Lecture 1
Anatomy: structure of body parts
Physiology: functions and relationships of body parts
Organ Systems: 11 total systems
1. Integumentary
o External covering
o hair, skin, nails
2. Skeletal
o Protection and support
o Cartilage, joints, bones
3. Muscular
o Manipulation of environment, locomotion,
facial expressions, maintain posture, and produce heat
4. Nervous
o Fast acting control system; resp. to internal/external changes - activate muscles/glands
o Brain, sensory receptors, spinal cord, nerves
5. Endocrine
o Glands secrete hormones -> regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use
o Pineal, pituitary, thyroid, thymus, adrenal, testis, pancreas, ovaries
6. Cardiovascular
o Blood vessels transport blood -> O2, nutrients, hormones, CO2, waste etc.
o Heart, blood vessels
7. Lymphatic
o Pick up leaked fluid from blood vessels (returns it)
o Disposes of debris in lymphatic steam
o Houses white blood cells -> immunity
o Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels
8. Respiratory
o Supply blood with O2 -> removes CO2
 Gaseous exchange occurs through walls of hair sacs in lungs
o Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
9. Digestive
o Break down food into absorbable nutrients -> enter blood for distribution
 Indigestible foods -> feces
o Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine, rectum
10. Urinary
o Eliminates nitrogen containing wastes -> regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance of blood
o Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
11. Male and Female reproductive system
o Production of offspring
o Male: seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum
o Female: mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina
Movement: muscular system – promotes activity
Responsiveness: sense/react to env. stimuli
Digestion: break down ingested food - simple molecules absorbed into blood
Metabolism: chemical reactions - break large molecules into smaller building blocks
Excretion: removing excreta/wastes from body
Reproduction: offspring - cellular or organismal level
Survival Needs: factors
1. Nutrients – intake of food (e.g. carbs, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins)
2. Water - 70% (most abundant chemical substance in bodies)
3. Body temperature - 37 degrees C
o Too cold - metabolic reactions slow -> stop
o Too hot - chemical reactions speed up -> body proteins break down
4. Atmospheric pressure - manipulates breathing and O2/CO2 exchange
Body Regions:
Buccal
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Cervical
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Mental
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Nasal
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Oral
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Orbital
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Thoracic
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Cephalic
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Occipital
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Body Cavities
 Oral cavity - part of/continuous with
digestive organs: open to anus
 Nasal cavity - within/posterior to nose
(respiratory system)
 Orbital cavity - in skull; house eyes
 Middle ear cavity - carved into skull,
medial to ear drums; tiny bones
transmit sound vibrations to hearing
receptors in inner ear sound vibrations
to hearing receptors in inner ear
Homeostasis
 Equilibrium within the body - maintained through nervous and endocrine systems
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Three components of homeostasis:
1. Receptor - sensor monitors/responds to environmental stimuli; sends info (input) along afferent pathway -> approaches the control
centre
2. Control centre - determines lvl of variable maintenance; analyzes info received and determines appropriate response/course of
action
 Efferent information exits from CC
3. Effector - provides means for CC's response (output); info flows from CC to effector
Results of the response feedback:
o
o
influence stimulus w/reducing amount of change (-ve feedback); whole control mechanism shuts off
Increasing amount of change (+ve feedback); reaction continues at faster rate
Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback - (most homeostatic control mechanisms!)
o Regulate heart rate, BP, breathing rate, release of hormones and blood glucose levels, O2, CO2, and minerals
 Positive feedback - rare in the body; tend to increase original disturbance (stimuli) and push the variable from its original state
o E.g. Homeostatic imbalance - most diseases regarded as a result of homeo-disturbance
Lecture 2/3
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass
 Solid, liquid, gas
 Physical change does NOT alter basic nature of substance (e.g. solid->liq)
 Chemical change DOES alter composition of substances (e.g. grapes -> wine (fermentation)
Everything below is answer to blanks!!! -- will be posted!!!! This and last week!!
Energy: no mass, no space - ability to do work/put matter into motion
 Kinetic energy: doing work, potential energy: inactive/stored energy
Forms of energy:
 Chemical energy - stored in bonds of chemical substances
 Electrical - movement of charged particles (e.g. nerve impulses - electrical current)
 Mechanical - directly involved in moving matter
 Radiant - travels in waves (electromagnetic spectrum)
Energy form conversions
 Body: chem energy from food trapped in bonds of ATP - ultimately transformed into electrical energy
Inorganic compounds
 Water - 2/3 body weight
Properties of water:
 High heat capacity - absorb/release large amounts of heat before temp actually changes
 Polarity/solvent properties
 Chemical reactivity - reactant for chemical reactions (e.g. digestion through hydrolysis)
 Cushioning - protective function
Salts
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Ionic compound - most plentiful = calcium and phosphorus (teeth and bones)
Dissociation: salt separating into separate ions when dissolved in bodily fluids
Essential for nerve impulses - salts are electrolytes!
Acids
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Sour taste - substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) aka. Proton donors
Bases
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Bitter taste - proton acceptors
Neutralization reaction - acid + base = salt and water
pH
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0 (acidic) - 14 (basic)
Acid-base balance regulated in kidneys, lungs, and chemicals called buffers present in bodily fluids
7.35-7.45 - blood pH dips: O2 being carried by hemoglobin decreases
Organic compounds
 Carbohydrates - sugar, starch
o Mono: glucose - cellular fuel, fructose and galactose - convert into glucose, ribose and deoxyribose - DNA
o Di: two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
 Broken down into monosaccharides to be absorbed into blood/digestive tract
o Poly: long branching chains - starch (plants), glycogen (animal tissues)
 Glucose burned -> water + CO2: energy released stored in ATP bonds
o Converted into glycogen or fat to be stored if not readily used
Lipids
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Meats, egg yolks, dairy products, oils
Three main types:
1. Triglycerides - Fatty acids (1 single covalent bond = saturated, 2+ double covalent bonds = unsaturated), glycerol
2. Trans fats - solid oils: addition of hydrogen atoms at C=C bonds
 Inc. risk of heart disease - raise bad cholesterol levels
 Omega-3 fatty acids - dec. risk of heart disease
3. Phospholipids - similar to triglycerides + phosphorus containing group
 Hydrophilic, hydrophobic
Steroids
 Fat molecules formed of four interlocking carbon rings - Cholesterol!
 Ingested via animal products; in cell membranes - used to make vit. D, steroid hormones, bile salts
Proteins
 50% of organic matter in the body
 Building blocks of proteins - amino acids (20x)
o (NH2 - amine group, COOH - acid group)
Enzymes
 Biological catalysts - increase rate of chem reaction (not part of reaction itself)
Nucleic Acid - make up genes (blueprint for life)
 Largest biological molecule in body - building blocks = nucleotides
 DNA - replicated itself for cell division, provides instruction for building proteins
 RNA - function outside nucleus, carries out orders for protein synthesis
Beginning of chapter 3
Cells and tissues
 50-100 trillion cells in body - building blocks
 Cell theory:
1. Cell = basic structural/functional unit of living organisms
2. Activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells
3. Principle of complementary: activities of cells dictated by their structure (anatomy) -> determines action (physiology)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis
 Smallest living unit - 60% water
o Primarily composed of C, O, H, N
Three main components of the cell:
 Nucleus - "headquarters", contains DNA (w/o it cell self-destructs)
o Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin
 Plasma membrane - transparent barrier of cell
o Two phospholipid layers (tail-tail arrangement: hydro-philic head/phobic tail): cholesterol (stabilize, flexible) + protein (specialized
function, hormone receptors, chemical messengers, binding site, transport) inside
o Sugar proteins (glycoproteins) determine blood type, act as receptors that bacteria, viruses, toxins can bind to (cell-cell
recognition/interactions)
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Cytoplasm - cellular material outside nucleus/inside plasma membrane
o Cytosol - semitransparent fluid; suspends other elements
o Inclusions - chemical substance, stored nutrients floating in cytoplasm
Cell membrane junctions:
 Cells are bound by three ways
1.
2.
3.
Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular glue
Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue and groove fashion
Special cell membrane junctions are formed
Three types of junctions
 Tight junction - impermeable, encircle and bind cells
 Desmosomes - anchoring, scattered along sides of adjacent cells
o Prevent mechanic stress form pulling cells apart
 Gap junctions - communication, heart and embryonic cells
Organelles - specialized cellular compartments (metabolic machinery of cell)
Mitochondria - food broken down; ATP
Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis
ER - mini circulation system
 Rough - produce proteins that function outside the cell
 Smooth - (lacks ribosomes) functions in lipid metabolism
Golgi apparatus
 Major function: modify, package, and ship proteins
 Proteins tagged for export accumulate in Golgi - sacs swell, pinch off to form secretory vessels
Cell diversity
 Fibroblast, erythrocyte (RBC) - connect body parts
 Epithelial - cover/line organs
 Skeletal cardiac and smooth muscle cells - move organs and body parts
 Fat cells - store nutrients
 Nerve - gather info, control body functions
 Oocyte (Fem), sperm (male) - reproduction
Membrane transport
 Intracellular, extracellular (interstitial) fluid in cells
 Movement through plasma membrane: passive and active transport
o Selectively permeable barrier
o Active: provides metabolic energy - drives transport
o Passive: subs transported across membrane without energy input from cell
Passive processes:
 Diffusion - molecules/ions move away from high conc. -> low conc.
o Diffusion of water through selective permeable membrane = osmosis
o Unassisted: simple diffusion (solutes through PM)
o Facilitated: provides passage for certain needed substances (lipid insoluble, too large) to pass through membrane pores
 Filtration - water + solutes forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure (e.g. blood)
Active processes - use of ATP to move substances across membrane
 Active transport and vesicular transport
Epithelial tissues
 Protection, absorption, filtration, secretion
 Depend of diffusion from capillaries in underlying connective tissue for food/O2
Classification of epithelia
 Cell arrangement (layers):
o Simple epithelium (one layer of cells)
o Stratified epithelium (more than one layer)
 Shape of its cells
o Squamous cells (flat)
o Columnar
o Cuboidal - simple: one layer cuboidal cells rest on basement membrane
Connective tissues types
 Connective: bone, cartilage, dense/loose connective tissues, blood vascular tissue
 Subclasses loose connective: areolar connective, adipose, and reticular tissues
Muscle
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Contract/shorten - generates force required to produce movement
Skeletal, smooth, cardiac
Cardiac:
 Heart wall - contract: acts as pump to propel blood through blood vessels
Smooth muscle
 Peristalsis - wave like movement: keeps food moving through small intestine
Nervous tissue
 Composed of neurons - receive/conduct electrochemical impulses from one part of the body to another
o Irritability, conductivity - functional characteristics
Tissue repair
 Regeneration - replacement of destroyed tissue by the same cells
 Fibrosis - repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)
 Tissue injury sets the following series of events into motion:
o Inflammation - injured tissue cells release inflammatory chemicals: Clots form, prevent bacteria from spreading.
o Granulation tissue forms- composed of new capillaries that grow into the damaged area: contain phagocytes, eventually dispose of
the clot and connective tissue.
o Regeneration and fibrous effect permanent repair- scab detaches final results is a fully regenerated surface of epithelium that covers
and underlying are of fibrosis (the scar). The scar is either invisible or visible as a thing white line.
Developmental Aspects of Cells and Tissues
 Modifications of cells and tissues:
o Neoplasm- cells fail to honor normal controls of cell division: multiple wildly.
o Hyperplasia- body tissues enlarge: local irritant or conditions that stimulates the cells.
o Atrophy- decrease in size: in organ or body areas that loses its normal stimulation.
Lecture 4/5
Epithelial Membrane
 Cutaneous membrane (skin) - 2 layers
o Underlying dermis
o Composed of stratified squamous epithelium
 Mucous membranes - lines body cavities open to exterior
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Epithelium resting on loose connective tissue membrane (lamina propria)
Contain stratified squamous epithelium (e.g. mouth, esophagus) or simple columnar epithelium (digestive
tract)
Serous membrane - line body cavities closed to exterior
o Occurs in pairs: parietal and visceral layer - layers separated by thin layer called serous fluid (organs slide
easily across cavity walls/each other)
o Serosa lining (abdominal cavity, covering organs) - Peritoneum
o Membranes surrounding lungs - Pleurae
o Membrane around heart - pericardia
Connective tissue - synovial membranes composed of loose areolar connective tissue (no epithelial cells)
 Membranes line fibrous capsules surrounding joints - provide smooth surface, secrete lubricating fluid
Integumentary system - skin (keeps water, precious molecules in body)
 Skin and appendages (sweat/oil glands, hair, nails) - collectively = integumentary sys
 Functions:
Structure of skin
 Epidermis - most cells = keratinocytes (prod. Keratin)
o 5 layers/strata
 Basale - deepest layer (closest to dermis): most nourished - 1st to receive nutrients diffusing from
dermis
 Spinosum - cells become flatter/inc. keratinization
 Granulosum - cells being to die as the leave (the SG)
 Lucidum - dead cells form clear SL: not present in all skin regions
 Occur in hairless areas, extra thick areas (foot soles, palms)
 Corneum - 20-30 cell layers thick: 3/4's epidermal thickness
 Dandruff (SC rubs/flakes off slowly)
 Layer replaced by cells - prod.by division of deeper stratum Basale cells
 Dermis - 2 regions: varies in thickness
o Papillary layer - superficial dermis regions: uneven, page like projections from superior surface (dermal
papillae)
 Soles/palms - papilla arranged in definite patterns (genetically determined) forming looped ridges on
epidermal surface: inc. friction, enhance grip
o Reticular layer - deepest skin layer: dense irregular connective tissue, blood vessels, sweat/oil glands, deep
pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
Cutaneous sensory receptors - touch, pressure, temp, pain receptors for external env.
Collagen and elastic fibers - found in dermis
 Collagen - responsible for toughness of dermis + skin hydration
Ulcers - restriction of normal blood supply to skin: cell death and possible skin ulcers
 Decubitus ulcers (bedsores)
Skin colour - three contributing pigments
 Melanin - pigment: prod. by melanocytes (specialized cells)
o Freckles/moles - high conc. of melanin in localized area
o Amount/type of melanin in epidermis (yellow, black, red, brown)
 Carotene - orange/red pigment
o Amount of carotene deposited in stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue
 Hemoglobin - amount in dermal blood vessels
o Light-skinned - rich hemoglobin in dermal blood supply flushes through transparent cell layers: rosy glow
 Poor oxygenation of hemo - (in blood and skin) blue appearance: Cyanosis
 Common during heart failure and severe eating disorders
Emotions influencing skin colour - alternations in colour signal certain disease states
 Redness/erythema - embarrassment (blush), hypertension, fever, inflammation, allergy
 Pallor/blanching - paleness: signals anemia, low BP, impaired blood flow to specific area
 Jaundice - yellow skin tone
 Bruises - blood escapes circulation: blots in tissue spaces
o Unusual tendency to bruise - deficiency of vit C, or hemophilia (bleeder's disease)
Appendages of skin
 Cutaneous glands - exocrine glands release secretion to skin surface (via ducts)
o Sebaceous (oil) glands - everywhere BUT palms/soles
 Empty into hair follicle - prod. Sebum
 Provides softness, moisture, prevents bacterial infections of skin
o Sweat glands - widely distributed all over body (2.5mill)
 Eccrine glands - prod. sweat
 Apocrine glands - confined to axillary armpit and genital areas
 Function begins during puberty
 Hair and follicles
o Hair - prod. by follicles: composed of root and shaft:
 One of the fastest growing body tissues
 Follicles - fibrous sheath and epithelial root sheath
 Smooth muscle cells (arrector pili) connect each side of follicle to tissue
 Muscle contraction - goosebumps!
 Nails - scale-like modification of epidermis: mostly non-living material
o
Each nail has: free edge, body, root
Infection and allergies - most common skin disorders = infections with pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi)
 Cold sores (fever blisters) - small, fluid filled (itch and sting): caused by human herpesvirus 1 infection
o Occur around lips and in oral mucosa of mouth/nose
 Contact dermatitis - itching/redness/swelling of skin
o Exposure of skin to chemicals provoking allergic resp. in sensitive indv.
 Impetigo - pink/fluid filled/raised lesions (common around mouth and nose): develops yellow crust to eventually
rupture
o Cause: highly contagious staphylococcus or streptococcus infections
 Psoriasis - reddened/epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales (itch, burn, crack, bleed)
o Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, stress
Burns - tissue damage and cell death (intense heat, electricity, UV radiation, certain chemicals)
 Classified according to severity (lowest to highest) - 1st (superficial), 2nd (superficial/partial thickness), 3rd (full
thickness)
Skin cancer - neoplasms (tumors) in skin: most are benign, don't metastasize to other areas
 Malignant/cancerous tumors tend to invade other body areas
 Most common type of cancer in humans!
 Overexposure to UV radiation in direct sunlight/tanning beds - high risk factor!
 Three common types of SC
o Basal cell carcinoma - least malignant (most common): appear on sun exposed areas of face
 Slow growing - surgical lesion removal cures most cases
o Squamous cell carcinoma - scaly lesions, reddened papules: gradually form shallow ulcers (firm raised
boarders)
 Most often on scalp, ears, back of hands, lower lip
 Early onset - surgical removal/radiation therapy - good chance of cure
o Malignant melanoma - cancer of melanocytes (5% of skin cancers - often deadly)
 Beings wherever pigments are present - most appear spontaneously, some from pigmented moles
 50% chance of survival
ABCDE Rule
A - Asymmetry: two sides of pigmented spot/mole do not match
B - boarder irregularity: lesion boarders exhibit indentations
C - colour: pigmented spot contains areas of different colours
D - diameter: lesions >6mm
E - evolution: evolution/change of any ABCD's