HOW motivation occurs
Reinforcement Theory
HOW outcomes influence behaviors
• Content Perspectives on Motivation
Content Perspectives
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Cont…
• Example: McClelland’s Needs Theory= Three-Needs Theory
There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in
work.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel and succeed
Need for power (nPow)
The need to influence the behavior of others
Need of affiliation (nAff)
The desire for interpersonal relationships
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Cont..
• Process Perspectives of Motivation
•
Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their
needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have
attained their goals.
•
Process perspectives of Motivation
•
Goal Setting Theory
•
Equity Theory
•
Expectancy Theory
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• Expectancy Theory- The Basic Idea
• People tend to prefer certain goals, or
outcomes, over others.
• They anticipate experiencing feelings of
satisfaction should such a preferred outcome
be achieved.
• Basically, people are motivated to behave in
ways that produce valued outcomes.
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• Expectancy Theory: A Process Perspective
• Motivation depends on how much we want something
and how likely we are to get it
• Elements
• Effort to Performance Expectancy (E)
• • is the probability that effort will lead to performance.
• Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I)
• • is the perception that performance leads to an outcome.
• • Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance.
• Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.
• M=ExIxV
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• For motivated behavior to occur:
• Effort-to-performance must be greater than
0
• Performance-to-outcome must be greater
than 0
• Sum of valences must be greater than 0*
• * One or more valences may be negative!
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Cont…
• Reinforcement Theory of motivation explains HOW outcomes
influence behaviors.
Do you remember Skinner‘s operant conditioning?
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner derived the Reinforcement Theory.
of the oldest theories of motivation as way to explain behavior and
why we do what we do
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Cont…
• .
106
Cont..
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Cont…..
• How to motivate an individual?
One or combinations of the motivations theories can be used to induce
motivation
• What is Emotion?
Internal conscious states that we infer in ourselves and others.
Emotions are private experiences.
We use operational definitions because we cannot actually see feelings.
We infer observable behavior associated with emotion.
Emotion – positive or negative feelings
Biological changes (physiological arousal) and characteristic behavior
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Four components of Emotion
Emotion’s communicative aspect.
• Postures, gestures,
vocalizations, facial expressions
make our emotions public.
• Verbal and nonverbal
communication.
• Helps us interpret the situation.
• How person reacts to event.
• .
SocialExpressi ve
• Give emotion its goaldirected force. • Motivation to
take action. • Cope with
emotion-causing
circumstances. • Why people
benefit from emotions. • Social
and evolutionary advantage.
Feeling
s
Emotion
Sense of
Purpose
Make us feel in a particular way.
• Anger or joy.
• Meaning and personal
significance.
• Vary in intensity and quality.
• Rooted in mental processes
(labeling).
Bodily
Arousal
• Biological activation.
• Autonomic and hormonal
systems.• Prepare and
activate adaptive coping
behavior during emotion. •
Body prepared for action. •
Alert posture, clenched
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fists.
Frustrations
• the feeling of being upset or annoyed as a result of being unable to change or
achieve something
the feeling that accompanies an experience of being thwarted in attaining your
goals
is a common emotional response to opposition related to anger and
disappointment.
it arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will.
• Causes of frustration
• May be internal or external
Internal frustration:
May arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals and desires, drives and
needs,
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Cont….
Dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of
confidence or fear of social situations.
Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one
has competing goals that interfere with one another, it can
create cognitive dissonance.
External causes of frustration: involve conditions outside an
individual.
Such as a blocked road, traffic jam
Assigned difficult tasks etc
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Implication for Rural Extension
•
How do you think motivation affects
extension work? Should farmers have
motivation to do extension work?
• What can be the influence of emotion on
extension work?
• Does frustration has an impact on extension
work? What type of impact?
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