Portable Radar Ranging and
Tracking
Venkat Rao Ayyagari
ECE 573
Fall 2003
Imaging, Robotics, and Intelligent Systems Laboratory
Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
The University of Tennessee
Email: Vayyagar@utk.edu
Abstract
RADAR is a device for transmitting electromagnetic signals and receiving echoes
(reflections) from objects of interest (targets) within its volume of coverage. There are
several different Radars having different sets of parameters. Each of the Radars has its
own set of transmitters, receivers, antenna systems and operational parameters.
The primary aim of this project is to carry out a detailed review on existing relevant work
on the subject of radar, provide insight into the principles and operation of Radar. A
detailed study will be made on different types of Radar in general and in particular about
Man Portable Surveillance and Target Acquisition Radar (MSTAR). Particular emphasis
will be made on the use of radar as a ranging and tracking tool for Harbor surveillance.
An attempt will be made to survey all the available portable Radar systems in the market.
The final objective of this project is to propose suitable parameters for the MSTAR
system and to project suitable MSTAR Radar. This Radar will be the part of modular
sensors and play crucial role in the Multipurpose Multisensor Modular Robot being
designed by the ECE 573 class.
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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ......................................................................................... iii
1. Introduction to Radar ............................................................................. 1
1.1 What is Radar? ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Motivation ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Applications of Radar ............................................................................................. 2
2. Literature Review .................................................................................... 3
2.1 The Radar System ................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Radar Frequency Bands ................................................................................. 6
2.1.2 Radar Transmitters ......................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Radar Receivers ............................................................................................. 8
2.1.4 Radar Antennae .............................................................................................. 8
2.2 The Radar Equation ................................................................................................ 9
2.3 Information Content in Radar Signals .................................................................. 16
3. Classification of Radars ........................................................................ 21
3.1 Continuous wave radar and FM radar ................................................................... 21
3.2 MTI Radar (Pulse Radar) ...................................................................................... 24
3.3 Tracking Radar...................................................................................................... 28
3.5 Millimeter wave radar ........................................................................................... 32
4. Market Survey on Available Systems .................................................. 34
5. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................................. 48
6. References ............................................................................................... 50
iii
1. Introduction to Radar
1.1 What is Radar?
The term Radar was originally an acronym for Radio detection and ranging. Radar is
a device for transmitting electromagnetic (EM) signals and receiving echoes from objects
of interest (targets) within its volume of coverage. This can also be called as EM eye that
replaces the human eye especially in conditions like darkness, fog, rain etc. Presence of a
target is revealed by detection of its echo or its transponder reply.
Additional information about a target provided by radar includes one or more of the
following: distance (range), the elapsed time between transmission of the signal and
reception of the return signal, direction by use of directive antenna patterns, rate of
change of range by measurement of Doppler shift, description or classification of target
by analysis of echoes and their variation with time. Some radar's can also operate in a
passive mode in which the transmitter is turned off and information about targets is
derived by receiving radiation emanating from the targets themselves or reflected by
targets from external sources. A Radar is shown below in figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Radar
Courtesy: www.jpl.nasa.gov/radar/sircxsar
1.2 Motivation
A model which has some similarity to the MODSEN Robot is described in the
[Dan00].The system described in [Dan00] is MDARS and is used for intrusion detection.
As the name suggests the robot is being designed to be modular in as many aspects as
possible. This provides the user with lots of flexibility to


Change the shape and size of the robot
Change the sensor bricks according to the mission requirements
The survey of portable radar works towards achieving the project goal of designing a
Multisensor robot. The survey aims to make a study of all the available portable radars in
the market and then project suitable radar for integration with the robot system. The
approach proposed is to study the available literature on radars through books, technical
papers and conferences. After the underlying theory has been understood a search for the
available systems in the market would be made to achieve the goal of the project.
1.3 Applications of Radar
1) Detecting and locating ships and land features for ship collision avoidance
2) Navigating aircraft and ships in bad weather or at night.
3) Detecting, locating, and identifying aircraft for air traffic control.
4) Measuring altitude above the surface for aircraft and air traffic control.
5) Detecting and locating sever weather for ground, ship, and aviation safety and comfort.
6) Giving early warning to hostile aircrafts and spacecraft while they are hundreds or
thousand of miles away.
7) Mapping land and sea areas from aircraft and spacecraft.
8) Locating and imaging ground objects for navigation and targeting.
9) Detecting ground moving vehicles, such as tanks, for defense purpose.
10) Controlling weapons, such as guns and missiles.
11) Measuring distance and velocity for spacecraft navigation and docking.
12) Detecting and measuring the objects under the ground surface as described in[Ale01]
13) Measurement of mines in battlefieldas described in [Bru00]
14) Map Building for Robot Path Planning as described in [Sco98]
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2. Literature Review
2.1 The Radar System
The operation of a typical Pulse radar may be described with the aid of the block
diagram shown in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of a typical Radar[Mer02]
The transmitter may be an oscillator such as magnetron that is pulsed by the
modulator to generate repetitive train of pulses. The magnetron has been the most widely
used of the various microwave generators for the radar. A typical radar for the detection
of the aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200 nmi might employ a peak power of the order of a
megawatt, an average power of several kilowatts, a pulse width of several microseconds,
and a pulse repetition frequency of several hundred pulses per second. The waveform
generated by the transmitter travels via a transmission line to the antenna where it is
radiated in space. A single antenna is generally used for both transmitting and receiving.
The receiver must be protected from the damage caused by the high power of the
transmitter. This is the function of the duplexer. The duplexer also serves to channel the
two returned echo signals to the receiver and not the transmitter. The duplexer also serves
to channel the two gas discharge devices, one known as a TR (transmit receive) and the
3
other an ATR (anti transmit receive). The TR protects the receiver during the
transmission and the ATR directs the echo signal to the receiver during reception. Solid
State ferrite circulators and receiver protectors with gas plasma TR devices and/or diode
limiters are also used as duplexers.
The receiver is usually of superheterodyne type. The first stage might be a low noise
RF amplifier, such as parametric amplifier or low noise transistor. However it is not
always desirable to employ a low noise first stage in radar. The receiver input could be
simply be the mixer stage, especially in military radars that must operate in a noisy
environment. Although a receiver with low noise front end will be more sensitive, the
mixer input can have greater dynamic range, less susceptibility to overload and less
vulnerability to electronic interference.
The mixer and local oscillator (LO) convert the RF signal to an intermediate
frequency (IF). A " typical " IF amplifier for an air surveillance radar might have a center
frequency of 30 or 60 MHz and a bandwidth of the order of one MHz. The IF amplifier
should be designed as a matched filter; its frequency response function H(f) should
maximize the peak signal to noise ratio at the output. This occurs when the magnitude of
the frequency response function H(f)is equal to the magnitude of the echo signal
spectrum S(f), and the phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative of the
spectrum of the echo signal. In a radar whose signal waveform approximates a
rectangular pulse, the conventional IF filter bandpass characteristic approximates a
matched filter when the product of the IF bandwidth B and the pulse width  is the order
of unity.
After maximizing the signal to noise ratio in the IF amplifier, the pulse modulation is
extracted by the second detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it
can be properly displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT). Timing signals are also supplied
to the indicator to provide the range zero. Angle information is obtained from the
pointing direction of the antenna. The most common form of CRT is Plan Position
Indicator (PPI), which maps in polar coordinates the location of the target in azimuth and
range. This is intensity-modulated display in which the amplitude of the receiver output
modulates the electron beam intensity (z Axis) as the electron beam is made to sweep
outward from the center of the tube. The beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna
position. A B-scope display is similar to the PPI except that it utilizes rectangular rather
than polar coordinates to display Range Vs Angle. Both the B-scope and PPI, being
intensity modulated, have limited dynamic range. Another form of display is the A-scope,
shown in figure 2.2, which plots target amplitude (Y axis) Vs Range (X axis) for some
fixed direction. This is a deflection-modulated display. It is more suited for trackingradar application than for surveillance radar.
4
Figure 2.2: Different types of Displays for Radar signals
(Courtesy: https://ewhdbks.mugu.navy.mil/rdr-disp.htm)
The block diagram (figure 2.1) shown is a simplified version that omits many details.
It does not include several devices often found in modern radar, such as means for
automatically compensating the receiver for changes in frequency (AFC) or gain (AGC),
automatic target detection and tracking (ADT), circuitry for discriminating moving
objects from stationary targets. The use of wide band waveforms along with the normal
radar signals provides automatic target recognition. [Lin00].
A common form of radar antenna is a reflector with a parabolic shape, fed from a
point source at its focus. The parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow beam,
just as does a searchlight or an automatic headlamp. The beam may be scanned in space
by mechanical pointing of the antenna. Phased-array antennas have also been used for
radar.
5
2.1.1 Radar Frequency Bands
Conventional radars generally have been operated at frequencies extending from 3
MHz to 300 GHz. The place of radar frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum is
shown below in figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Frequency Band Designations for Radar
Courtesy: https://ewhdbks.mugu.navy.mil/freqspec.pdf
6
Early in development of radar, a letter code such as S, X, L etc was employed to
designate radar frequency bands as shown in table 2.1. This usage has continued and is
now an accepted practice of radar engineers.
Designation
HF
VHF
UHF
L- band
S- band
C- band
X- band
Ku- band
Freq.
Range
3-30
MHz
Wavelength
Range
10-100 m
30-300
MHz
300
MHz-1 GHz
1-2 GHz
2-4 GHz
1-10 m
4-8 GHz
8-12
GHz
12-18
GHz
3.75-7.5 cm
2.5-3.75 cm
30 cm – 1 m
15-30 cm
7.5-15 cm
1.67-2.5 cm
Common uses
Over-TheHorizon
Radar
(OTHR)
Early warning
airborne radars,
Early warning
airborne radars,
Altimeter
Weather,
fighter radars
Fighter,
attack,
reconnaissance
K- band
18-27
1.11-1.67 cm
GHz
Ka -band
27-40
7.5 mm-1.11
Short range
GHz
cm
radars
V- band
40-75
4-7.5 cm
GHz
W- band
75-110
2.7-4 mm
GHz
mm-band
110-300
1-2.7 mm
Short range
GHz
radars
Table 2.1 Standard Radar frequency letter- band nomenclature[Han01]
2.1.2 Radar Transmitters
There are many diverse requirements and system constraints that enter into the
selection and design of a transmitter, which are discussed in detail in the subsequent
chapters of this report. It must be of adequate power to obtain the desired range, but it
must also satisfy other requirements impose by the system application. The choice of a
transmitter also depends on whether the radar operates from fixed land sites, mobile land
vehicles, ships, and aircrafts; size and weight, high voltage and X-Ray protection,
modulation requirements and method of cooling.
There are two basic radar transmitter configurations. One is self-exited oscillator,
exemplified by the magnetron. The other is power amplifier, which utilizes a low power,
7
stable oscillator whose output is raised to the required power level by one or more
amplifier stages. The klystron, traveling wave tube and the crossed field amplifier are
examples of microwave power amplifier tubes. Transmitters that employ the magnetron
power oscillator are usually smaller in size, less stable and generate less power than
amplifier transmitters. Some of the modern radars use solid-state transmitters. They offer
some advantages such as no warm up delay, no wasted heater (cathode) power, operation
in low voltages, wide bandwidth.
2.1.3 Radar Receivers
The function of a radar receiver is to detect desired echo signals in the presence of
noise, interference, or clutter. The design of the radar receiver will depend not only on the
type of waveform to be detected, but on the nature of noise, interference, and clutter
echoes with which the desired echo signals must compete.
Good receiver design is based on maximizing the output to signal noise ratio. To
achieve this objective the receiver must be designed as a matched filter. Receiver design
must also be concerned with achieving sufficient gain, phase, and amplitude stability,
dynamic range, tuning, ruggedness and simplicity. Timing and reference signals are
needed to properly extract target information. Although the supergenerative, crystal video
and tuned radio frequency (TRF) receivers have been employed in radar systems, the
superheterodyne has been the most preferred one because of its good sensitivity, high
gain, selectivity and reliability. Digital signal processing is sometimes applied to enhance
the signal to noise ratio. According to [Vih03] well performance detection algorithms
play a crucial role in situational awareness. By utilizing the local characteristics of the
signal more efficiently, better performance can be achieved.
2.1.4 Radar Antennae
The purpose of the radar antenna is to act as a transducer between free-space
propagation and guided-wave propagation. The function of the antenna during
transmission is to concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped beam, which points in a
desired direction in space. On reception the antenna collects the energy contained in the
echo signal and delivers it to the receiver. Thus the radar antenna is called upon to fulfill
reciprocal but related roles. Antennas may be broadly classified into two types, namely
the aperture antenna and the array antenna. The aperture antenna is the kind whose
operation can be described by radiation from an aperture. Array antenna is a kind of
antenna usually consisting of a large number of radiators working together to produce an
overall effect of an antenna with a large area.
An antenna with large effective receiving aperture implies a large transmitting gain.
The large apertures are required for long-range detection results in narrow beamwidths.
Narrow beamwidths are important if accurate angular measurements are to be made or if
targets close to one another are to be resolved. Radar antennas are characterized by
directive beams which are scanned, usually rapidly. The parabolic antennas are the most
used antennas. The gain of the antenna depends on the radiation pattern as shown in
figure 2.4.
8
Figure 2.4: Radiation pattern affecting the gain.
Courtesy: https://ewhdbks.mugu.navy.mil/contents.htm
2.2 The Radar Equation
Radar Equation for Point Targets
The general radar equation found in Literature is derived for point targets. Point
targets are objects with dimension D small compared to the illumination R* BW (Range*
Half-power beamwidth) by the radar at the target site. This is illustrated in Figure 2.5
Figure 2.5. Illustration of the principle of radar.[Ger01]
9
For better understanding of the principles of Radar, the radar equation is
progressively derived in this section. On the sender-side of the radar a power PT will be
radiated. With a range R from the transmitter a power density at the target S t results from
isotropic (spherical) radiation.
(2.1)
This is the power density of an omni-directional antenna with a range R. Since in
radar technology one, almost exclusively, directs the radiation, the power density at the
range R increases with the antenna gain GT:
(2.2)
The following can be considered: The transmitting antenna gain GT relates only to the
maximum of the antenna main lobe. Consequently, GT indicates the increase of the power
density at a distance R through radar antennas based upon isotropic emitters with the
same sending power. G comprises the antenna losses and is calculated with the directivity
D and the antenna efficiency  :
(2.3)
The impinging radiated power is scattered by the target object and is dependent on
shape, size, material or orientation of the object. The measure of scattered power in
2
direction of the radar is the scattering cross section 
of the object. With this, from
the target to the transmitter the power Pt is scattered.
(2.4)
At the location of the transmitter/receiver antenna the scatter power P t generates the
power density SR.
(2.5)
The receiving antenna has an effective area AR, hence it absorbs the power PR out of
the power density SR:
.
The effective area AR is also used in direct relationship to the gain
10
(2.6)
.
(2.7)
This then yields:
(2.8)
Under the assumption that a postulated signal-to-noise ratio S/N gives the received
power PRmin, one obtains the maximum range of coverage R max.
(2.9)
where: PR min = minimum received power
The dependence of the transmitted power PT and the radar cross-section  is
proportional by ( 4 ) the 4th root. The dependence of the wavelength is essentially more
complicated since the scattering cross section can be heavily frequency dependent.
Furthermore in GT, the frequency over the effective area of the antenna is contained
quadratically. Consequently, for the estimation of the frequency dependence of the range
of coverage, the influence of frequency on the following characteristics must be
considered:



Antenna gain
Propagation attenuation
Cross-section of the reflection
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Radar Equation for Extended Targets
For extended targets, meaning targets that are located in the far field, Rmax is
proportional 2 to 4 , depending on the distance and characteristics of the target. An
example of a flat, two-dimensional target with an extension D>>R*H is shown by Figure
2.6 on the basis of geometric optics.
Figure 2.6 Reflection on a flat, extended target.
The mirrored reflection is in relation to a “virtual” source from a distance R behind
the target. The power density at the receiver then becomes:
(2.10)
From this follow the received power PR
(2.11)
The range of coverage is yielded by
(2.12)
For extended concave targets (e.g. Parabolic) Rmax ~ p holds with p<2 (focused),
while p>2 in the case of an normal extended target (unfocused case). The assumption is
in all cases that the reflection over the entire surface area of the extended object is well
correlated, meaning, for example, that no scattering appears. Such “smooth” surfaces can
be, for example, the sides of trucks of the extended hulls of ships.
12
The Radar Horizon
The range of coverage of radar equipment can be limited due to minimum received
power Prmin and as well due to the visibility (i.e. the radar horizon). The radar horizon is
given by the Earth’s curvature and the height of the radar equipment & the target object,
as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Location determination of an object under the horizon (RE = Earth’s
radius)[Ger01]
Considering the geometry & optics, the following estimation for the range of
coverage is yielded by:
(2.13)
This estimation is derived under the following requirements:
- Earth is flat and void of various elevations
- Refraction of the electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere is neglected
13
This estimation of the neglect of the refraction leads to an under-estimation of the
range of coverage. While passing through atmosphere (expected to be thinner at each
higher elevation) the wave will be refracted towards the Earth as demonstrated in Figure
2.8 down.
Figure 2.8: Refraction of waves in the inhomogeneous atmosphere and the
enlargement of the range of coverage.[Ger01]
Through this bending, as it is taken into account in physical optics, the visibility &
view will be extended over the horizon. The ray path is bent to the Earth. A correction
factor k is used in the calculation of the range of coverage.
(2.14)
For a linear running refractive index profile, k follows as:
(2.15)
Here dn/dh indicates the differential change of the refractive index n with
height/altitude h. For the standard atmosphere dn/dh
 40
10-6 /km and for the
correction factor:
k
1,34 * 4 /3
(2.16)
We speak of a 4/3 Earth radius. With that the range of coverage is enlarged by
approximately 15.7%.
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Bistatic Radar Equation
In the previously derived radar equation it presupposes that transmitters and receivers
are at the same place (i.e. the radar is monostastic). There are, however, many reasons for
transmitters and receivers to be separate spatially. These reasons are stated in [lad01]
 Reduction of the antenna coupling in order to measure the smallest of
signals
 Use of a single transmitter for several receivers
 Use of other or foreign transmitters (transmitter of opportunity)
 Protection of the receiver from discovery (and possible destruction)
 Protection of the receiver from electrical interference (electronic warfare)
In all cases there is a reference for the receiver and, as a rule, a direct connection to
the transmitter is required, as demonstrated in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Bistatic radar scenario: Satellite as the sender and 2 receivers.[Hal85]
15
The derivation of the radar equation for bistatic radar is as with monostatic radar.
Simply the grouping of terms is different.
(2.17)
Here meaning:
PR receiver power
PT transmitter power
RT distance from the transmitter to the target
RR distance from the receiver to the target
B = bistatic radar cross- section of the target
GT =transmitter gain
GR receiver gain
For the analysis of the receiver signal the direct, coherent reception of the transmitter
signal (illuminator) is necessary. From the propagation time and the directions the radar
picture is generated with relatively elaborate trigonometry. The use of available
transmitters (e.g. TV satellites as illuminators) is of particular interest. Development in
this direction is strongly enforced, not only in the military but also civil area.
2.3 Information Content in Radar Signals
In modern times the functions of a radar include determining characteristics such as
the extent (size) of the target, the shape, classification of the target into tanks, ships and
so on [Pel01]. This is done by processing the signals obtained from a high-resolution
radar. Depending on the principle that is put to use, the following information can be
obtained from a radar signal and/or a series of signals:








Distance or Range R,
Velocity and/or Speed (change in distance over time) dR/dt
Azimuth y, change of the Azimuth over time d/dt
Elevation J, change in elevation over time d/dt
Size of the target s
Shape of the target d/d
Polarization of the target svv & shh ,
Signature (information about the target)
The most important and most often evaluated information would be:

Distance or Range,

Velocity and/or Speed,
16

Direction.
In the following their determination and analysis will be discussed as well as
procedures for their measurement will be shown
Range
The range is measured as the time difference between the echo-signal and a
corresponding reference. As a reference the transmission signal is normally marked and
the timestamp is stored at the receiver. The range can be calculated from the duration ∆t
and the speed of propagation co:
(2.18)
Three magnitudes are used for resolving the timestamp, as is shown in Figure 2.10:
- Amplitude A
 Pulse Modulation
 Pulse Radar
- Frequency f
Frequency Modulation
FM-CW Radar
- Phase
Phase Modulation
Phase Interferometer
Figure 2.10 Procedure to measure range: T = Period duration, B = Frequency shift,
f = frequency difference, t = time difference,  = Pulse duration.
With pulse radar the time difference can be measured directly. With FM-CW radar
the duration will be determined from the difference in frequency as received from the
target and of the current transmitter. For the simple case of linear frequency modulation,
referring to Figure 2.10, ∆t is as follows:
(2.19)
17
Along with the analysis of the frequency difference ∆f, with FM-CW radar the range
to reflecting objects can also be calculated from a Fourier transform of the complex
frequency signal in the time domain.
The unambiguous range of coverage is limited by the pulse repetition frequency PRF
of the selection.
(2.20)
The resolution, meaning the distance separation of two targets, is in all case inversely
proportional to the bandwidth B, which will be employed. As a good approximation the
following can be applied:
(2.21)
In the last few years several Super-Resolution Algorithms, as ESPRIT, have been
developed, with which the resolution under certain conditions can be considerably
improved.
Velocity
In the case of continuous observation of the target (CW radar) its radial velocity
produces a phase shift of the received signal, known as Doppler effect, from which
follows:
(2.22)
For a diagonal movement according to the direction of wave propagation only the
radial velocity component vr of v is to be considered. The Doppler effect is clear with CW
radar devices, in contrast to the coherent pulse radar. With this the ambiguity develops if
the phase shift through Doppler in a pulse interval becomes larger than 2. With the non
coherent pulse radar, i.e. no phase reference from pulse to pulse, the radial velocity is
18
measured over the change of distance, however substantially more inaccurately. The
coherent procedures require a good short-time stability of the transmission signals
Direction (Azimuth, Elevation)
Antennas generate a plane wave in the far field. They also mainly receive the plane
wave from the far field, which corresponds to the alignment of the antenna. The target
direction therefore can be determined from the antenna position. This does apply,
however, only so long, as on the propagation path no deviations from straight rays by inhomogeneities arise. The attainable accuracy depends on the half power beam-width of
the antenna characteristic. Another procedure for the measurement of direction uses
several receiving antennas, at which the phase difference of the received signal is used
for the direction finding. Examples are monopulse radar and interferometers, as used in
astronomy.
Polarization Characteristics of the Target
The polarization of a target is rarely considered. However, it offers the possibility of
determining and/or of differentiating between structures. As an example, vegetation
(trees, plants, etc.) normally reflects with vertical polarization substantially more strongly
than with horizontal polarization, since vegetation is usually aligned vertically. However,
de-polarization on the propagation path represents a problem (therefore the use of
polarization diversity with communications satellites). The choice of the correct
polarization offers, among other advantages, the possibility of suppressing disturbances
(weather). Thus precipitation disturbs less with circular polarization. The knowledge
around the evaluation of polarization characteristics is called radar polarimetry.
Radar Parameters
 Antenna directivity: measure of ability of an antenna to concentrate radiated
power in a particular direction

Antenna Bandwidth: Operating band of frequencies within the limit of which the
other parameters do not exceed the limits of tolerance called
for by the technical requirements

Antenna Aperture: The aperture of an antenna is a physical area projected on a
plane perpendicular to main beam direction.

Clutter
: undesirable backscattering signals from sources other than the
target.

Doppler shift
: It is the change in frequency of transmitted radar signals
attributed to a relative motion of either the radar or the target.

Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI): The interval between the start of two consecutive
transmission pulses. Equal to 1/PRF

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) : The frequency at which the radar pulse
repeats. It is given by 1/PRI
19

Pulse Width
: Width of the Pulse.

Target
: any radar object of interest.

Point target
: A physically small target. E.g.: Boat, Car.

Extended targets
: these are isolated targets that are too large to be classified as
point targets. E.g.: large buildings and large ships.

Distributed targets : these are still larger targets that include forests, farms,
harbors, oceans, rain, snow and fog.

Range
: the distance of a radar target from the radar location

Radar resolution
: the ability of the radar to separate (resolve) one desired
target signal from other .

Range resolution
: the minimum distance above which the radar will be able to
resolve signals from different targets.

Frequency resolution: the minimum Doppler frequency above which the radar
will be able to separate targets. .

Position resolution : The ability to accurately distinguish target position.

Radar Cross-Section: projected area of a metal sphere that would return the same
echo signal as the target had the sphere been substituted for
the target. Measure of reflectivity of the target at a given
frequency

Receiver dynamic range: the difference in decibels, between the overload level
and the minimum acceptable signal level in a system or
transducer in the receiver.
20
3. Classification of Radars
In general there is no strict line classifying Radar. However they may be classified
broadly using the following criteria:
Based on Mode of operation
 Monostatic radar
 Bistatic radar
 Multistatic radar
Based on Type of Waveform used
 Continuous radar
 Pulsed radar
Based on the applications
 Surveillance radar
 Tracking radar
 Synthetic Aperture Radar
 Over The Horizon Radar
 Millimeter Wave Radar
3.1 Continuous wave radar and FM radar
Continuous wave radar works on the principle of Doppler effect. A pulse radar
transmits a relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy after which the receiver is
turned on to listen for the echo. The radar transmitter may be operated continuously
rather than pulsed if the strong transmitted signal can be separated from the weak echo.
Separate antennas for the transmission and reception help segregate the weak echo from
the strong leakage signal.
21
Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of a CW Radar and the response of the B.F
amplifier [Mer03].
The transmitter as shown in figure 3.1.generates a continuous (unmodulated)
oscillation of frequency fo, which is radiated by the antenna portion. A portion of the
radiated energy is intercepted by the target and is scattered, some of the motion with a
velocity r relative to the radar, the received signal will be shifted in frequency from the
transmitted frequency by an amount + fd
2f 
(3.1)
fd  o r
c
The plus sign applies if the distance between target and radar is decreasing
(closing target), i.e. when the received signal frequency is greater than the transmitted
signal frequency. The minus sign applies if the distance is increasing (receding target).
The received echo signal at a frequency fo +fd enters the radar via the antenna and is
heterodyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitter signal fo to produce
the Doppler beat note of frequency fd . The sign of fd is lost in the process. The purpose of
the Doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary targets and to amplify the
Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device. The indicator
might be a pair of earphones or a frequency meter.
In principle, a single antenna may be employed for CW radar since the necessary
isolation between the transmitted and received signals is achieved via a separation in
frequency as a result of Doppler effect. A small amount of leakage entering the receiver
along with the echo signal supplies the reference necessary for the detection of the
Doppler frequency shift. There are two practical effects, which limit the amount of
transmitter leakage power, which can be tolerated at the receiver. These are
22
 The maximum amount of power the receiver input circuitry can withstand before
it is physically damaged or its sensitivity reduced.
 The amount of transmitter noise due to hum which enters the receiver from the
transmitter.
Additional isolation is usually required between transmitter and the receiver if the
sensitivity is not to be degraded either by burnout or excessive noise. The receiver of the
simple CW radar is in some aspects analogous to a super heterodyne receiver. Receivers
of this type are called homodyne receivers, or super heterodyne receiver with zero IF.
The block diagram of a CW Doppler radar with nonzero IF receiver is shown in figure
3.2.
Figure 3.2: Block Diagram of a CW Radar with nonzero IF[Mer03].
23
Sign of Radial Velocity
In some applications of CW radar it is of interest to know whether the target is
approaching or receding. This might be determined with separate filters located on either
side of intermediate frequency. If the echo signal frequency lies below the carrier, the
target is receding; if the echo frequency is greater than the carrier, the target is
approaching. The measurement of the Doppler direction can be made using the approach
shown in figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Spectra of Received Signals[Mer03]
EA ( +)= K Eo cos ( dt -  )
(3.2)
EB( -)= K Eo cos ( dt -  -/2)
(3.3)
The direction of targets motion can be determined according to whether the output of
channel B leads or lags the output of channel A.
Applications of CW Radar
The chief use of the simple unmodualted CW radar is for the measurement of the
relative velocity of a moving target, as in the police speed monitor or in the rate of climb
meter for vertical takeoff aircraft. In support of automobile traffic, CW radar is used for
the control of traffic lights, regulation of toll booths, vehicle counting, speedometer. It
can be used for monitoring the humping operations in marshalling yards and for
monitoring the docking speed of ships. It can be also used for military purpose for
velocity of missiles ammunition.
3.2 MTI Radar (Pulse Radar)
The Doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may be used in a pulse
radar, just as in the CW radar to determine the relative velocity of a target or to separate
desired moving targets from undesired stationary objects. Although there are applications
of pulse radar where a determination of the targets relative velocity is made from the
Doppler frequency shift, the use of Doppler to separate small moving targets in presence
of large clutter has probably been of far greater interest. Such a pulse radar that utilizes
the Doppler frequency shift as a means of discriminating moving targets from fixed
targets is called an MTI (Moving Target Radar) or a pulse Doppler radar. Although they
are based on the same principle the main difference between them is that MTI radar
usually operates with ambiguous Doppler measurement but with unambiguous range
measurement (no second time around echoes). The opposite is generally the case for
pulse Doppler radar.
24
Principle of operation:
In principle a simple CW radar can be converted into a pulse radar by providing a
power amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier on and off for the purpose of
generating pulses. In figure 3.4 a small portion of the CW oscillator power that generates
the transmitted pulses is diverted to the receiver to take the place of local oscillator. It
also acts as the coherent reference needed to detect the Doppler frequency shift. The
reference signal is the distinguishing feature of Coherent MTI radar. For stationary
targets the Doppler frequency fd is zero; hence Vdiff will not vary with time and may take
on any constant value from +A to –A, including zero. However when the target is in
motion relative to the radar, fd will have a value other than zero and the voltage
corresponding to the difference frequency from the mixer will be a function of time.
Vdiff =A sin (2fdt - 4ftRo/c)
(3.4)
Figure 3.4: Block diagram of a CW Radar and a Pulse Radar[Mer02].
25
Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video
output on a A-Scope. A single sweep on the A-scope might appear as shown in the figure
3.5. This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets indicated by the two
arrows. On the basis of a single sweep, moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed
targets. The superposition of successive A- scope sweeps is shown below. The moving
targets produce, with time, a “Butterfly Effect” on the A-scope.
Figure 3.5: Successive sweeps of an MTI Radar A-Scope display.
Although the Butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on A-scope, it
is not appropriate for display on the PPI. To extract Doppler information in a form
suitable for display on the PPI scope is a delay line canceller.
26
Figure 3.6: Block Diagram of a Delay line canceller[Mer03].
The delay line canceller shown in figure 3.6 acts as a filter to eliminate the D-C
component of the fixed targets, and pass the A-C components of the moving targets. The
video portion of the receiver is divided into two channels. One is normal video channel.
In the other, the video signal experiences a time delay equal to one pulse- repetition
period. The outputs of the two channels are subtracted from one another. The fixed
targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are cancelled on subtraction but
the moving targets with varying amplitudes result in an uncancelled residue. The output
of the subtraction is bipolar video similar to the input. The bipolar video can be converted
to unipotential voltages by a full wave rectifier before modulating the PPI display.
The delay line cancellers used may be classified as single delay line canceller and
multiple delay line canceller. A few delay line cancellers are shown below in figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Block diagrams of double delay line canceller[Mer03].
A variant of MTI radar is being greatly studied these days due to its useful
applications which. broaden from navigation to detection and tracking of missiles and
objects of threats. [Sho03] .
A new radar technology called High Resolution Radar it possible to detect and track a
target with high resolution. Paper [Ma03] proposes a new approach using 2D HRR.
According to the paper, most current ATR based on HRR use 1D HRR signatures as
27
moving target features, which are extracted from 2D HRR raw data.It proposes a
representation of 2D HRR data from 1 D radar target data. To better the performance of
HRR in target recognition, [Nel03] proposes the application of wavelet transforms on the
HRR input data. By applying Wavelet principle more features can be extracted and also
enhances the final resolution of the HRR images
3.3 Tracking Radar
A tracking radar system measures the coordinates of a target and provides data which
may be used to determine the target path and to predict its future position. All or part of
the radar data- range, azimuth angle, and Doppler frequency shift may be used in
predicting future position; i.e. a radar might track in range, in angle, in Doppler, or with
any combination. Almost any radar can be considered a tracking radar provided its output
information is processed properly.
The antenna beam in continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a
servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating the
error signal may be classified as:



Sequential Lobing
Conical scan
Simultaneous Lobing (or) monopulse
The tracking Radar must first find its target before it can track. Some radars operate
in a search, or acquisition mode in order to find the target before switching to a tracking
mode.
28
An example of simultaneous-lobing technique is amplitude comparison monopulse.
In this technique the RF signals received from the two offset antenna beams are
combined so that the sum and difference signals are obtained simultaneously. The sum
and difference signals are multiplied in a phase sensitive detector to obtain both the
magnitude and direction of the error signal. All the information necessary to determine
the error is obtained on the basis of a single pulse and hence it is called as monopulse.
The block diagram of amplitude comparison monopulse radar is shown in figure 3.8
Figure 3.8: Block diagram of Amplitude comparison monopulse [Mer03].
The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction
such as a magic T. The sum and difference signal appear at the two other arms of the
hybrid. On reception the outputs of the sum and the difference arm are heterodyned to an
intermediate frequency and amplified as in any superheterodyne receiver. The transmitter
is connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the sum channel.
A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The output of the
phase sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional to the angular
error and whose sign is proportional to the direction. The output of the monopulse radar
is used to perform automatic tracking. The angular error signal actuates a servo control
system to position the antenna, and the range output from the sum channel feeds into an
automatic range-tracking unit.
3.4 Synthetic Aperture Radar
Synthetic Aperture radar (SAR) is based on generation of an effective long antenna
by signal processing means rather than by the actual use of a long physical antenna. In
fact only one single small physical antenna is used in most cases. The antenna is
29
translated to take up sequential positions along the line. At each of these positions a
signal is transmitted and radar signals are received in response to that transmission are
placed in storage. After the radiating element has traversed a distance Le, the signals in
storage resemble strongly the signals that would have been received by the elements of
the actual array. Thus, if the signals in storage are subjected to the same operation as
those used in forming physical linear array, we can get the effect of a long antenna
aperture as shown in figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: Demonstration of the Synthetic Aperture[Ger01]
There are quite a number of powerful data processing algorithms that allow for more
details to be interpreted from the raw data from the SAR.
30
As explained in [Kin01], there is a new technique for processing the return signals
from ground moving target. This new technique refocuses the blurred signature along a
predictable path defined by mapping of range-Doppler pulses from its real space to the
image position.SAR can be used to capture high resolution images as described in
[Wal03].The output can be seen in figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Terrain Visualization [San03]
31
3.5 Millimeter wave radar
The major attributes of the millimeter wave region of interest to radar are the large
bandwidth, small antenna size, and the characteristic wavelength. Large bandwidth
implies high resolution. Another advantage of the short wavelengths is that a Doppler
frequency measurement of fixed accuracy gives a more accurate velocity measurement
than at low frequencies. The problem with millimeter wave radar is that several of its
favorable characteristics are also factors that limit its performance. The physically small
antenna sizes at millimeter wavelengths result in high gain, but the small area means that
less of the echo energy will be collected by the antenna. Also for long-range surveillance
a small antenna requires a large transmitter power, which is not easy to achieve at
millimeter wavelengths. The block diagram of Millimeter wave radar is shown in figure
3.11.
Figure 3.11: Block Diagram of a MMW radar
Courtesy: http://www.vrac.iastate.edu/~fang414/Thesis/Chapter3_Data.doc
32
The working principle of MMW radar is same as the conventional radars. It has
additional processing hardware for detection of the target using advanced algorithms. The
applications of MMR radar are vast in number and [Tul00] proposes some of the
alternative applications of MMW radar for civilian and military purpose. The automotive
MMR radar shown in figure 3.12 can be use alternatively for collision avoidance, hidden
weapon and burglar alarm.
Figure 3.12 :MMR Radar Scanner[Suo 95].
33
4. Market Survey on Available Systems
A market survey is done on the available portable radar systems. The following are
the results of the survey. The notation used is:
Serial number – Name of the Radar- Model number of the radar-(Company name)
1) MSTAR – AN/PPS – 5C (Systems and Electronics Inc., USA)
Figure 4.1: MSTAR – AN/PPS – 5C
Courtesy: http://www.seistl.com/images/pdf/mstar.pdf
34
SPECIFICATIONS
Operational Features
Operator Interface
Sector selection 200 to 6400 mils
Windows based display
Acquisition (zoom) mode 1.5 by 1.5
Pull down menus
Km window
Icons can be Clicked and dragged
Consumes Low - power
Display modes Sector or North - up
Auto target classification in
display 2x zoom Six range scale selections
surveillance mode
Multilingual displays and instructions
Auto target track
Equipment Set up in 3 minutes
Radar Control and Display Unit (RCDU)
12.1" SVGA flat panel display
800 X 600 pixel resolution
Pentium class processor
20 GB mass storage
256 MB RAM
Full QWERTY keyboard
Internal 3.5" FDD
Internal PCMCIA interface
Communication ports include parallel, RS-422, RS-232, Ethernet and USB
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Peak Radiated Power
4W
Walking Man
12km
Small Vehicle
24 km
Large Vehicle
36 km
Minimum Target Radial Velocity
<1.25 m/s
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±10 m
 Azimuth ± 5 mils
Operational Features:
Surveillance
Range
Azimuth
Acquisition (zoom) Mode
Audio Mode
Operator Aural Classification
Range and Azimuth target track
"Click and drag" Icons, Pull down
menus
50 m to 42 km
200 to 6,400 mils
1.5 x 1.5 km
To 42 km
Automatic Classification
Windows Based Display
VPF Map background
35
Integral GPS for self – location
System Size (cm)
Aerial Head
Assembly
Main Electronics
Assembly
Radar Control
Display Unit
Tripod Kit
l
59 x 45 x 62
43 x 38 x 30
11 x 28 x 35
76 x 18 diam
Data Port for Sensor Fusion and Control
System Weight (Kg)
Aerial Head
Assembly
Main Electronics
Assembly
Radar Control and
Display Unit
Tripod Kit
Ancillary Equipment
Total 37.4 Kg
Electrical and Mechanical Specs:
Frequency
Ku-band
Input Power
< 75 Watts
Environmenta
- 40° C to + 50°
C
Table 4.1:MSTAR – AN/PPS – 5C
36
8.3
13.0
7.4
4.8
3.9
2) MSTAR – ARINE (Indra, Spain)
Figure 4.2: MSTAR_ARINE
Courtesy: http://www.indra.es/ingles/areas/pdf-folletos/arine.pdf [Ari00]
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Crawling Man
3 km
Walking Man
10 km
Small Vehicle
20km
Large Vehicle
24m
Hovering helicopter
8 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±10 m
 Azimuth ± 10mils
Special Features
Electrical and Mechanical Specifi:
Frequency
Ku-band
Remote Control from console upto 50 m.
Solid State Transmitter
Input Power
85 Watts
False alarm control
Environmental - 33° C to + 65° C
Weight
<42 Kg
Table 4.2: MSTAR – ARINE
37
3) MSTAR(The British army vehicle and equipment, U.K)
The significant features are:



Weight: 30 Kg
Range: >20 Km
Band : J Band
Figure 4.3: MSTAR
Courtesy: http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/cs/aad_mst.htm[Arm00]
4) MSTAR-AN/PPS-5 (EDO Corporation,USA)
The significant features are:



Weight:<100 lbs
Power :<100Watts
Range: 40 Km
Figure 4.4: MSTAR – AN/PPS-5 [Anp00]
Courtesy: http://www.nycedo.com/edocorp/manportable
38
5) MSTAR- BFSR-SR (DRDO, India)
The significant features are:
 Light weight
 X-Band Pulse Doppler Radar
 Low peak power for Low probability of
intercept
 Remotely Operated Control and Display
Unit
 Display over digital maps
 User Friendly Man Machine Interface
 Can be integrated with GPS,
Figure 4.5: MSTAR- BFSR-SR [Drd00]
Courtesy: http://www.drdo.org/labs/electronics/lrde/achieve.shtml
6) AMSTAR (Thales Air Defense, France)
The Significant features are:
Typical ranges (single scan at 9°/s)
- Pedestrian: 11 km
- Vehicle: 22 km
- Tank: 26 km
- Helicopter: 21 km
- Boat: 13 km
- Vessel: 42 km
Figure 4.6: AMSTAR
Courtesy: http://www.thales-airdefence.com/ficheRB12.htm
39
7) Short Range Surveillance Radar- RB12 ( Thales, Germany)
Figure 4.7: RB12
Courtesy: http://www.thales-airdefence.com/medias/RB12.pdf [Tha00]
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Single person
3 km
Small Vehicle
5 km
Large Vehicle
6.4 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±10 m
 Azimuth ± 20mils
Special Features
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
Frequency
Ku-band
Set up within 2 minutes
Can be integrated in a network
Input Power
24 W
Weight
23 Kg
Table 4.3: Short Range Surveillance Radar- RB12
40
8) MSTAR- SQUIRE(Thales,Germany)
Figure 4.8: SQUIRE [Squ00]
Courtesy: http://www.thales-airdefence.com/medias/SQUIRE.pdf
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Walking Man
10 km
Small Vehicle
21 km
Large Vehicle
28 km
Helicopter
21 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±2.5 m
 Azimuth ± 5mils
Special Features
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
Frequency
I-band
Control from console upto 100m.
Human friendly due to low power
Input Power
80 Watts
Undetectable by surveillance equipment
Weight
23 Kg
Table 4.4: MSTAR- SQUIRE
41
9) Ground and Sea Surveillance radar- BOR-A-550 ( Thales, Germany)
Figure 4.9:BOR-A_550
Courtesy: http://www.thales-airdefence.com/medias/BORA550.pdf [Bor00]
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Walking Man
16 km
Small Vehicle
33 km
Large Vehicle
42 km
Helicopter
31 km
Boat
19 km
Vessel
60 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±5 m
 Azimuth ± 3mils
Special Features
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
Frequency
I-band
Remote controlable by PC(via Ethernet)
Track while scan for 40 targets
Weight
Light weight
Table 4.5: Ground and Sea Surveillance radar- BOR-A-550
42
10) Battle Field Surveillance Radar-Medium Range (BEL, India)
The specifications are:
 Band X-band; 8 frequencies
 Peak transmission Power 25W
 Power consumption 120W
 Operating temperature -30
 Weight of system 96 Kg (excluding
power source)
Figure 4.10: Battle Field Surveillance Radar-Medium Range Radar[Bel00]
http://www.bel-india.com/Website/Asp/ProductDetails.asp?CategoryId=55&ProductId=159
43
11) Battle Field Surveillance Radar - Short Range ( BEL, India)
Figure 4.11: BFSR-short range [Bell01]
http://www.bel-india.com/Website/Asp/ProductDetails.asp?CategoryId=55&ProductId=46
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Walking Man
2km
Small Vehicle
8 km
Large Vehicle
10 km
Helicopter
7 km
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
J-band
Frequency
Weight
Light weight
Battery
48 V
Special Features
Low probability of intercept
Track while scan for 50 targets
Table 4.6: Battle Field Surveillance Radar - Short Range
44
12) MSTAR- AN/PPS-5D (PM Robotics, USA)
The specifications are:
 Detecting vehicles – 20 km
 Detecting personnel- 10 km
 Upgraded version of AN/PPS5
Figure 4.12: MSTAR- AN/PPS-5D [Pps00]
Courtesy: https://peoiews.monmouth.army.mil/RUS/pps5d.htm
45
13) MSTAR- ARSS (Western Tactical communication Inc., USA)
Figure 4.13: MSTAR- ARSS
Courtesy: http://www.wtsc-inc.com/perimeter_security.htm
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Walking Man
7-10 km
Small Vehicle
15 km
Large Vehicle
30 km
Helicopter
15 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range ±25m
 Range Resolution 50 m
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
Frequency
X-band
Radiated Power
Weight
Light weight
Battery
Table 4.7: MSTAR- ARSS
46
5W
24 V
14) PSTAR- AN/PPQ-2 ( Lockheed Martin,USA)
Figure 4.14: PSTAR- AN/PPQ-2
Courtesy:http://www.lockheedmartin.com/syracuse/lit_center/images/B103-PSTAR(0902).pdf
Typical Moving Target Detection Performance:
Range
20 km
Target Location Accuracy:
 Range resolution ±200m
 Azimuth Resolution < 2 degrees
Electrical and Mechanical
Specifications:
Frequency
L-band
Radiated Power
Weight
158 Kg
Battery
Table 4.8: PSTAR- AN/PPQ-2
47
50 W
24 V
5. Conclusions and Future Work
The ultimate goal of the survey was to make a study of the available portable radar
systems in the market. This was achieved by studying the underlying principles of the
radar, which would help in grasping the important parameters to be kept in mind during
the selection of Radar. A detailed overview of the basic principles of radar is summarized
in the initial section of the report.
In my opinion the outcome of the survey is slightly ambiguous. The reasons are
explained as follows: The selection of suitable radar for the Multipurpose Modular Robot
depends on many factors such as range, moving target detection performance, weight,
accuracy (precision) and cost of the radar. These factors in turn depend on the
transmission frequency and the transmitted waveform. Three portable radars fulfilled the
requirements for the desired radar to be integrated with the Multipurpose Modular Robot
system.
They are as follows:
 MSTAR-AN/PPS- 5C ((Systems and Electronics Inc., USA)
 MSTAR- SQUIRE (Thales, Germany)
 Ground and Sea Surveillance radar- BOR-A-550 (Thales, Germany)
The characteristics of these 3 radars were almost similar and the comparison between
them is tabulated in table 5.1.
AN/PPS- 5C
SQUIRE
BORA-550
Walking man
detection
Small
Vehicle detection
Large
Vehicle
Detection
Range
Accuracy
Azimuth
Accuracy
Weight
12 km
10 km
24 km
21 km
36 km
28 km
16 km
33 km
42 km
+10 m
+ 2.5 m
+
5m
+5 mils
+ 5 mil
+ 3 mil
37 kg
23 kg
Less
Frequency
band
Ku
I
I
Table 5.1: Comparison between the three radars
As shown in the table 5.1 all the three Radars have almost similar characteristics. The
main factor, which will decide the best suitable radar for our project, depends on the price
factor. As the price of these Radars could not be found in the survey, it's inappropriate at
this stage to suggest the best Radar among the three.
48
Future work
Although the radar to be purchased is selected for the purpose of Surveillance and
Intrusion detection, it can be used for various other applications. The immediate future
application of this robot apart from surveillance can be in the path planning of the robot.
The Radar can be used for 3-D map building as suggested in [Ale00] .The paper
suggests making use of the radar as a sensor model which can fuse amplitude vector data
into a evidence grid. This model uses the radar principles to capture the volumetric beam
geometry, which results in a 3-D map of the outdoor scene. This work will be a step
towards building high fidelity maps to be used in mobile robot navigation, obstacle
avoidance and tool deployment under all visibility conditions.
The three radars finalized in this survey are connected to the operator module with a
wired cable. The maximum length of the cable is 100 meters. This puts a constraint on
the movement of the robot if the radar is mounted on the robot . In future a
comprehensive study could be made to make the operator module wireless.
The images obtained from the radar have tremendous amount of information in them.
They can be processed for applications such as collision avoidance systems, human
activity detection and classification of objects.
49
6. References
[Ale00]
[Ale01]
[Anp00]
[Ari00]
[Arm00]
[Bor00]
[Bel00]
[Bell01]
[Bru00]
[Dan00]
[Drd00]
[Ger01]
[Hal85]
[Han01]
[Joh01]
[lad01]
[kin01]
[Lin00]
[Ma03]
[Mer03]
[Mer02]
[Nel03]
[Pps00]
Alex Foessel, "Radar sensor Model for three Dimensional Map Building"
Alex Foessel, William R, " Radar Sensor For Autonomous Antarctic
explorer"
MSTAR-AN/PPS-5 http://www.nycedo.com/edocorp/manportable
Arine Radar http://www.indra.es/ingles/areas/pdf-folletos/arine.pdf
MSTAR http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/cs/aad_mst.ht
Thales http://www.thales-airdefence.com/medias/BORA550.pdf
Bel :http://www.belindia.com/Website/Asp/ProductDetails.asp?CategoryId=55&ProductId=1
59
http://www.belindia.com/Website/Asp/ProductDetails.asp?CategoryId=55&ProductId=4
6
H.Brunzell,"Impulse radar for identification of Buried landmines"
Daniel Carroll, H.R.Everett, Gary Gilbreath "Extending Mobile Robots
for Force Protection"
MSTAR- BFSR-SR
http://www.drdo.org/labs/electronics/lrde/achieve.shtml
George W. Stimson," Introduction to Airborne Radar"
J. Hall: Principles of Naval Weapons Systems. USN, 1985.
R. C. Hansen ,"Phased Array Antennas "
John C. Toomay, " Radar Principles for the Non-Specialist "
David L. Adamy," Ew 101: A First Course in Electronic Warfare (Artech
House Radar Library) "
J. King Ja: SAR Image Processing for Moving Target Focusing. Proc.
IEEE International Radar Conference, 2001, pp 58-63.
G. Linde: Use of Wideband Waveforms for Target Recognition with
Surveillance Radar, Proc. IEEE International Radar Conference,
2000, pp 128-133.
J. Ma, X. Du, S. Ahalt: 2D HRR Radar Data Modeling and
Processing..Multidimensional Systems and Signal Processing, vol 14,
2003, pp. 223-240.
Merryl Skolnik,“Introduction to Radar Systems”
Merryl Skolnik“ Radar Hand Book”
D. Nelson, J. Starzyk, D. Ensley: Wavelet Transformation and Signal
Discrimination for HRR Radar Target Recognition. Multidimensional
Systems and Signal Processing, 14, 2003, pp. 9-24
https://peoiews.monmouth.army.mil/RUS/pps5d.htm
50
[Pee98] P. Peebles Jnr.: Radar Principles. John Wiley, New york, USA., 1998
[Rbt12] http://www.thales-airdefence.com/ficheRB12.htm
[San03] Sandia National Laboratories:
< http://www.sandia.gov/RADAR/imagery.html>, 2003.
[Sho03]
[Suo95]
[Squ00]
[Tra00]
[Tul00]
[Tha00]
[Vih03]
[Wal03]
G. Showman, W. Melvin, M. belenkii: Performance Evaluation of Two
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